Due 5-19 Study Guide 13-3: Fill & Download for Free

FS I has estimated around 20% of the geographical area under tree and forest cover in Delhi and 14.9% in Chandigarh. although green space (tree covcr - parks and garden. grass cover in play ground. grass cover in open space. etc.) is high . The tree cover in hyderabad is 5% of the geographical area. The estimate for Bengaluru Urban district is 6.85%2 As per a study. the tree cover of Gandhi nagar is 53.9 % of the geographical area whereas it is 4.6% and 16.29 % for the municipal areas of Ahmedabad and Vadodara respectively'. However. the tree cover in the Nagar Palika areas of Gujarat is 8.8% of the geographical area. The average tree outside forest cover (TOF) is 2.76 % of the geographic area'. As per ISFR. 2013. urban tree cover exists on 12.790 sq. km. (16.40%). out of the total 77.997 sq km of urban area •With a view to maintaining the environmental balance. the National Forest Policy envisages an average forest and tree cover of 33% of the geographical areas for the" hole of the country. Further it has been qualified that 2/3,d of the land area should be under forest and tree cover in hills.The Municipal Acts of various States/UTs also prescribe a minimum area for parks and gardens. While in the older areas of the cities. redevelopment and demarcation of exclusive areas for parks and greens is most often next to impossible. in the new development areas. Further, creation of green areas is not being done uniformly . Some of the cities and towns of the country are fortunate to have forests within its city limits. but as a mater of rule. notifying new forests areas within cities may not be feasible and increasing green cover in urban areas will therefore depend more on the trees growing in non-forest land irrespective of its ownership.It is often seen that urban green spaces and trees are sacrificed for development of other infrastructure such as road widening, parking space, buildings of flyovers, hospital. public transport and so on. There are instances of concretizati on around trees, use of parks for car parking, purposes and damage to trees in view of overhanging wires. The willingness to compensate for the loss of trees/ green cover in cities is often lacking. Expenditure on greens is often seen as non essential and elitist. Another observati on is that the less than optimal tree cover in urban areas is also not evenly distributed throughout the city scape. Even in cities which enjoy relatively higher tree cover. situation is fast changing as trees and green areas are under threat with ever increasing development and construction activities. There are multiple authorities managing urban greens coupled with multiplicity of rule and regulations governing urban green and trees implemented by different departments! agencies. As such. conservation. management and development of urban greens which include trees, parks and gardens. city forests, avenues, green belts, etc. pose enormous challenges to the city administrators, planners and managers of the greens.Urban Green including trees have an important role in making cities sustainable by providing ecological and environmental services. preserving biodiversity. health and recreational benefits to citizens. however. urban greens are normally covered in the master plans and city development plans in the form of District. Zonal, Regional. colony parks and other greens. There are also few notified forests lying in the midst of cities. Some states have Tree Preservation Acts. whereas Forest and revenue laws are applicable in others. There is a need to have common standards based on professional and scientific approach for promoting con ervation, development and management of urban greens and trees in urban areas. This will require a policy and legal framework so that planning and development of urban greens is institutionalized. Trees take much longer time span often spanning multiple ge nerations to get established and provide optimal benefits. therefore the planning should be consistent to offer long term support for development of tree cover in the urban landscape. There is need for uniform policy framework for the fo llowi ng: i. Integration of existing woodlands! trees! parks in the Development Master Plans of cities Greens: Urban greens including woodlands need to be incorporated in the Master Plans of respective cities! peri-urban & urban areas as essential pan of green infrastructure to provide statutory protection from land use change from greens to other purpose. ii. Resource assessment: Tree resource assessment should be undertaken in urban and peri-urban areas by the concerned landowning agencies in coordination with respective Forest Departments. Data should be compiled in appropriate formats to have uniform information on tree spec ies. location. growth and health status etc. This information should be used to prepare suitable management plans. There should be efforts for treatment of diseased and old trees and for their proper replacement after they attain useful life. The record of trees should be maintained on appropriate GIS platform using latest technological applications which should be periodically updated preferably at 5 year intervals. iii. Guidelines for maintenance and enhancing tree cover: There is an urgent need to have common guidelines for maintaining and enhancing tree cover based on sound scientific principles. inputs from communities and globa l best practices and local climatic and geographic situations. If possible. these guide lines should be given effective legal backing to make them mandatory in nature throughout the country.Organization structure for looking after tree cover and greens in Urban areas: Suitable organization structure including manpower and other resources should be put in place to implement this policy. Necessary facilities should be developed for training and capacity building. transfer of technical knowhow. awareness raising and information dissemination among citizens for promoting tree growth in urban areas. v. Guidelines for felling/ removal, pruning and lopping of trees in urban areas: Felling! removal offully grown trees wherever required in respect ofa specific project, should be thorough I) e:-.amined at the site after exploring all possible options to save the maximum number of trees. vi. Financial support for urban greening: Urban greening is different from normal plantation/ afforestation activity, requiring appropriate cost norms for plantation & maintenance. Maintaining tree architecture. shapes and balance for health of the plants as well as for aesthetics is important which require regular care and maintenance. Plants in urban areas also have to face more hydrological stress. higher temperatures and pollutants. Essentially tree plantation and maintenance in urban areas is more cost intensive than routine afforestation works. Financial investment. therefore. needs to take care of these specific issues into consideration. There is a need for dedicated funding for improving tree cover in urban areas from Central. State Governments and Municipal Bodies which can be augmented with fees. cess or other such sources by the respective authorities. To increase the funds that can be made available to this sector. it is essential to explore funding from all possible sources to support urban greening. 8. Technical guidance for development and maintenance of trees and greens in urban areas: The following guidelines should be considered by the concerned agencies for conservation and management of existing trees/ greens and development of new greens in urbani peri·urban areas. I) In order to achicve the national goal of 33% of forest and tree cover at national level, it is desirable to have appropriate proportion of urban green spaces in city planning and designing of new habitations/cities with the minimum provision of 20% tree cover in new housing. industrial or other related projects in plains and 60% in hilly areas kecping in view the goals enshrined in National Forest Policy, 1988. Thc participation of citizens. communities and private sector in creation and management of urban greens should be encouraged and provided appropriately in the town planning and bye laws with roles and responsibilities. 2) One of the principle objectives of the city planning should be to have a uniform well distributed trec/ green cover so that citizens are equally benefitted. This would require integration of forest departments with the civic authorities for comprehensive planning. It would be desirable to divide city's area into uniform grids of appropriate size say I Sq. Km/ 5 Sq. Km or 10 Sq. Km and plan afforestation programmes to achieve uniform green standards. 3) Protection of existing greens/ trees should be given high priority. It is necessary to carry out tree census periodically. A five (5) year interval may be considered depending upon resources. Participation of concerned departments, civil society/ citizens, schools, NGOs and suitable institutions may be encouraged to carry out trce census under the census under the supervision of forest departments. It will be appropriate to make use of GIS for mapping of urban greens and trees, which along with census data should be placed on websites for general information. 4) In new projects, efforts should be made for accommodating existing trees and greens. Their removal should be an exception and subject to detailed scrutiny. Provision of dedicated strip of sufficient width for supporting plantation of trees along the roadside should be made mandatory. Where it is not possible 10 leave a dedicated green strip for compensatory as well as normal tree plantation, a minimum soft space of 2 M X 2 M should be provided for trees/ tree plantation. Every tree is important in the urban environment as it gives invaluable environmental benefits and replacing of an established tree is often not possible. 