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If your dream “is” to become a commercial pilot, you have a few steps to complete before you get there. So go drive for Uber or Lyft, and get a second job waiting tables, or another task that gives you flexible hours, and get your private pilot license first. That is the first step. If you don’t do that, you won’t be a commercial pilot. Once you have your Private Pilot’s license, then get your Instrument Rating. You can’t get a commercial pilot’s license without getting your instrument rating.Then, once you have your instrument rating, you can work on your commercial. Here are the requirements for your commercial. Once you finish your commercial, you can start working on your CFI and CFII so that you can teach, and get hours a little cheaper. You can also potentially work as a pilot that transports cargo, or other non-human cargo. Perhaps, even going to Alaska, and working as a pilot there to get hours and experience.If you want it bad enough, you can do it. Nothing is easy, and I am not saying this is as easy as getting a job, and paying for your flight instructor, and rental, as well as studying for your ground. You can do it. This is a well worn path, that has predictable steps to success.____________________Information below is taken from www.ppgs1o1.com _____Commercial Pilot Certificate:FAA Requirements to Obtain a Commercial Pilot Certificate (Summary) - http://www.ppgs101.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/FAA-Requirements-to-Obtain-a-Commercial-Pilot-Certificate.pdf?trk=profile_certification_title1. Be able to read, write, and converse fluently in English2. Be at least 18 years of age3. Hold at least a current third-class FAA medical certificate. Later, if your flying requires a commercial pilot certificate, you must hold a second-class medical certificate.4. Hold an instrument rating. A commercial pilot is presumed to have an instrument rating. If not, his/her commercial pilot certificate will be endorsed with a prohibition against carrying passengers for hire on day VFR flights beyond 50 NM or at night.5. Receive and log ground training from an authorized instructor or complete a home-study course6. Pass a knowledge test with a score of 70% or better. The instrument rating knowledge test consists of 100 multiple-choice questions selected from the airplane-related questions in the FAA's commercial pilot test bank.7. Accumulate appropriate flight experience and instruction (see FAR 61.129). A total of 250 hours of flight time is required.8. Successfully complete a practical (flight) test given as a final exam by an FAA inspector or designated pilot examiner and conducted as specified in the FAA's Commercial Pilot Practical Test Standards.Commercial Pilot Privileges and Limitations  As a commercial pilot, you may act as pilot in command of an aircraft that is carrying passengers or property for compensation or hire and may be paid to act as pilot in command. FAA Requirements to Obtain a Commercial Pilot Certificate (Detailed Version) 1. Be at least 18 years of age and hold at least a Private Pilot Certificate. 2. Be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language. 3. Hold at least a current third-class FAA medical certificate. a. You must undergo a routine medical examination which may be administered only by an FAA-designated doctor called an Aviation Medical Examiner (AME) b. Even if you have a physical handicap, medical certificates can be issued in many cases. Operating limitation may be imposed depending on the nature of the disability. c. Your FAA-Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI) or Fixed-Base Operator (FBO) will be able to recommend an AME. [NOTE: An FBO is an airport business that gives flight lessons, sells aviation fuel, repairs airplanes, etc.] 4. Receive and log ground training from an authorized instructor or complete either an online study course or home-study course to learn the following: a. Applicable Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) that relate to commercial pilot privileges, limitations, and flight operations b. Accident reporting requirements f the National Transportation Safety Board c. Basic aerodynamics and principles of flight Page 2 of 3 d. Meteorology to include recognition of critical weather situations, windshear recognition and avoidance, and the use of automated weather reports and forecasts e. Safe and efficient operation of the aircraft f. Weight and balance computations g. Use of performance charts h. Significance and effects of exceeding aircraft performance limitations i. Use of aeronautical charts and a magnetic compass for pilotage and dead reckoning j. Use of air navigation facilities k. Aeronautical decision making and judgment l. Principles and functions of aircraft systems m. Maneuvers, procedures, and emergency operations appropriate to the aircraft n. Night and high-altitude operations o. Procedures for operating in the National Airspace System (NAS) 5. Pass a pilot knowledge test, at an FAA-designated computer testing center, with a score of 70% or better. The commercial pilot test consists of 100 multiple-choice questions selected from the airplane-related questions in the FAA's instrument rating test bank. 6. Accumulate appropriate flight experience (FAR 61.129) a. 100 hours in powered aircraft, of which 50 hours must be in airplanes b. 100 hours as Pilot-In-Command (PIC) flight time, which includes at least: i. 50 hours in airplanes ii. 50 hours in cross-country flight of which at least 10 ours must be in airplanes c. 20 hours of training in the areas of operation required for single-engine or multiengine rating that includes at least: i. 10 hours of instrument training of which at least 5 hours must be in singleengine or multi-engine airplane, as appropriate ii. 10 hours of training in an airplane that has a retractable landing gear, flaps, and controllable-pitch propeller, or that is turbine-powered iii. One cross-country flight of at least 2 hours in a single-engine or multiengine airplane (as appropriate) in day-VRF condition, consisting of a total straight-line distance of more than 100nm from the original point of departure iv. One cross-country flight of at least 2 hours in a single-engine or multiengine airplane (as appropriate) in night-VRF condition, consisting of a total straight-line distance of more than 100nm from the original point of departure v. 3 hours in a single-engine or multi-engine airplane (as appropriate) in preparation for the practical test within the 60 days preceding the test d. 10 hours of solo flight (sole occupant of the airplane) in a single-engine airplane, or 10 hours of flight time performing the duties of Pilot-In-Command (PIC) in a multiengine airplane with an authorized instructor, training in the areas of operations Page 3 of 3 required for the single-engine or multi-engine rating (as appropriate), which includes at least: i. One cross-country flight of not less than 300nm total distance, wit landings at a minimum of three points, one of which is a straight-line distance of at least 250nm from the original departure point ii. 5 hours in night-VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and landings (with each landing involving a flight in the traffic pattern) at an airport with an operating control tower e. The 250 hours of flight time as a pilot may include50 hours in an approved flight simulator or training device that is representative of the single-engine or multiengine airplane (as appropriate) 7. Hold an instrument rating. 8. Demonstrate flight proficiency (FAR 61.127). Receive and log ground and flight training from an authorized instructor in the following areas of operations for an airplane category rating with a single-engine or multi-engine class rating: a. Preflight preparation b. Preflight procedures c. Airport operations d. Takeoffs, landings, and go-arounds e. Performance maneuvers f. Ground reference maneuvers g. Navigation h. Slow flight and (aerodynamic) stalls i. Emergency operations j. High-altitude operations k. Post-flight procedures Successful complete a practical (flight) test given as a final exam by an FAA inspector or Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE); conducted as specified in the most current version of the FAA’s Commercial Pilot Practical Test Standards (PTS).

12 STEPS TO BECOME A PRO PHYSICAL THERAPIST1. Job Shadow a Few Physical TherapistsDoes your perception of a physical therapy career match reality? That's what you should aim to find out before getting too far into this process. While observing PTs and PTAs as they help various kinds of patients, you may develop even greater enthusiasm for the field. Or you might come to the conclusion that you should explore other kinds of healthcare careers in order to find one that suits you a little better.Try to connect with a variety of physical therapists who specialize in different areas of the field. For example, maybe you can find three PTs with very different specialties (such as sports medicine, geriatrics, or women's health). That kind of variety will allow you to have different experiences so that you get a broader view of the field. (Observing just one physical therapist on the job may not necessarily give you a full picture of what to expect.) By the same token, it's also a good idea to job shadow PTs in various kinds of clinical settings. After all, PTs can work in:Outpatient clinicsRehabilitation centersSkilled nursing facilitiesAthletic training facilitiesHome health environmentsHospitalsAlways be polite and respectful when contacting physical therapists about potential job shadowing opportunities. Indicate your strong enthusiasm for the field and your willingness to volunteer your labor in exchange for the chance to learn more about what they do. Remember that if all goes well, they may serve as outstanding references, which you'll need later on.During your job shadowing experiences, maintain a written log that includes the dates and times you volunteered