5) For safety and providing conducive growth environment for trees in city environment, no concreting! hard surfacing should be done around trees. Due care should be taken while undertaking any digging! road cutting activities near tree bases so that roots of trees are not damaged irreversibly causing fall of trees. 6) In case of trees felled for road widening, construction of Ilyovcrs and other infrastructure projects, appropriate provisions for land for compensatory plantation should be in built in the project design. As lar as possible the compensatory plantation should be carried out in the vicinity of the area where trees are required to be felled to compensate for the loss of greens/ trees in that particular site. Replacement planting of at least equal number of trees should be planned/ explored ali near the site(s) from where trees have been! are being felled. 7) It is necessary to maintain uniform spacing of trees depending upon the tree species on a particular avenue. The gaps in rows of trees. if any. should be filled up as soon as possible. 8) Obligatory role of citizens for supporting tree preservation and incentives for plantation may be through concessions/ rebates in taxes such as property be considered. Efforts of private companies. PSUs in greening under their corporate social responsibility (CSR) to be encouraged. 9) The role of every institution including Local Bodies. Municipalities, Cantonment Boards, R WAs etc including Central & State Government institutions which have land available for enhancing tree cover is important in conserving and expanding tree green cover. Awareness campaigns should be regularly organized on trees and urban greens and their benefits to ecology and environment for enlisting continuous public support. 10) To support greenery, creation of sufficient nurseries to provide good quality planting stock is important. In city planning adequate emphasis should be given to nurseries. which should be supported with service centres. 11) Garden and avenue designing, Green Corridors & Strips should be emphasized in the City Development Planning for environmental and aesthetic propose including their integration with buildings, parking & other facilities. 12) Tree management is a specialized skill which needs professional approach and training. engagement of Agriculturist. Tree Surgeons etc. should be institutionalized. Formal training in management of urban greens should be organized. R& D for proper census under the supervision of forest departments. It will be appropriate to make use of GIS for mapping of urban greens and trees, which along with census data should be placed on websites for general information. 4) In new projects, efforts should be made for accommodating existing trees and greens. Their removal should be an exception and subject to detailed scrutiny. Provision of dedicated strip of sufficient width for supporting plantation of trees along the roadside should be made mandatory. Where it is not possible 10 leave a dedicated green strip for compensatory as well as normal tree plantation, a minimum soft space of 2 M X 2 M should be provided for trees/ tree plantation. Every tree is important in the urban environment as it gives invaluable environmental benefits and replacing of an established tree is often not possible. 5) For safety and providing conducive growth environment for trees in city environment, no concreting! hard surfacing should be done around trees. Due care should be taken while undertaking any digging! road cutting activities near tree bases so that roots of trees are not damaged irreversibly causing fall of trees. 6) In case of trees felled for road widening, construction of Ilyovcrs and other infrastructure projects, appropriate provisions for land for compensatory plantation should be in built in the project design. As lar as possible the compensatory plantation should be carried out in the vicinity of the area where trees are required to be felled to compensate for the loss of greens/ trees in that particular site. Replacement planting of at least equal number of trees should be planned/ explored ali near the site(s) from where trees have been! are being felled. 7) It is necessary to maintain uniform spacing of trees depending upon the tree species on a particular avenue. The gaps in rows of trees. if any. should be filled up as soon as possible. 8) Obligatory role of citizens for supporting tree preservation and incentives for plantation may be through concessions/ rebates in taxes such as property ta;\. rna) be considered. EITorts of private companies. PSUs in green ing under their corporate social responsibility (CSR) to be encouraged. 9) The role of every institution including Local Bodies. Municipalities, Cantonment Boards, R WAs etc including Central & State Government institutions which have land available for enhancing tree cover is important in conserving and expanding treel green cover. Awareness campaigns should be regularly organized on trees and urban greens and their benefits to ecology and environment for enlisting continuous public support. 10) To support greenery, creation of sufficient nurseries to provide good quality planting stock is important. In city planning adequate emphasis should be given to nurseries. which should be supported with service centres. 11) Garden and avenue designing, Green Corridors & Strips should be emphasized in the City Development Planning for environmental and aesthetic propose including their integration with buildings, parking & other facilities. 12) Tree management is a specialized skill which needs pro fe ssional approach and training. I::.ngagement of Arboricullurist. Tree Surgeons etc. should be in sti tutionalized. Formal training in management of urban greens should be organized. R& D for proper management of trees needs to be strengthened . 13) While desil,'Tling urban greens and planning of tree plantations, species selection should be done with great care so as to meet the objectives of tree plantation optimizing benefits and causing minimum inconvenience to citizens/ users. 14) Sustained availabi lity of irrigation quality water is a critical requ irement for successful creation and management of urban greens. Since cities are facing acute scarcity of water, it is proposcd to make all necessary arrangements for treatment of waste water for use in urban greens maintenance. Industries, Hotels, Group Housing Societies, Railways and other Government establishments etc. should be made responsible for treatment of waste water and use it for greening. Urban Local bodies to promote appropriate technologies and guide various agencies. 15) To enhance urban greens and tree cover. emphasis should be given to create appropriate green areas in old as well as new cities. Creation of parks! gardens in old residential colonies including planting in avenues, central verges, roundabouts, drain-sides, colony parks, households. around water bodies, institutional lands, schools! colieges!Universities, business/ industrial, residential colonies etc. should be explored. 16) Residents! corporate may be encouraged to contribute in innovative designing including vertical! terrace gardening for enhancing green cover including quality, biodiversity conservation and aesthetics of greens. 17) Restoration of Urban Greens such as colony parks, avenue trees should be considered as an essential activity under urban renewal project like JNNURM. It will help in decongestion of cities and reducing impact of natural disaster. 18) Need for formal consultation with experts! foresters on urban greens in re pect of projects involving alteration of urban greens! cutting of trees. The experts on urban greens. horticulturists. foresters should be consulted in the planning of projects which have bearing on tree cover greens. 19) Surplus lands available with various institutions! agencies like railways. industries. PSUs, companies. universities & other educational institutions etc. if not required by them in immediate future say 5 years can be used for green use or tree plantations. which will be returned whenever the necessity for the original purposes arise. 20) While encouraging green spaces, local species should be planted and alien! invasive species should be discouraged and to be planted after successful fie ld trial or experiences documented in similar conditions. It is proposed to create a biodiversity park in cach District HQ/ City of over 5.00 lakh population to preserve local species and crcate public awareness. 21) There are many trees of historical importance in cities. which need to be identified and preserved. Tree tourism may also be thought of as an activity for generating interest among local people and nature enthusiasts. 22) In additions local bodies, district administration, state governments may propose appropriate measures for meeting any specific requirement of a particular area .