as well as what you observed or helped out with on those days. At the end of each experience, get the supervising PT to sign and date your log.As part of your experiences, you may get to observe PTs doing things such as:Evaluating patients' strength, balance, flexibility, range of motion, and pain tolerancesDesigning therapeutic treatment plans for patients who need help managing their pain, improving their ability to move, or healing their bodies due to surgeries, muscle strains, fractures, whiplash, sports-related injuries, back injuries, pelvic injuries, arthritis, cancer, fibromyalgia, obesity, cerebral palsy, cystic fibrosis, multiple sclerosis, and many other health conditions that cause physical discomfort or decreased mobilityCarrying out or showing PTAs and individual patients how to perform focused exercises, stretching movements, and other therapeutic techniquesAssessing patients' progress and adjusting treatment plans when necessary2. Decide Whether You Want to Start Your Career as a PTA FirstAfter spending some time in real physical therapy settings, you may decide that you want to become a physical therapist assistant before pursuing PT credentials. Think about it: PTAs often get to do more physical, hands-on work and spend more of their time directly helping patients than PTs. (Although PTs also get to do those things, much of their time is spent doing consultations, evaluations, and reports.) Plus, you might enjoy working in this field for a while without the extra responsibilities that come with being a PT.Another benefit of becoming a PTA is that the post-secondary training generally only takes about two years (compared to a total of about seven for becoming a PT). However, if you decide to become a PT later on, your associate degree may or may not count toward the education that's required. In fact, there's a good chance you'll need to complete a four-year bachelor's degree and take a lot of courses that weren't part of your PTA program in order to qualify for a DPT program. Plus, different schools have different credit-transfer policies, so there are no guarantees that you'll receive credit for all of your previous education.Ultimately, starting your career as a PTA can work out as long as you do enough advance planning and choose the right schools and programs. When the time comes to pursue a career as a PT, you may even be able to complete most of your additional education online. And your time spent as a PTA will probably give you a greater depth of understanding about the field and make it easier to learn everything else you'll need to know.That said, becoming a physical therapist assistant is generally seen as its own path, separate and apart from becoming a physical therapist. It isn't necessarily seen as a stepping stone. In fact, only about one in 10 PTAs ever choose to pursue additional education for future careers as PTs.3. Research DPT Programs (and Their Requirements)Even if you haven't started attending a college or university yet as an undergraduate, it's a good idea to look ahead at what you'll need for entry into a Doctor of Physical Therapy graduate program. That way, you can make a streamlined plan that incorporates all of the necessary course prerequisites and minimizes any extra time in school that you may otherwise have to complete.DPT programs vary in their requirements, but applicants typically need to have completed courses in areas such as:AnatomyPhysiologyChemistryPhysicsBiologyPsychologySociologyStatisticsLess commonly, prerequisites may include courses related to areas like:MathematicsEnglish and communicationMedical terminologyExercise physiologyHumanitiesNutritionEthicsColleges and universities all over the country offer DPT programs, so you can probably find options in your region. Just make sure you look for physical therapy schools that are accredited by the Commission on Accreditation in Physical Therapy Education (CAPTE). Otherwise, you may run into trouble later on when it's time to get your PT license. There are currently more than 240 CAPTE-accredited programs throughout America for physical therapist training.4Other important factors to consider include:Your preferences in regard to things like location and campus sizeYour ultimate goals as they relate to specializing in a particular area of physical therapyPotential opportunities for conducting research for publication as part of your graduate studiesThe percentage of each program's graduates who pass the NPTEThe quality of the training facilitiesThe cost of tuition and fees (and the availability of financial aid)Whenever possible, it's also smart to find people who've recently graduated from a particular program—as well as local employers who've hired them—and request their opinions about its strong and weak points.4. Get a Bachelor's DegreeSome DPT programs are open to students at the college freshman level; they incorporate both an undergraduate and graduate post-secondary education (and they typically take just six years to complete). However, most DPT programs are designed for people who have already completed an undergraduate education by earning a bachelor's degree. So that might be where you need to start.Here's the good thing: As long as you take the courses that are required for entry into your future DPT program, you can major in anything you want. Even if your major seems totally unrelated to physical therapy, you can still probably take the required courses as electives. Just make sure you get good grades in them.Here are the most common college majors of students who have been accepted into DPT programs that require a bachelor's degree:Exercise scienceKinesiologyBiologyHealth sciencePsychologyPre-physical therapyExercise physiology5. Do More Job Shadowing (If Necessary)As part of their prerequisites, a lot of DPT programs require applicants to have a certain amount of verified clinical experience under the supervision of one or more licensed physical therapists. That experience can be paid or voluntary, but it needs to include many hours of direct observation in a physical therapy setting. (In many cases, the requirement is more than 100 total hours of job shadowing, verified by supervising PTs.)6. Gather Letters of RecommendationThroughout your undergraduate education and job shadowing experiences, always keep in mind that you'll need to provide great references when you apply to DPT programs. Seek to establish good relationships with your professors, academic advisors, supervising physical therapists, club leaders, and any other people of stature who may be able to describe your best qualities.Some physical therapy schools require as many as four letters of recommendation. They want to know that important people think highly of you, especially when it comes to qualities like compassion, reliability, leadership, commitment, critical-thinking skills, social intelligence, maturity, attention to detail, and communication abilities.7. Take the GREUnless you've chosen the path of a freshman-entry DPT program, you'll probably need to take the Graduate Record Examination (also known as the GRE General Test). The GRE is a common standardized test that's used to measure a student's ability to succeed in a graduate-level degree program. Many physical therapy schools have minimum GRE scores that applicants must achieve before applying. So it's important to take the GRE well in advance of the deadlines for DPT program applications. (Depending on your scores, you may need to retake it.)The GRE is offered as a paper test or computer-based test. If you take the computerized version, you're allowed to go back and forth between different questions and change your answers as necessary. The test includes three main sections:Verbal reasoning—Uses multiple-choice questions to assess your reading comprehension and ability to analyze the relationships between different words, sentence fragments, full sentences, and communicated conceptsQuantitative reasoning—Tests your ability to solve or analyze math and data problems through a series of multiple-choice questionsAnalytical writing—Consists of two timed writing assignments that test your ability to analyze issues and clearly communicate and support reasoned arguments (while adhering to specific instructions) in response to particular statementsWhen students receive their GRE scores, they get to see the percentage of test takers who scored lower than they did in each area. Among students who took the GRE, applied to DPT programs through the Physical Therapist Centralized Application Service (PTCAS), and were accepted during the 2016-2017 academic year, these were the average (but unofficial) percentile ranks:Verbal—51.9 percentQuantitative—45.8 percentAnalytical—55.7 percent8. Apply to Your Preferred DPT ProgramsIn addition to your GRE scores and letters of recommendation, you'll need to gather your official transcripts (from each post-secondary school you've attended) or request that they be sent directly to PTCAS or the physical therapy schools you're applying to. Most students use PTCAS when applying to DPT programs since it enables them to apply to multiple schools with just one Web-based application. It also allows them to track each aspect of their application in real time.Each physical therapy school has its own admissions process, but it's usually better to apply as soon as possible rather than wait until closer to the deadline date. Along with your personal references and GRE scores, schools will weigh your grade point average (GPA). In order to be competitive with other applicants, you'll probably need an undergraduate GPA above 3.0. In fact, among PTCAS applicants who were accepted to DPT programs during the 2016-2017 academic year, the average GPA was 3.59.Many physical therapy schools also request written essays and/or conduct pre-admissions interviews. You may also be asked to take a drug test and/or agree to a criminal background check. (Schools often want to make sure that you'll be able to meet your state's licensing