Considered by whom? You, an anonymous troll? Trolls are totally irrelevant and their thoughts and considerations even less so as they are based only on ignorance and stupidity.Poland is not considered a bad country by any stretch of imagination in fact it is one great country and one of the world’s safest. The country with an outstanding, fascinating history and culture, interesting people, food, landscape and old traditions. Poland is the country that immensely contributed to the world’s development but to know that you need to be better educated or simply have a better IQ.Poland is in fact a very good, safe and a wonderful country.Some interesting things about Poland.The Unesco-listed Wieliczka salt mine, near the medieval city of Kraków, extends over 190 miles in length and drops to a depth of almost 500ft.Wieliczka: a must-see CREDIT: PAVLO VAKHRUSHEVSalt was first mined here in the Middle Ages but production stopped in 2007. Its interior chambers and passageways are now open to tourists, although the site has attracted visitors since the 16th century.There are nine levels of galleries, with caves excavated from the granite-grey salt rock and brine lakes glinting in the subterranean gloom. A series of 66 steps carved in the salt form the descent to the Chapel of St Cunegond (pictured), a church measuring some 220,000 square feet and displaying chandeliers made out of rock salt.And the world's largest castle, Castle MalborkPoland has an impressive 16 World Heritage Sites. We've already mentioned Krakow, Warsaw, Wieliczka and Bialowieza Forest; others include the haunting former concentration camp at Auschwitz and Malbork, the largest castle in the world by area.Krakow, one of the very first World Heritage SitesThe centre of Krakow is widely acknowledged as one of Europe’s greatest surviving examples of a medieval city. What is less remembered is just how quickly Unesco moved to make this official. The heart of Poland’s second city was included on the first list of World Heritage Sites, in 1978 (alongside Yellowstone National Park and the Ecuadorian capital Quito). Unesco’s accompanying explanation that “the 13th century merchant’s town has Europe’s largest market square and numerous historical houses, palaces and churches, with their magnificent interiors” rather stated the obvious, but it told no lies.Poland is home to one of Europe’s great lake districts. That would be Masurian Lakeland, which ebbs across 180 miles and 20,000 square miles in the north-east of the country. There are more than 2000 lakes in all, including Sniardwy – the largest in the country (13.7 miles long, 8.3 miles wide). It is a joy in summer, when you can hike on its banks.Poland’s (north) coast is also home to Gdansk, its fourth biggest city – and the port which played a prime role in the tearing down of the Iron Curtain. It was here, in the shipyards, that Solidarność (Solidarity) – the trade-union-cum-freedom-movement founded by firebrand and future Polish president Lech Walesa – was born in 1980. You can find out more about this at the European Solidarity Centre (ecs.gda.pl) – although, if you are in what is a fascinating town, you may also want to seek out the Gdansk Shakespeare Theatre (teatrszekspirowski.pl), which is dedicated to The Bard, the urban sand of Stogi Beach – and the bars and cafes along Ulica Chlebnicka. If you fancy a long weekend, Ryanair (ryanair.com) and Wizz Air (wizzair.com) fly in from more than a dozen UK airports.Bialowieza Forest, which straddles Poland and Belarus, is one of the last and largest remaining stretches of primeval forest in Europe. This ancient ecosystem is home to 800 European bison, which were once extinct in the wild but, thanks to successful breeding and reintroduction programmes, is making an unlikely comeback.Polisg history is very complicatedIf you’re a fan of Game of Thrones, you might start reading Polish Medieval History. You’ll get confused many times (try reading something on the period from 1138 to 1320).Later times also haven’t been easy for Poland. The country has been invaded or has fought for freedom in insurrections over 40 times. Poland even disappeared from world maps between 1772 and 1795.4. Poland's consitution was the 2nd in the worldPoland adopted its first written constitution in the spring of 1791, which was the 2nd in the world valid legal document of the kind. However, it was only in effect for only 14 months and 3 weeks before Poland was in partitions for over 100 years.5. Polish engineer invented the Modern Kerosene lampIn 1853, Ignacy Lukasiewicz introduced the first modern street lamp from in Europe. His lamp inventions were, however, first used in Lviv in Ukraine. There is still a street in Warsaw that uses the same street lamps until today.6. During the WWII Warsaw was almost completely destroyed and had to be rebuilt completelyThe Old Town that you can see in Warsaw isn’t the actual Old Town from before the war. The original has been completely bombed at in the 40s and Poles rebuilt it after the war using Bernardo Bellotto’s detailed paintings. That’s why now looks as it did in the 14th century, rather than the 20th.7. Marie Curie was actually PolishMarie Curie, the woman who discovered Polon and Rad, wasn’t French, but Polish. Her name was Marie Sklodowska before she married a Frenchman named Pierre Curie. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person and only woman to win twice, the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences.Joseph Conrad was actually Polish too. His real name was Teodor Józef Konrad Nałęcz-Korzeniowski. You’re welcome.8. Poland has beaches, mountains, ferests, deserts and lakesPoland has a very diverse nature. Almost 800 km of the seashore and a few mountain chains (Tatra, Carpathian, Sudet Bieszczady and Świętokrzyskie). Poland also has the only Central-European desert, Pustynia Błędowska.There are also dunes in the Pomerania region that are a curiosity on a European scale. So are wetlands in Biebrzański National Park. And islands in Woliński National Park.9. Traditional Polish last names change depending on the sexNames that end with –ski/ska or –cka/cki work like adjectives and need to match the gender in Polish. So, if your father’s name is Kowalski, if you’re a female you’ll be called Kowalska. All Polish surnames in the US are a male version.10. Europe's heaviest animals live in PolandThe 380,000-acre (150,000-hectare) Białowieża Primeval Forest in Poland is Europe’s last ancient forest and home to 800 European bison, Europe’s heaviest land animals.11. Poland used to have the world's tallest structureThe Warsaw radio mast in Konstantynow was the world’s tallest structure from 1974, until its collapse in 1991. It was the second tallest structure ever built after Burj Khalifa, completed in 2010. The mast was 646.38 meters (2,120.7 ft) tall.12. Poland also has the world's biggest castlePoland has an impressive 16 World Heritage Sites and among them the biggest castle in the world – Malbork. Measured by the area. Prague castle often claims to be the world’s largest, but it’s not since it’s not a single area.13. Wearing a hat indoors is considered rude in PolandIf you wear a hat inside someone’s home or church it’s a sign of disrespect. While young people generally don’t mind, the older generation might feel uncomfortable.14. Kissing woman's hand is still in fashion in PolandPolish men generally still tend to observe “the chivalry protocol”. Don’t be surprised if you see this, upon the first introduction between total strangers.15. Poland has its own version of Thai SongkranIf you’re heading to Poland for Easter, prepare to get wet. Easter Monday is known as Smigus Dyngus when everyone is chasing one another with water guns and buckets. Traditionally, boys throw water over girls and spank them with pussy willow branches and the girls fight back.16. Poles celebrate a Name dayIn addition to birthdays, Poles celebrate their name day or imieniny, which is the day commemorating the Saint they are named after. The names associated with each day is listed in all calendars in Poland, so the Name Day is often more important than a birthday because everyone remembers about it.17. Polish TV is dubbed, by one manIf you’re planning on watching some foreign movies on TV in Poland, you might want to reconsider. Foreign movies and series are dubbed, but not by Polish actors, but a single man reading parts of everyone (including women and children).The original version is still there, so viewers can hear the first two seconds of each sentence (and faintly in the background later), before the reader starts saying the same thing in Polish.18. Poland is world's biggest exporter of AmberAmber is huge in Poland, so souvenirs and jewelry made of it are gorgeous. You might want to pick some up during your visit.19. Mushrooming is a popular family activity in PolandGoing to the forest to pick wild mushrooms at the end of the summer is a popular activity for many people in Poland. Kids are taught how to distinguish an edible mushroom from a poisonous one early on.20. You can still eat at Europe's oldest restaurant in WroclawLocated in Wrocław, the “Piwnica Swidnicka” is the oldest restaurant in Europe, open since 1275. You can still eat there today.21. Buying an even number of flowers for funerals is considered a Faux PasOn the other hand, chrysanthemums, white lilies, and red carnations are considered the funeral flowers so make sure that you don’t buy them for other occasions. Some people take this very seriously.22. The unofficial traditional polish food is ZapiekankaIt’s a baguette cut in half, topped with cheese and mushrooms and doused in garlic mayo and ketchup. Lots of ketchup.23. Latex condoms were invented by a PoleFirst latex condom was invented in 1912 by Julius Fromm, who made the rubber ones thinner and better. Ironically, until these dates politicians in Poland are arguing about which methods of anticonception should be allowed, if any at all.24. Poland has its own version of Valentine's dayKupała or Wianki is celebrated on June 21st, the ‘Feast of St. John the Baptist’ day. Men jump over bonfires and, women hope for wreaths. Wreaths with candles on one side of the river are floated to the other side and if one comes to you, you’ll be lucky in love.Poland has an amazing culture and traditionPolish Christmas decoration traditionMidsummer Night/ Noc