requirements after graduation.) Having a criminal record won't necessarily cause your application to be rejected. It really just depends on the specific types of offenses and how long ago they took place. But if you fail to disclose any previous convictions, you may be kicked out of a program after you enroll.9. Earn Your DPT DegreeHere's where you'll really start learning what it takes to be a physical therapist. Your Doctor of Physical Therapy program will probably provide plenty of interesting and exciting challenges along the way. In addition to coursework (which may include laboratory study), you'll have a clinical internship. Staying organized and following great study habits will be critical to your success.Your courses will likely consist of subjects such as:BiomechanicsExercise physiologyKinesiologyFunctional anatomyFunctional biologyPathologyPharmacologyThe musculoskeletal systemThe endocrine systemThe cardiovascular and respiratory systemsNeuroscienceCellular histologyLife span developmentApplied physical therapyClinical and evidence-based practicePsychologySociologyCommunicationManagementEthicsDuring your clinical internship, you'll be supervised by a licensed PT as you start applying what you've learned in a real physical therapy setting. On average, the clinical component of a DPT program lasts around six months.This is when you'll get to assist actual patients and test your skills of empathy, observation, evaluation, decision making, and adaptability as well as your physical stamina and dexterity.10. Pass the NPTEAfter earning your DPT degree, you'll need to pass the National Physical Therapy Examination in order to meet your state's requirements for becoming a licensed PT. The exam usually consists of about 200 multiple-choice questions that test your entry-level knowledge of physical therapy evaluations and interventions in relation to various systems of the human body, therapeutic devices and techniques, evidence-based practice, professional duties, and safety.You're allowed to take the NPTE up to three times within a one-year period. But every year since 2014, more than 80 percent of all first-time takers of the exam have passed it. And when you narrow it down to just those who were graduates of accredited physical therapy programs in the U.S., the pass rate is over 90 percent each year.6Many people choose to prepare for the NPTE by taking timed practice exams such as the Practice Exam and Assessment Tool (PEAT). Other popular resources include flash cards and study guides11. Get Licensed in Your StateEvery state in the U.S. regulates the practice of physical therapy. So you'll need to obtain a license from the appropriate licensing authority in your state. Aside from passing the NPTE, many states have additional requirements such as:Being at least 18, 19, or 21 years old (depending on the state)Having a Social Security numberPassing a criminal background check, which may include fingerprintingPassing a jurisprudence exam that tests your knowledge of relevant state laws and regulationsOnce you've received your license to practice, you can officially call yourself a physical therapist. Keep in mind that you might have to renew your license every so often, which may require completing a small amount of continuing education before each renewal.12. Pursue Additional Training and Specialty Credentials (Optional)Many PTs decide to become specialists in one or more areas of physical therapy practice. The first step in that process is usually to complete a one-year residency in a specialized area of clinical practice. It's a type of post-graduate training that combines additional theoretical education with supervised clinical work under the mentorship of an experienced specialist.You can also pursue a fellowship for even more advanced training in a particular specialty or sub-specialty. Fellowships generally include longer, more intensive clinical mentoring than residencies.And with enough clinical experience in a given specialty, you can become a board-certified specialist through the American Board of Physical Therapy Specialties (ABPTS). In addition to having the right experience, you'll need to pass an exam related to your chosen specialty. The nine specialty areas that you can become board-certified in are:OrthopedicsGeriatricsNeurologySportsPediatricsWomen's healthCardiovascular / pulmonaryClinical electrophysiologyOncology