KupalyNic KupalyPolish Easter eggs 1/8Polish Easter culturePolish folk is real artPolish Christmas CarolsPolish musicPoland’s naturePoland is great for hiking holidayGorgeous Polish citiesStay with us and meet the most spectacular sights and monuments of Poland!5 beautiful places and sites in PolandUsually, beautiful places in Poland are associated with the rich history of Europe.Especially if we are talking about monuments, must-see sites, and untypical buildings.Each site is located in a completely different part of Poland, that’s why we’ve chosen 5 of the most notable places you absolutely can not miss!Wieliczka Salt Mine – Polish Nature’s MasterpieceHave you ever been in a salt mine? Or have you ever seen the big, breathtaking chapel rooms made only of salt?If not, Wieliczka Salt Mine will make your head spin!Sculpture of a Polish king in WieliczkaIn 1978, Wieliczka Salt Mine was entered by UNESCO to a World Heritage List and later considered as one of the seven wonders of Poland.Wieliczka has 9 levels, the deepest of which is 327 meters below the surface of the Earth. This place is visited by over a million of tourist who wants to see the beauty of numerous chambers and chapels every year.It is a really important monument of Polish history that you can not skip, so if you want to see it for yourself, join the Wieliczka Salt Mine Tour.BiskupinBiskupinThat outsized building is a part of Biskupin Settlement – an archaeological site discovered in 1933.The first settlement of Biskupin is dated to around VI-VIII centuries. It was completely reconstructed, so now you can admire the whole rampart, the gate and the full street of wooden houses there.Church in JaworAnyway, churches of Peace are the biggest european buildings made of timber-framed construction and performing a religious function.Thanks to their uniqueness the churches became a part of UNESCO World Heritage List.Go there and let those wooden interiors totally amaze you!Now you’ve probably had enough of the buildings, streets and monuments. Let’s take a deep breath with Mother Nature!4 naturally beautiful places in PolandWestern TatrasPolish people are really proud of their country’s nature. Flowery meadows, storks and the European bison are usually presented as the flashes of Poland.So put on your comfortable shoes and come with us for a trip into the wildness!Białowieża Forest – Best example of Nature in PolandPolish Białowieża Forest is one of the last ancient woodlands in Europe.What does it mean?Many of its areas have never been touched and changed by human hands.Białowieża ForestThanks to that we can imagine how our continent would look like had civilization never evolved.Białowieża Forest is the kind of an independent ecosystem that has its own rules. The European bison is the symbol of Białowieża.A portret of the European bisonIn the Białowieża forest, there are many hiking trails, both walking, and cycling. Go there and enjoy the beautiful scent of the trees, sound of the birds and views of the wild Polish side!Legs do not hurt? So let’s go further!The Valley of Five Polish Ponds – Simply Amazing PlaceThe Valley of Five Polish Ponds is a mountain, post-glacial area spread on 6.5 km2 and 4 km long. It is surrounded by numerous peaks and ridges which make a spectacular view.The Black PondIts the well-preserved part of the Pliocene Valley that amazes with the 5 charming water reservoirs: the Great Polish Pond, 2 Black Polish Ponds, one small Polish Pond, the Front Polish Pond and the Bull’s Eye.Do you want to see them all?There are six different trails with different lengths and estimated time of walking. Choosing one of them is the best option to get to know the Polish mountains’ flora and fauna and of course the healthiest form of spending your free time!Słowiński National Park – Interesting Place to SeeDid you know that Poland has its own Sahara Desert?Słowiński National Park is famous for its moving dunes which are constantly changing their height and shape under the influence of wind.The largest dune area near the little town called Łeba is spreading on about 500 hectares and is constantly growing.Sand dunesThe highest point of those dunes is called Rowokol and is around 115 meters high. It’s the perfect place for watching a sunset and taking pictures. Polish moving sands are a uniquep henomenon in the whole of Europe.Go there and enjoy all the charms of the Baltic Sea!Masuria – What a Scenery!Masuria is the most famous lake district in Poland. It’s also one of the most favorite holiday’s directions of Poles from all the beautiful places in Poland.The area can offer over 2,000 lakes that are connected by tiny rivers and lovely canals. There are a lot of beautiful places there!It’s the best option for a free time if you like sailing, delights of the country life and singing next to the fireplace.All water sports, horse riding, canoe trips and fishing are also available!A silent areaDon’t forget to try the local specialties of Polish food like the vendace fish or potato pancakes served with white cheese. Try to order it on your own, saying 'plińce z pomoćką' ;)You will always remember these beautiful places!3 Mysterious Polish CastlesVisiting Poland you can feel like a prince charming or a lovely princess (at least once!)Castle in MalborkHow is it possible?There are many well-preserved castles all around Poland.Go there, see them on your own and listen to the extraordinary stories of Polish noble families!Malbork Castle – one of TOP places in PolandDid you know that the largest castle in the world (measured by the area) is located in Poland?So if you are a big fan of medieval history, you have to visit Malbork!Malbork Castle was located on the UNESCO World Heritage List which should not come as a surprise.The castle is surrounded by defensive walls and impresses with the numerous gates and high towers. Everything was built in the 13th century.Malbork Castle was the place where Polish kings lived and ruled the country.Want some more beautiful places?Wawel Royal Castle – Famous and very PrettyThe best thing about the Wawel Royal Castle is that you will find it in the middle of Krakow!If you are in Krakow, you won’t miss it for sure!Wonderful WawelThe beginning of Wawel dates back to 1333. That monumental group of buildings is one of the most important sites in Poland for historical and cultural reasons, so if you’re going to visit Krakow then you can take a Royal Wawel Tour Guide and become the expert of Polish history. It’s the easiest option to hear all the legends and see all the chambers and chapels.Wawel - Guided Tour of the Royal HillWawel Cathedral Ticket with AudioguideIf you have some free days left in Poland go for a trip to Wałbrzych and see also...Książ Castle – Worth a VisitThe Książ Castle is 330 kilometers from Krakow, but it’s totally worth seeing.Just take a look at this beautiful shape!Książ CastleThe creation of this beautiful Polish gem started in 1288. In XXth century the castle was taken over by the Nazis and Hitler had his quarter there during the World War II.The castle has very rich architecture and a lot of secret chambers. Visiting it is an experience worth remembering.I bet you can’t wait to see it!2 charming Polish villagesLooking for some country life?Almost 40% of Poles are living in the countryside. Currently, there are 43 072 villages in Poland.It’s totally impossible to see them all (or even 1% of them), that’s why we’ve picked 2 the most beautiful.Magical Zalipie – Tradition meets ArtZalipie is definitely an unusual, worth-seeing place.The magic of Zalipie bases on numerous floral paintings everywhere – on wooden houses, small bridges, dog houses, stables, wells, and chapels.It became a tradition, so through the generations, every woman paints her surrounding with colorful flowers inspired by local folklore.Be prepared for romantic sceneries, like this one:One of the houses in Zalipie / source: Unusual Places - Unusual Places To Visit Around the WorldChochołów – truly one of Poland Beautiful PlacesOur second candidate for the most stunning village in Poland is Chochołów.It looks like a land of dwarves due to its unique wooden houses. They are outstanding thanks to their geometric shape and sloping high roofs.Houses in Chochołów / source: WikipediaAccording to the local tradition, every home should be washed clean with soap and water twice a year, for Easter and Corpus Christi feast.Now it may seem that Poland is a country of strange houses. Especially once you see our last entry of Poland beautiful places.1 peculiar place to seeThe Upside-down house in SzymbarkHave you ever seen something like that?In the heart of Kashubia, there is an upside-down house, an unusual place connected with Kashubian culture and tradition.House in Szymbark is one of Poland’s most beautiful places / source www.kameralna.com.plThe top window is the entrance and the interior moves to the bygone era of PRL. The house is equipped with furniture from the communist period.The funniest thing is that all the equipment is attached to the ceiling so it’s difficult to keep your balance there.Now you know there are a lot of beautiful places in Poland!Come and see all the Polish beautiful places!Buzzing cities, spectacular nature, interesting monuments, lovely villages and charming castles – Poland has it all!So if you ever thought Poland is a boring country – you were clearly wrong :)It’s not so hard to organize the trip to all those places on your own, but of course, you can also join some guided tours and trips that will save your money and time.Gorgeous Polish cities and their fascinating histories…POLAN’S EDUCTAIONPoland is one of the most important hosts for international students searching for the best European universities. The country