You can create a volume in a file system. Creating a disk in a disk is somewhat analogous to creating a folder/directory inside a higher level folder/directory.This is well documented, repeated below:Virtual Filesystem: Building A Linux Filesystem From An Ordinary FileMike Chirico ([email protected] or [email protected])Copyright (c) 2004 (GPU Free Documentation License)Latest Update: http://ftp1.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_Virtual_FS.html Date: Tue Jun 14 11:45:52 EDT 2005You can take a disk file, format it as an ext2, ext3, or reiser filesystem, and then mount it, just like a physical drive. It's then possible to read and write files to this newly-mounted device. You can also copy the complete filesystem, since it is just a file, to another computer. If security is an issue, read on. This article will show you how to encrypt the filesystem and mount it with ACL (Access Control Lists), which gives you rights beyond the traditional read (r), write (w), and execute (x) permissions for the three user groups "file", "owner", and "other".This is an excellent way to investigate different filesystems without having to reformat a physical drive, which means you avoid the hassle of moving all your data. This method is quick -- very quick compared to preparing a physical device. You can then read and write files to the mounted device, but what is truly great about this technique is that you can explore different filesystems such as reiserfs, ext3, or ext2 without having to purchase an additional physical drive. Since the same file can be mounted on more than one mount point, you can investigate sync rates.Creating a filesystem in this manner allows you to set a hard limit on the amount of space used, which, of course, will be equal to the file size. This can be an advantage if you need to move this information to other servers. Since the contents cannot grow beyond the file, you can easily keep track of how much space is being used.First, you want to create a 20MB file by executing the following command: $ dd if=/dev/zero of=disk-image count=40960  40960+0 records in  40960+0 records out You created a 20 MB file because, by default, dd uses a block size of 512 bytes. That makes the size: 40960*512=20971520. $ ls -l disk-image  -rw-rw-r-- 1 chirico chirico 20971520 Sep 3 14:24 disk-image Next, to format this as an ext3 filesystem, you just execute the following command: $ /sbin/mkfs -t ext3 -q disk-image  mke2fs 1.32 (09-Nov-2002)  disk-image is not a block special device.  Proceed anyway? (y,n) y You are asked whether to proceed because this is a file, and not a block device. That is OK. We will mount this as a loopback device so that this file will simulate a block device.Next, you need to create a directory that will serve as a mount point for the loopback device. $ mkdir fs You are now one step away from the last step. You just want to find out what the next available loopback device number is. Normally, loopback devices start at zero (/dev/loop0) and work their way up (/dev/loop1, /dev/loop2, ... /dev/loopn). An easy way for you to find out what loopback devices are being used is to look into /proc/mounts, since the mount command may not give you what you need. $ cat /proc/mounts   rootfs / rootfs rw 0 0  /dev/root / ext3 rw 0 0  /proc /proc proc rw,nodiratime 0 0  none /sys sysfs rw 0 0  /dev/sda1 /boot ext3 rw 0 0  none /dev/pts devpts rw 0 0  /proc/bus/usb /proc/bus/usb usbdevfs rw 0 0  none /dev/shm tmpfs rw 0 0 On my computer I have no loopback devices mounted, so I'm OK to start with zero. You must do the next command as root, or with an account that has superuser privileges. # mount -o loop=/dev/loop0 disk-image fs Or to have the system choose the next available loop back device, use the following command without any reference to "/dev/loopN". # mount -o loop disk-image fs That's it. You just mounted the file as a device. Now take a look at /proc/mounts,and you will see this is using /dev/loop0. $ cat /proc/mounts   rootfs / rootfs rw 0 0  /dev/root / ext3 rw 0 0  /proc /proc proc rw,nodiratime 0 0  none /sys sysfs rw 0 0  /dev/sda1 /boot ext3 rw 0 0  none /dev/pts devpts rw 0 0  /proc/bus/usb /proc/bus/usb usbdevfs rw 0 0  none /dev/shm tmpfs rw 0 0  /dev/loop0 /home/chirico/junk/fs ext3 rw 0 0 You can now create new files, write to them, read them, and do everything you normally would do on a disk drive. First, I'll give access to the chirico account. # chown -R chirico.chirico /home/chirico/junk/fs Now, under the chirico account, it is possible to create files. $ cd /home/chirico/fs  $ mkdir one two three  $ ls -l   total 15  drwx------ 2 chirico chirico 12288 Sep 3 14:28 lost+found  drwxrwxr-x 2 chirico chirico 1024 Sep 3 14:34 one  drwxrwxr-x 2 chirico chirico 1024 Sep 3 14:34 three  drwxrwxr-x 2 chirico chirico 1024 Sep 3 14:34 two   $ df -h   Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on  /dev/sda2 17G 11G 4.6G 71% /  /dev/sda1 99M 83M 11M 89% /boot  none 62M 0 62M 0% /dev/shm  /home/chirico/junk/disk-image  20M 1.1M 18M 6% /home/chirico/junk/fs If you need to umount the filesystem, as root, just issue the umount command. If you need to free the loopback device, execute the losetup command with the -d option. You can execute both commands as follows: # umount /home/chirico/junk/fs  # losetup -d /dev/loop0 Using RWX -- The Old Way To CollaborateBefore we get started with ACL, how would you set up rights on the filesystem so that users could create and save documents that others could modify? For instance, let's say that users chirico and sporkey are collaborating on a project together.Well, you have to add everyone to the same group. You would execute commands like these:. # groupadd sharefs  # chown -R root.sharefs /home/chirico/junk/fs  # chmod 2775 /home/chirico/junk/fs  # usermod -G sharefs sporkey  # usermod -G sharefs chirico Note that if these changes do not take effect for your users (for example, if they were logged in when you executed the commands), they'll have to log out and log in again or execute the "$ newgrp sharefs" command. No big deal, right? Well, keep reading, and see how ACL avoids this step.More importantly, even though the old way worked for you, at some point, new users may need to be added to the project. What if some of these users only need a subset of the rights? For instance, you have developers, testers, managers, and a few special people. There are limits to what the rwx type rights can do. ACL solves a lot of these problems.ACL, Reiserfs, and AES Encryption: The 2.6 KernelFor the next steps, I will assume that you are running Red Hat Fedora Core 2. If not, reference the 2.6 kernel upgrade section below. Four things will be covered in this section:Create A File With Random DataSet Up An AES Encrypted Loopback Device With PasswordBuild A Reiser Filesystem On The Loopback DeviceMount With ACL CapabilitiesYour installation of Fedora Core 2, by default, will be configured for loop, cryptoloop, and aes, but it is highly unlikely that you will have all of these modules loaded. So, execute the following commands to load these modules (you will need to do this as root): # modprobe loop  # modprobe cryptoloop  # modprobe aes Next, create a directory to store the files. The Reiser filesystem will require more space than the ext3 filesystem. # mkdir /home/diskimg  # cd /home/diskimg Instead of creating the file zeroed out, like you did with the ext3 filesystem, this one is going to contain random bits, which may add a little extra security. # dd if=/dev/urandom of=disk-aes count=102400 We need to encrypt the loop device, so you need to use losetup. You will be prompted for a password, which you will need to remember when you mount the device. # losetup -e aes /dev/loop1 ./disk-aes  Password: This step is new also. Instead of formating the file directly, you will format the loop device. The file stays encrypted. Again, you will be prompted to continue, so just enter "y". # mkfs -t reiserfs /dev/loop1   mkfs.reiserfs 3.6.13 (2003 www.namesys.com)     A pair of credits:   Elena Gryaznova performed testing and benchmarking.     The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA, www.darpa.mil) is the   primary sponsor of Reiser4. DARPA does not endorse this project; it merely   sponsors it.       Guessing about desired format.. Kernel 2.6.8-1.521 is running.   Format 3.6 with standard journal   Count of blocks on the device: 12800   Number of blocks consumed by mkreiserfs formatting process: 8212   Blocksize: 4096   Hash function used to sort names: "r5"   Journal Size 8193 blocks (first block 18)   Journal Max transaction length 1024   inode generation number: 0   UUID: 435e3495-5e2e-489d-bf55-1b5f9a44b670   ATTENTION: YOU SHOULD REBOOT AFTER FDISK!   ALL DATA WILL BE LOST ON '/dev/loop1'!    Continue (y/n):y   Initializing journal - 0%....20%....40%....60%....80%....100%   Syncing..ok     Tell your friends to use a kernel based on 2.4.18 or later, and especially not a   kernel based on 2.4.9, when you use reiserFS. Have fun.     ReiserFS is successfully created on /dev/loop1.  Create the mount point /fs, and mount this device. Note that you will be entering the acl option as well. Plus, you will prompted for a password. # mkdir /fs  # mount -o loop,encryption=aes,acl ./disk-aes /fs  Password: Ok, now take a look at the mount command. It should show up as the Reiser filesystem, encrypted, using ACL. Note that it says loop2; it mounted it on /dev/loop2, which is one above what losetup specified, /dev/loop1. $ mount  /home/diskimg/disk-aes on /fs type reiserfs (rw,loop=/dev/loop2,encryption=aes,acl) Exploring ACLWith ACL (Access Control Lists), you have finer control over access permissions. With the rwx permission scheme, you cannot easily change rights without creating new groups to handle the users. With ACL, you can set user permissions without creating a group, and individual users can add or remove access.These rights are set with the setfacl command. The command below will give the users donkey, chirico, and bozo2 access to this new filesystem that we mounted. Again, I'm assuming that you are using Fedora Core 2, or some distribution that is set up for ACL.