serves as a model globally, and that’s because the investments made here are steady. Poland created a high-quality education environment due to its traditions of academic education which goes back to 1364.International students vote for the Polish Universities every year, and last year a total of 493 students wrote about their experience in Poland, with an overall satisfaction rate of 9.1 from 10, which placed Poland as the third in this year’s award session. There were seven universities included in the study, and all of them had excellent results.But what makes Poland so good when it comes to education? There are some elements that worth mentioning.Modern approachPoland’s higher education system is evolving rapidly. Poland is the fourth country in Europe regarding the students enrolled, after the United Kingdom, Germany, and France. The total number of students is approximately 1.5 million, and every year at least half a million people begin their professional journey in universities and colleges. Due to the fact that Polish educational centers offer courses in foreign languages, the country is the perfect destination for the student looking for a place to study abroad.Moreover, becoming more innovative is one of the universities’ goals for the future. Modern university campuses with access to research centers and laboratories are appearing in the major academic places. So far, Polish schools invested in over 2000 scientific centers, which have been modernized to satisfy the students’ needs for more practical activities. Those centers are also investing in unconventional programmes for the students. For example, Polish-Japanese Institute of Information Technology created an innovative study program which blends art and design with new media and information technology.Even the Government understood that education worth the investment. The spending on scientific centers and higher education will rise by EUR 230 million over the next several years. The state will also increase the GDP percent for education from 0.44% this year to 1% by 2020.Bologna educational systemPoland is an essential player in the Bologna Process. Due to the introduction of the three-stage education studies (Bachelor, Master, Doctoral) as well as the European Credit Transfer System, both Polish and international students are able to stay mobile and can continue their professional education everywhere in the European Union.With the Erasmus Program that has a history of over 20 years, more than 40.000 foreign people came to Poland to study, while almost 100.000 Polish students had the opportunity to explore in another country. That is a big step in developing the educational system overall because universities were always interested in what students experienced abroad and then implemented similar activities.High-quality educationThe Polish higher education keeps its quality due to the regular evaluations. The central Polish institutions which monitor the education quality are the Polish Accreditation Committee, the Conference of Rectors of the Academic Schools placed in Poland, and the General Council for Science and Higher Education. There are strict accreditations for every course available in Poland, and there are more than 5000 different courses open.Also, the latest Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development studyranked Poland as the 5th in Europe and 11th in the world for its educational system. That is not a surprise for the OECD because Poland implemented comprehensive changes in its system to break from the Communist paradigm, and the results are now visible.We can also see excellent results in IT programs too. For example, Warsaw University is ranked first in the international Top Coder international ranking. The IT industry gives Poland recognition on the European map. Due to this high education system Polish programmers are among the best in the world, and their results on tournaments and competitions are impressive. The last accomplishment for Warsaw University student was at ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest, organized by IBM earlier this year. Poland finished the tournament with a gold medal, surpassing China team.There is no surprise that Poland is one of the best centers for higher education. Its investment and implication created the perfect educational environment for both Polish and international student. And more important is that Poland won’t stop investing in its young people because education is a cultural and traditional thing and it will help the country to be an attractive location for investments and outsourcing.GEORGEOUS Polish foodPoland’s architecture and art and thousands of years of historyPoland is home of great scientists and very intelligent peopleCategory:Polish scientists - WikipediaKategoria:Polscy naukowcy – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia9. MARIE SKLODOWSKA-CURIEThe only person in the world to win the Nobel Prize TWICE in TWO different SCIENTIFIC fIELD- CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICSPolish School of Mathematics - WikipediaPoland is home of some of world’s greatest mathematiciansKraków School of Mathematics - WikipediaLwów School of Mathematics - WikipediaCategory:Polish mathematicians - WikipediaStefan Banach - WikipediaSome of the Polish musicPoland is great country, and you , miserable troll, what is your country or under what stone bridge do you live?

Tell you what, if you can't be bothered to type "history of brisbane" into your broswer and click THE FIRST LINK in the results, I can't be bothered to do more than cut and paste it into my answer.From History of Brisbane... Enjoy.---------------------------------------------History of BrisbaneFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_BrisbanePart of a series on theHistory of AustraliaChronologicalPrehistoryExploration by seaLand exploration1788–18501851–19001901–19451945–presentTimelineBy topicConstitutionDiplomacyEconomyFederationImmigrationIndigenous peopleMilitaryMonarchyRail transportBrisbane's recorded history dates from 1799, when Matthew Flinders explored Moreton Bay on an expedition from Port Jackson, although the region had long been occupied by the Jagera and Turrbal aboriginal tribes. The town was conceived initially as a penal colony for British convicts sent from Sydney. Its suitability for fishing, farming, timbering, and other occupations, however, caused it to be opened to free settlement in 1838. The town became amunicipality in 1859 and a consolidatedmetropolitan area in 1924. The city hosted the1982 Commonwealth Games and the 2014 G20 Brisbane summit.Contents [hide]1Etymology2Aboriginal occupation and European exploration31824 colony4Free settlement5Development in the early years of the colony of Queensland5.1Amalgamation of local government areas6Brisbane during the Second World War7Post-War Brisbane7.1Brisbane floods7.21980s8Brisbane's historical timeline9See also10References11Further reading12External linksEtymology[edit]Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, is named for Sir Thomas Brisbane (1773–1860), British soldier and colonial administrator born in Ayrshire, Scotland. Sir Thomas Brisbane was Governor of New South Wales at the time that Brisbane was named.Aboriginal occupation and European exploration[edit]Prior to European colonisation, the Brisbane region was occupied by aboriginal tribes, notably the Yuggera and Turrbal aboriginal clans. Before European settlement, the land, the river and its tributaries were the source and support of life in all its dimensions. The river's abundant supply of food included fish, shellfish, crab, and shrimp. Good fishing places became campsites and the focus of group activities. The district was characterized by open woodlands with rainforest in some pockets or bends of the Brisbane River.A resource-rich area and a natural avenue for seasonal movement, Brisbane was a way station for groups travelling to ceremonies and spectacles. The region had several large (200–600 person) seasonal camps, the biggest and most important located along waterways north and south of the current city heart: Barambin or 'York's Hollow' camp (today's Victoria Park) and Woolloon-cappem (Woolloongabba/South Brisbane), also known as Kurilpa. These camping grounds continued to function well into historic times.The region was first explored by Europeans in 1799, when Matthew Flindersexplored Moreton Bay during his expedition from Port Jackson north to Hervey Bay. He made a landing at what is now Woody Point in Redcliffe, and also touched down at Coochiemudlo Island and Pumicestone Passage. During the fifteen days he spent in Moreton Bay, Flinders was unable to find the Brisbane River.[1]A permanent settlement in the region was not founded until 1823, when New South Wales Governor Thomas Brisbane was petitioned by free settlers in Sydney to send their worst convicts elsewhere and the area chosen became the city of Brisbane.On 23 October 1823, Surveyor General John Oxley set out with a party in the cutterMermaid from Sydney to "survey Port Curtis (now Gladstone), Moreton Bay, and Port Bowen (north of Rockhampton, 22.5°S 150.75°E),[2] with a view to forming convict settlements there". The party reached Port Curtis on 5 November 1823. Oxley suggested that the location was unsuitable for a settlement, since it would be difficult to maintain.As he approached Point Skirmish by Moreton Bay, he noticed several indigenous Australians approaching him and in particular one as being "much lighter in colour than the rest". The white man turned out to be a shipwrecked lumberjack by the name of Thomas Pamphlett who, along with John Finnegan, Richard Parsons, andJohn Thompson had left Sydney on 21 March 1823 to sail south along the coast and bring cedar from Illawarra but during a large storm were pushed north. Not knowing where they were, the group attempted to return to Sydney, eventually being shipwrecked on Moreton Island on 16 April.