# setfacl -R -m d:u:donkey:rwx,d:u:chirico:rwx,d:u:bozo2:rwx /fs Next, create a few directories as one of the users. The example below was done as the user chirico. $ mkdir /fs/one  $ touch /fs/one/stuff  $ ls -l /fs/one/stuff  -rw-rw----+ 1 chirico chirico 0 Sep 3 17:48 /fs/one/stuff Notice the plus sign in the last line. It tells us a little about who has access. So, as user chirico, the getfacl command can be executed: $ getfacl /fs/one/stuff    getfacl: Removing leading '/' from absolute path names   # file: fs/one/stuff   # owner: chirico   # group: chirico   user::rw-   user:chirico:rwx #effective:rw-   user:donkey:rwx #effective:rw-   user:bozo2:rwx #effective:rw-   group::r-x #effective:r--   mask::rw-   other::---  We now see that donkey, chirico, and bozo2 have effective rights on this file. Chirico has enough rights to remove bozo2. $ setfacl -x u:bozo2 /fs/one/stuff  $ getfacl /fs/one/stuff  getfacl: Removing leading '/' from absolute path names  # file: fs/one/stuff  # owner: chirico  # group: chirico  user::rw-  user:chirico:rwx  user:donkey:rwx  group::r-x  mask::rwx  other::--- This is just scratching the surface of what can be done with ACL. For more information, see some of the references below.2.6 Kernel UpgradeThis article will get you started with the 2.6 kernel if you are currently running Red Hat 8 or 9. You may want to take a look at it to see what is involved. If you decide to upgrade, you will need to configure your kernel for the following: CONFIG_BLK_DEV_LOOP  CONFIG_BLK_DEV_CRYPTOLOOP  CONFIG_CRYPTO_AES_586 This is done in the .config file, and you can download my config file here. Just look for kernel-2.6.8.1-i686-chirico-reiserfsacl.config in the tar.gz.In addition to upgrading the kernel, you will need the latest version of the Linux utilities. Currently, there is no need to patch this version. In the past, there was a patch, but this version worked fine for me.You will also need the Reiser tools.ReferencesLinux Tips and TricksCheck out tips 12, 22, and 91, on how to use ssh with rsync. You can create a virtual filesystem on a server, then copy it to your laptop. As you work on the laptop, sync your changes using rsync.Linux Magazine's article on ACLThis article goes into more depth on adding and removing users.Access Control Lists in LinuxA PDF from Andreas Grünbacher.Advanced Linux Programmingby Mark Mitchell, Jeffrey Oldham, and Alex Samuel, of CodeSourcery LLC, published by New Riders Publishing, ISBN 0-7357-1043-0, First Edition, June 2001. This book is free and you can view it online. Chapter 6 describes loopback devices.Implementing Encrypted Home DirectoriesW. Michael Petullo, July 23, 2003.The Loopback Encrypted Filesystem HOWTOBy Ryan T. Rhea.Notes and Comments:dd blocksizeby Tux2000 - Nov 28th 2004 01:28:01dd has options to set the block size to values different from 512 bytes, this reduces the need to fiddle with numbers. For the purpose of creating loop-mountable files, the bs argument is what you want to use. The bs argument accepts common suffixes (k, M, G) for large numbers, at least in GNU's dd.So instead of dd if=/dev/zero of=disk-image count=40960 you can use the bs argument with a size of one megabyte, and use a count of 20 to get 20 megabytes: dd if=/dev/zero of=disk-image count=20 bs=1M Or, for a floppy image: dd if=/dev/zero of=dd-floppy count=720 bs=1k  dd if=/dev/zero of=hd-floppy count=1440 bs=1k  dd if=/dev/zero of=ehd-floppy count=2880 bs=1k Please note:bs specifies the number of bytes read into memory with a single read() call and written out with a single write() call. The dd command in the article uses 512 bytes, but issues 40960 read() and 40960 write() calls. My dd command uses a block of one megabyte, but issues just 20 read() and 20 write() calls. This trades memory for syscalls (=speed).Some peripheral devices prefer large block sizes, e.g. my 48X CDROM spins up to maximum speed only when I use large block sizes (20k up to 1M, preferable equivalent to its internal cache) that result in a fast linear read sequence on the cable. The same applies to image copies between harddisks.For simple copy purposes from device to device (counting /dev/zero, /dev/null and image files as devices), large block sizes are usually faster because you need way less syscalls.Especially the pseudo devices /dev/null and /dev/zero have virtually no block size limit and no preferred block sizes. /dev/null just ignores your data and returns a "no error" code, /dev/zero fills the requested buffer with zeros in fast assembler code. So there is no need for small block sizes, except in situations with extreme low memory.OpenBSDby Alien Science - Nov 27th 2004 09:53:54Its good to know how to do that in Linux. I find this sort of thing useful for keeping sensitive documents/code on my laptop. In OpenBSD the steps are similar except, after creating the diskimage file: vnconfig -k svnd0 diskimage  # Enter password  newfs /dev/svnd0c  mount /dev/svnd0c /mnt/crypt   Then when finished  umount /mnt/crypt  vnconfig -u svnd0 With OpenBSD you could also partition the file using disklabel and have a different filesystem on each partition (although I've never had to make use of this).unmount --by Mike Chirico - Nov 27th 2004 09:06:07If you need to umount a file-system, you may be blocked from umounting. If someone else is on it, fuser will list the culprit users. # fuser -u /filesystem  To kill all processes accessing the file system /filesystem, run the following command: # fuser -km /filesystem