[3] They lived with the indigenous tribe seven months.After meeting with them, Oxley proceeded approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) up what he later named the Brisbane River in honour of the governor. Oxley explored the river as far as what is now the suburb of Goodna in the city of Ipswich, about 20 kilometres (12 mi) upstream Brisbane's central business district. Several places were named by Oxley and his party, including Breakfast Creek (at the mouth of which they cooked breakfast), Oxley Creek, and Seventeen Mile Rocks.1824 colony[edit]See also: Early Streets of BrisbaneIn 1824, the first convict colony was established at Redcliffe Point under LieutenantHenry Miller. Meanwhile, Oxley and Allan Cunningham explored further up the Brisbane River in search of water, landing at the present location of North Quay. Only one year later, in 1825, the colony was moved south from Redcliffe to a peninsula on the Brisbane River, site of the present central business district, called "Meen-jin" by its Turrbul inhabitants.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StateLibQld_2_148511_Early_drawing_of_a_section_of_the_town_of_Brisbane,_Queensland_including_the_Convict_Hospital,_1835.jpgAn early drawing of the townAt the end of 1825, the official population of Brisbane was "45 males and 2 females". Until 1859, when Queensland was separated from the state ofNew South Wales, the name Moreton Bay was used to describe the new settlement and surrounding areas. "Edenglassie" was the name first bestowed on the growing town by Chief JusticeFrancis Forbes,[4] a portmanteau of the two Scottish cities Edinburgh and Glasgow. The name soon fell out of favour with many residents and the current name in honour of Governor Thomas Brisbane was adopted instead.The colony was originally established as a "prison within a prison"—a settlement, deliberately distant from Sydney, to which recidivist convicts could be sent as punishment. It soon garnered a reputation, along with Norfolk Island, as one of the harshest penal settlements in all of New South Wales. In July 1828 work began on the construction of the Commissariat Store. It remains intact today as a museum of the Royal Historical Society of Queensland and is only one of two convict era buildings still standing in Queensland. The other is The Old Windmill on Wickham Terrace.Over twenty years, thousands of convicts passed through the penal colony. Hundreds of these fled the stern conditions and escaped into the bush. Although most escapes were unsuccessful or resulted in the escapees perishing in the bush, some (e.g. James Davis) succeeded in living as "wild white men" amongst the aboriginal people.During these decades, the local aboriginals tried to "starve out" the settlement bydestroying its crops—most notably their "corn fields" at today's South Bank. In retaliation, colony guards shot and killed aboriginals entering the corn fields.Free settlement[edit]As a penal colony, Brisbane did not permit the erection of private settlements nearby for many years. As the inflow of new convicts steadily declined, the population dropped. From the early 1830s the British government questioned the suitability of Brisbane as a penal colony. Allan Cunningham's discovery of a route to the fertileDarling Downs in 1828, the commercial pressure to develop a pastoral industry, and increasing reliance on Australian wool, as well as the expense of transporting goods from Sydney, were the major factors contributing to the opening of the region to free settlement.[5] In 1838, the area was opened up for free settlers, as distinct from convicts. An early group of Lutheran missionaries from Germany were granted land in what is now the north side suburb of Nundah.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_186935_Buildings_on_the_banks_of_the_Brisbane_River_downstream_from_Gardens_Point,_ca._1840.jpgEarly development along the Brisbane River, ~1840In 1839 the first three surveyors, Dixon, Stapylton and Warner arrived in Moreton Bay to prepare the land for greater numbers of European settlers by compiling a trigonometrical survey.[6] From the 1840s, settlers took advantage of the abundance of timber in local forests. Once cleared, land was quickly utilized for grazing and other farming activities. The convict colony eventually closed.The free settlers did not recognise local aboriginal ownership and were not required to provide compensation to the Turrbul aboriginals. Some serious affrays and conflicts ensued—most notably resistance activities of Yilbung, Dundalli, Ommuli, and others. Yilbung, in particular, sought to extract regular rents from the white population on which to sustain his people, whose resources had been heavily depleted by the settlers. By 1869, many of the Turrbul had died from gunshot or disease, but the Moreton Bay Courier makes frequent mention of local indigenous people who were working and living in the district. In fact, between the 1840s and 1860s, the settlement relied increasingly on goods obtained by trade with aboriginals—firewood, fish, crab, shellfish—and services they provided such as water-carrying, tree-cutting, fencing, ring-barking, stock work and ferrying. Some Turrbul escaped the region with the help of Thomas Petrie, who gave his name to the suburb of Petrie in the Moreton Bay region north of Brisbane.Development in the early years of the colony of Queensland[edit]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JohnPetrie01.jpgBrisbane's first mayor wasJohn Petriehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_63671_Town_of_Brisbane,_ca._1870.jpgBrisbane town, 1870On 6 September 1859, the Municipality of Brisbane was proclaimed. The next month, polling for the first council was conducted. John Petrie was elected the first mayor of Brisbane.[7] Queensland was formally established as a self-governing colony of Great Britain, separate from New South Wales, in 1859.Originally the neighbouring city of Ipswich was intended to be the capital of Queensland, but it proved to be too far inland to allow access by large ships, so Brisbane was chosen instead. But it was not until 1902 that Brisbane was officially designated a city.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brisbane_1893.jpgFlooding on Queen Street, 1893.The 1893 Black February floods caused severe flooding in the region and devastated the city. Raging flood waters destroyed the first of several versions of the Victoria Bridge. Even though gold was discovered north of Brisbane, around Maryborough and Gympie, most of the proceeds went south to Sydney and Melbourne. The city remained an underdeveloped regional outpost, with comparatively little of the classical Victorian architecture that characterized southern cities.A demonstration of electric lighting of lamp posts along Queen Street in 1882 was the first recorded use of electricity for public purposes in the world.[8] The first railway in Brisbane was built in 1879, when the line from the western interior was extended from Ipswich to Roma Street Station. First horse-drawn, then electric trams operated in Brisbane from 1885 until 1969.In 1887, the Yungaba Immigration Centre was established at Kangaroo Point. The two-storey brick building is listed on the Queensland Heritage Register.[9] Tramway employees stood down for wearing union badges on 18 January 1912 sparked Australia's first General strike, the 1912 Brisbane General Strike which lasted for five weeks. The first ceremony to honour the fallen soldiers at Gallipoli was held at St John's Cathedral on 10 June 1915.[10] The tradition would later grow into the popularAnzac Day ceremony.In an effort to prevent overcrowding and control urban development, the Parliament of Queensland passed the Undue Subdivision of Land Prevention Act 1885, preventing congestion in Queensland cities relative to others in Australia. This legislation, in addition to the construction of efficient public transport in the form of steam trains and electric trams, encouraged urban sprawl. Although the initial tram routes reached out into established suburbs such as West End, Fortitude Valley,New Farm, and Newstead, later extensions and new routes encouraged housing developments in new suburbs, such as the western side of Toowong, Paddington,Ashgrove, Kelvin Grove and Coorparoo.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_48448_Woman_getting_on_a_tram,_Brisbane,_1910-1920.jpgA Brisbane tram in the early 20th centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_101716_Victoria_Bridge_ca._1933.jpgThe Victoria Bridge over theBrisbane River, 1933This pattern of development continued through to the 1950s, with later extensions encouraging new developments aroundStafford, Camp Hill, Chermside, Enoggeraand Mount Gravatt. Generally, these new train lines linked established communities, although the Mitchelton line (later extended to Dayboro) and before being cut back toFerny Grove) did encourage suburban development out as far as Keperra.Subsequently, as private motor cars became affordable, land between tram and train routes was developed for settlement, resulting in the construction of Ekibin,Tarragindi, Everton Park, Stafford Heights, and Wavell Heights.Amalgamation of local government areas[edit]In 1924, the City of Brisbane Act was passed by the Queensland Parliament, consolidating the City of Brisbane and the City of South Brisbane; the Towns of Hamilton, Ithaca, Sandgate, Toowong, Windsor, and Wynnum; and the Shires of Balmoral, Belmont, Coorparoo, Enoggera, Kedron, Moggill, Sherwood, Stephens, Taringa, Tingalpa, Toombul, and Yeerongpilly to form the current City of Greater Brisbane, now known simply as the City of Brisbane, in 1925.To accommodate the new, enlarged city council, the current Brisbane City Hall was opened in 1930. Many former shire and town halls were then remodelled into public libraries, becoming the nucleus of Greater Brisbane's branch system. During the Great Depression, a number of major projects were undertaken to provide work for the unemployed, including the construction of the William Jolly Bridge and theWynnum Wading Pool.Brisbane during the Second World War[edit]Due to Brisbane's proximity to the South West Pacific Area theatre of World War II, the city played a prominent role in the defence of Australia. The city became a temporary home to thousands of Australian and American servicemen. Buildings and institutions around Brisbane were given over to the housing of military personnel as required.The present-day MacArthur Central building became the Pacific headquarters of U.S. General Douglas MacArthur,[11] and the University of Queensland campus at St Lucia was converted to a military barracks for the final three years of the war. St Laurence's College and Somerville House Girls' School in South Brisbane were also used by American forces.During this time St Laurence's College was moved to Greenslopes to continue classes. Newstead House was also used to house American servicemen during the war.Brisbane was used to mark the position of the "Brisbane Line", a controversial defence proposal allegedly formulated by the Menzies government, that would, upon a land invasion of Australia, surrender the entire northern part of the country. The line was, allegedly, at a latitude just north of Brisbane and spanned the entire width of the continent. Surviving from this period are several cement bunkers and gun forts in the northern suburbs of Brisbane and adjacent areas (Sunshine Coast/ Moreton Bay islands).On 26 November and 27 November 1942, rioting broke out between US and Australian servicemen stationed in Brisbane. By the time the violence had been quelled one Australian soldier was dead, and hundreds of Australian and US servicemen were injured along with civilians caught up in the fighting.[12] Hundreds of soldiers were involved in the rioting on both sides. This incident, which was heavily censored at the time and apparently was not reported in the US at all, is known as the Battle of Brisbane.Post-War Brisbane[edit]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BrisbaneSuburbanOuthouses1950.jpgThe consequence of years of inadequate civic finances—a city largely unsewered, with outhousesbehind each home. The city was not completely sewered until the early 1970s.Immediately after the war, the Brisbane City Council, along with most governments in Australia, found it difficult to raise finances for much-needed repairs and development. Even where funds could be obtained materials were scarce. Adding to these difficulties was the political environment encouraged by some aldermen, led by Archibald Tait, to reduce the city's rates (land taxes). Ald Tait successfully ran on a slogan of "Vote for Tait, he'll lower the rate." Rates were indeed lowered, exacerbating Brisbane's financial difficulties.Although Brisbane's tram system continued to be expanded, roads and streets remained unsealed. Water supply was limited, although the City Council built and subsequently raised the level of the Somerset Dam on the Stanley River. Despite this, most residences continued to rely heavily on rainwater stored in tanks.The limited water supply and lack of funding also meant that despite the rapid increase in the city's population, little work was done to upgrade the city's sewage collection, which continued to rely on the collection of nightsoil. Other than the CBD and the innermost suburbs, Brisbane was a city of "thunderboxes" (outhouses) or ofseptic tanks.What finances could be garnered by the Council were poured into the construction ofTennyson Powerhouse, and the extension and upgrading of the powerhouse in New Farm Park to meet the growing demands for electricity. Brisbane's first modern apartment building, Torbreck at Highgate Hill, was completed in 1960.[13]Work continued slowly on the development of a town plan, hampered by the lack of experienced staff and a continual need to play "catch-up" with rapid development. The first town plan was adopted in 1964.1961 saw the election of Clem Jones as Lord Mayor. Ald Jones, together with the town clerk J.C. Slaughter sought to fix the long term problems besetting the city. Together they found cost-cutting ways to fix some problems. For example, new sewers were laid 4 feet deep and in footpaths, rather than 6 feet deep and under roads. In the short term, "pocket" or local sewerage treatment plants were established around the city in various suburbs to avoid the expense of developing a major treatment plants and major connecting sewers.They were also fortunate in that finance was becoming less difficult to raise and the city's rating base had by the 1960s significantly grown, to the point where revenue streams were sufficient to absorb the considerable capital outlays.Under Jones' leadership, the City Council's transport policy shifted significantly. The City Council hired American transport consultants Wilbur Smith to devise a new transport plan for the city.[14] They produced a report known as the Wilbur Smith "Brisbane Transportation Study" which was published in 1965. It recommended the closure of most suburban railway lines, closure of the tram and trolley-bus networks, and the construction of a massive network of freeways through the city. Under this plan the suburb of Woolloongabba would have been almost completely obliterated by a vast interchange of three major freeways.Although the trams and trolley-buses were rapidly eliminated between 1968 and 1969, only one freeway was constructed, the trains were retained and subsequently electrified. The first train line to be so upgraded was the Ferny Grove to Oxley line in 1979. The train line to Cleveland, which had been cut back to Lota in 1960, was also reopened.Brisbane floods[edit]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brisbane_River_in_flood_(1).jpgSwollen Brisbane River, 2011Brisbane has been inundated by severefloods of the Brisbane River in 1864, 1893, 1897, 1974, 2011 and 2013. A comprehensive flood mitigation scheme was instituted for the Brisbane River catchment area in the aftermath of the 1974 flood. Since then the city remained largely flood free, until the floods in January 2011 and 2013 floods.1980s[edit]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Opening_ceremony_(8075978683).jpgThe 1982 Commonwealth Gameswas officially opened by The Duke of Edinburgh and closed by The Queen.Brisbane hosted the Commonwealth Gamesin 1982 and the World's Fair in 1988. Between the late 1970s and mid-1980s, Brisbane was the focus of early land rights protests (e.g. during the Commonwealth Games)and several well-remembered clashes between students, union workers, police and the then-Queensland government. Partly from this context, innovative Brisbane music groups emerged (notably Punk groups) that added to the city's renown.Later in that decade, emission control regulation had a major effect on improving the cities air quality. The banning of backyard incinerators in 1987, together with the closure of two local coal fired power stations in 1986 and a 50% decrease in lead levels found in petrol, resulted in a lowering of pollution levels.Brisbane's historical timeline[edit]1770 Captain James Cook sails up Queensland coast with botanist Joseph Banks; names Cape Moreton, Point Lookout and Glass House Mountains. Takes possession of eastern Australia, naming it New South Wales.1799 Captain Matthew Flinders explores Moreton and Hervey bays; names Red Cliff Point (now Redcliffe), Pumice-stone River (now Pumicestone Passage). Also lands on Coochiemudlo Island.1823 Emancipated convicts John Finnegan, Richard Parsons, and Thomas Pamphlett were shipwrecked off Moreton Island while looking for timber (a fourth person, John Thomson, died at sea). Following a quarrel, Parsons continues north while others stay on the island.1823 Surveyor-general John Oxley arrives at Bribie Island to evaluate Moreton Bay as a site for penal settlement. Discovers Finnegan and Pamphlett who guide him to the Brisbane River; names Peel Island, Pine River and Deception Bay.1824 Oxley discovers Parsons and returns him to Sydney.1824 First commandant Lt. Henry Miller arrives at Red Cliffe Pt from Sydney with soldiers, a storekeeper and their families, John Oxley, botanist Allan Cunningham, stock and seeds.1824 First settler born in colony named Amity Moreton Thompson.1825 Shipping channel via South Passage found; settlement moves to Brisbane River; first convict buildings built along William St.1825 Edmund Lockyer of 57th Regiment explores Brisbane River. Notes flood debris 100 feet above river levels at Mount Crosby, finds first coal deposits. Names Redbank after soil colour.1826 Captain Patrick Logan takes over as commandant of colony. Achieves extensive stone building program using convict labour. Discovers Southport bar and Logan River.1827 Allan Cunningham leaves Hunter Region to seek link via New England Tableland to Darling Downs.1827 Indigenous resistance leader "Napoleon" exiled to St Helena Island. Aborigines raid maize plots, resist advances. Frequent conflict until the 1840s.1828 Cunningham discovers gap in Great Dividing Range, providing access from Moreton Bay to Darling Downs. Also explores Esk-Lockyer basin and upper Brisbane Valley in 1829.1829 Moreton Bay Aborigines seriously affected by smallpox.1830 Captain Logan mysteriously murdered near Esk, commemorated in folk song, "The Convict's Lament".1831 Moreton Bay settlement population reaches 1241, including 1066 convicts.1833 Ship Stirling Castle wrecked on Swain Reef; first of many ships to wreck on Queensland coast over next 40 years.1836 Quaker missionaries report Moreton Bay indigenous population infected with venereal disease from American whalers.1837 Brisbane's pioneering Petrie family arrives in Moreton Bay. Andrew Petrie(builder and stonemason) is clerk of government works; stays on with wife Mary and five children after penal settlement closes. Son John Petrie becomes Brisbane's first mayor; other son Tom writes sympathetically about local indigenous people.1839 Calls to cease convict transportation successful; Moreton Bay is closed as a penal settlement. 2062 men and 150 women served sentences at the settlement, half of them being Irish; 10 percent died, 700 fled, 98 never recaptured.1840 Escaped convict John Baker surrenders after 14 years of living with indigenous Australians.1841 Indigenous people Merridio and Neugavil are executed at Wickham Terrace windmill for the murder of surveyor Stapylton and his assistant in Logan.1842 New South Wales Governor George Gipps proclaims Moreton Bay a free settlement. Land is offered for sale from Sydney.1846 Squatter and entrepreneur Evan Mackenzie succeeds in making Brisbane a port independent from Sydney.1846 Recorded population of Moreton Bay area is 4000 Aborigines and 2257 migrants.1848 First 240 government-assisted British migrants arrive in Brisbane. FirstChinese labourers arrive.1849 Rev Dr J.D. Lang, local clergyman and journalist, brings his first English, Irish, Welsh and Scottish migrants with unauthorised promise of land grants. Government rations issued to prevent starvation. Lang envisages a colony of self-sufficient, thrifty and hard-working farmers, workers and artisans.1849 Brisbane School of Arts established.1849 William Pettigrew arrives in colony. He later becomes the mayor of Brisbane in 1870 and is a member of the Legislative Assembly of Queensland between 1877–94.1850 Areas beyond inner Brisbane suburbs, such as Bulimba, Coorparoo,Enoggera, Nundah, Sherwood and Stafford are used for agriculture and grazing until the 1880s.1850 Displaced aborigines from Bribie Island, Redcliffe peninsula and Wide Bay make gunyah camps in Breakfast Creek/Eagle Farm region (until the 1860s).1850 Arthur Lyon sends sample of cotton from New Farm to The Great Exhibitionin London.1851 Influenza epidemic hits Brisbane (lasting in 1852).1855 Nearly 1000 German migrants arrive in Brisbane after political unrest and the introduction of compulsory military training; most settle in the Nundah area.1855 (5 January) Aboriginal resistance leader Dundalli hanged near current Post Office. Large-scale protests by indigenous tribes.1862 Old Government House is completed.1864 Great Fire of Brisbane1866 11 September, food riots that were instigated by the recently retrenched workers.[15]1867 Parliament House opens.1885 Horse-drawn tram system commences operation.1893 Brisbane flood.1897 Electric trams introduced.1899 Queensland Museum leaves the old State Library Building to move into Exhibition Hall (later called the Old Museum), at Gregory Terrace, Bowen Hills.1901 Celebrations held to mark Federation, on New Year's Day.1901 Fire alarms and pillar hydrants introduced to Brisbane city streets.1902 Central Railway Station in Ann Street, Brisbane completed.1902 Brisbane officially designated city status by the Government of Queensland.1909 Government House opens at Bardon1909 University of Queensland opens near Parliament House.1922 Queensland Government purchases privately owned tram system and establishes the Brisbane Tramways Trust.1925 Amalgamation of 25 local government areas to form the City of Greater Brisbane.1925 Queensland Government transfers responsibility for the tram system from the Brisbane Tramways Trust to the Brisbane City Council.1927 Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary founded1928 Sir Charles Kingsford Smith lands in Brisbane, from San Francisco, USA, after the first flight across the Pacific Ocean.1930 Brisbane City Hall opened.1939 Forgan Smith building completed at the St. Lucia campus of the University of Queensland. (Forgan Smith building was named after the, then, Premier of Queensland)1940 Story Bridge completed1942 General Douglas MacArthur arrives in Brisbane and takes offices in the AMP building (later called MacArthur Central) for the Pacific campaign duringWorld War II1946 Following a delay caused by World War II the University of Queenslandbegan its move from George Street, Brisbane, to its St Lucia campus, which it completed in 1972.1964 Adoption of first Brisbane Town Plan1965 Queensland Institute of Technology (later Queensland University of Technology) established1968 Brisbane City Council announces conversion of tram and trolley-bus systems to all-bus operations1969 Tram and trolley bus systems close, new Victoria Bridge opened1974 Brisbane River flooding, the result of continual heavy rain from Cyclone Wanda, causes major damage across city1982 Commonwealth Games1984 Queensland Performing Arts Centre opened at the Queensland Cultural Centre1986 Queensland Museum moves to the Queensland Cultural Centre1986 Tennyson and Bulimba coal-fired power station closed down1986 Gateway Bridge completed.1988 State Library of Queensland leaves the old State Library Building to move to the Queensland Cultural Centre1988 World Expo 88 held at reclaimed industrial land at South Brisbane1989 Queensland Institute of Technology changed status to Queensland University of Technology.1995 Treasury Casino opens2001 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), scheduled for Brisbane, but postponed after heightened security concerns resulting fromterrorist attacks on New York City. Instead it was held in Coolum in early 20022001 Goodwill Games Opening ceremony included performances from Traditional Owners – Nunukul Yuggera Aboriginal Dancers, The Corrs, Keith Urban.2011 Brisbane River flooding2014 Host city of the 9th G-20 Summit – Opening Ceremony included performances from Nunukul Yuggera Aboriginal Dancers and Bangurra Dance Theatre.See also[edit]Brisbane portalHistory of QueenslandHistory of association football in Brisbane, QueenslandReferences[edit]Jump up^ The Life of Captain Matthew FlindersJump up^ "Port Bowen (entry 7456)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 30 March 2015.Jump up^ Field's New South Wales p. 89 (published 1925)[1] see footnoteJump up^ Seeing South-East Queensland (2 ed.). RACQ. 1980. p. 7. ISBN 0-909518-07-6.Jump up^ Laverty, John (2009). The Making of a Metropolis: Brisbane 1823—1925. Salisbury, Queensland: Boolarong Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0-9751793-5-2.Jump up^ "First surveys". History of Mapping and Surveying. Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Queensland Government. Retrieved 27 September 2013.Jump up^ Laverty, John (1974). "Petrie, John (1822–1892)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. Canberra: Australian National University. Retrieved 8 November 2011.Jump up^ Dunn, Col (1985). The History of Electricity in Queensland. Bundaberg: Col Dunn. p. 21. ISBN 0-9589229-0-X.Jump up^ "Yungaba Immigration Depot (entry 600245)". Queensland Heritage Register. Queensland Heritage Council. Retrieved 13 July 2015.Jump up^ Tony Moore (16 July 2013). "Push to remember Brisbane clergyman's role in Anzac history". Brisbane Times (Fairfax Media). Retrieved 19 July 2013.Jump up^ Dunn, Peter. "General Headquarters (GHQ) - South West Pacific Area: AMP Building, corner of Queen and Edward Streets, Brisbane". Oz At War. Retrieved 18 April 2015.Jump up^ Dunn, Peter. "The Battle of Brisbane - 26 & 27 November 1942". Oz At War. Retrieved 18 April 2015.Jump up^ McBride, Frank; et al. (2009). Brisbane 150 Stories. Brisbane City Council Publication. p. 226. ISBN 978-1-876091-60-6.Jump up^ Allan Krosch (9 March 2009). "History of Brisbane's Major Arterial Roads: A Main Roads Perspective Part 1" (PDF). Queensland Roads, Edition 7. Department of Transport and Main Roads. Retrieved 5 November 2011.Jump up^ Evans, Raymond (2007). A History of Queensland. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-521-87692-6.Further reading[edit]J.R. Cole, Shaping a City: Greater Brisbane 1925–1985, Brisbane 1984G. Greenwood and J. Laverty, Brisbane 1859–1959, BCC, 1959J. G. Steele (1975). Brisbane Town in convict days, 1824–1842. University of Queensland Press. ISBN 0702209252.External links[edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of Brisbane.Australian Heritage Historical Towns Directory: BrisbaneBrisbane Tramway MuseumThe Home Front – World War 2Brisbane’s role in WWII focus of new book regarding Brisbane as a large submarine base in World War IIState Library of QueenslandGoogle map of Pre 1925 merger Brisbane CouncilsCategories:History of BrisbaneAustralian timelinesTimelines of cities in AustraliaQueensland timelinesNavigation menuNot logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_PageMain pageContentsFeatured contentCurrent eventsRandom articleDonate to WikipediaWikipedia storeInteractionHelpAbout WikipediaCommunity portalRecent changesContact pageToolsWhat links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationWikidata itemCite this pagePrint/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFPrintable versionLanguagesதமிழ்Edit linksThis page was last modified on 26 November 2015, at 12:32.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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