National Best Practice And Evidence Based Guidelines For Wound Management Item Type: Fill & Download for Free

This answer may contain sensitive images. Click on an image to unblur it.Given no other information than that there is a shooter or an active terrorist attack, one in which the attackers didn't kill themselves in the beginning, there is a lot you can do to maintain your own survival and the survival of others.Stay positiveI know it sounds flippant to start off with "Stay positive," but this is literally a guiding principle taught in the United States Marine Corps Recruit Manual and is part of the US military's SERE (Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape) schools to train Marines, Army, and even Navy SEALs and other Special Forces survival in the harshest of situations. The overriding theme of that first section is that in horrifying situations, much like those of this question, the number one life saving mentality is to stay positive so that you don't panic. A panicked mind does not make smart decisions. Furthermore, maintaining optimism maintains the belief that survival is possible. When one believes they will be all right in the end, really believes it, their instincts work to support their mind toward maintaining their survival.Note that I didn't say that you should tell yourself, "Don't panic", because saying "don't panic" doesn't actually prevent people from panicking. It's just something they do in movies to add intensity. It doesn't help in real life. You do need to stay positive. Most people panic from a flood of many things happening at once. People hear shooting. Someone else screams. A flood of people start moving. Children get separated from parents. More screaming. You should remember to stay calm, not by saying, "stay calm", but by saying things like, "It's going to be OK, I know what to do, I will be all right." Keep repeating affirmations to yourself like this to ensure that you actually do stay calm and remember everything else you need to do to get to safety.After staying positive, an acronym currently being used to train students, teachers, and businesses on how to handle terror events and active shooters is ALICE.AlertLockdownInformCounterEvacuateALICE is a tool used to keep victims and staff aware of their options during what is called an "active shooter event" and is also useful advice if are involve in an act of terror. It quickly guides you through the important decisions you may need to make. It is important to understand the ALICE acronym is not meant to serve as a sequential list of steps to follow, but to serve as a guide for understanding your role - which it is important we understand isn't determined by you, but by the shooter or terrorist - in surviving the encounter and aiding others to do so, as well. Depending on where the shooter is in relation to you, you have several different responsibilities to ensure your own safety and help you escape, as well as that of others. In relation to this question, most of the steps involved do not involve interacting with the shooter - in fact, they specifically attempt to avoid it.AlertThe first is that you witness the event taking place. It is important to remember that, as members of a civilized society, we are all the responsible in some way during a threatening situation to preserve as many lives as possible. Even if you aren't trained to do much, or aren't in a position to physically help, the information you know may be vital to others when added to their own. Consider this someone who, from a safe distance, saw someone enter the building with a weapon or acting in a suspicious manner. Perhaps this person saw or heard an explosion or can hear shooting off. This person has the responsibility to stay safe (by not entering the dangerous area) and alerting police or any other official. The information you saw and reported could be compiled with others to help ensure that hundreds who aren't safe are able to escape who don't have the benefit of your point of view. Your testimony may also help provide key evidence after the fact, as well.LockdownIf you aren't in the immediate presence of danger, and if warning is given, people should attempt to take a Lockdown, ready stance. If you are very near the threat and a known secure means of escape already exists, then you should always escape first before attempting Lockdown.Lockdown allows small groups time to create as defensible a position as possible. The average response time for police is somewhere around 14 minutes to produce first responders to a scene of a violent incident. This in no way is a failure of police, but just a reality of having very few people responsible for the safety of very, very many and never knowing where a situation might happen. For this reason, those who are alerted to the presence of danger are asked to Lockdown, in an effort to gain some security during the time when it isn't known if a safe escape route exists and when first responders have not yet arrived on the scene. Lockdown drills are performed by most schools already, though this is typically the extent of the exercise. They do this by locking all doors, both exterior and interior, and barricading those doors before taking a position in a darkened room, away from visible sightlines of any windows and in a defensive posture.By defensive posture, this means that students or anyone caught in a terror environment where a terrorist or shooter currently isn't, such as a room behind a locked door, are to try to use whatever means necessary to provide them with cover and concealment. Concealment is anything that will prevent an enemy from seeing a target, like a curtain. Cover is the military term for something that can conceal you from a threat and be used as a source of shielding in the event that you're shot at. Once the students are in the most covered and concealed location they can create in a timely manner, they should stay vigilant, and stay prepared to move to escape or react to a forced entry by the shooter.This is an effort to create a "safe space", not meant to say that it is perfectly defensible, but as a primary fall back point for all students and individuals to retreat and seek shelter in the event of terror until an escape route can be secured. A terrorist's goal is to cause as many casualties as possible. That said, if the terrorist or shooter remains a threat after the initial attack, they will often be deterred by obstacles like locked doors, instead looking for easier targets. In this event, creating barriers between a shooter and potential victims often ends the threat of a direct confrontation, before it starts. That said, having a secondary fall back position, in case it seems apparent that a shooter is set to enter your safe space, is a good idea if one is available.Lockdown is not the same as hiding. We have seen examples of those involved in shootings attempting to make use of whatever concealment they have to hide from the attacker. This includes hiding under tables in the room they are in or in unsecured rooms, then staying put there for several minutes during a massacre. In the Columbine attack, students who hid under tables when it became known that an event had begun were eventually found and murdered. Any defensive position can be overcome by a determined adversary. For that reason, do not get too comfortable in your relative safety, but always remember that your primary goal is escape, not defense. Always be looking for information that will be help you get away fromInformSomeone in the room should be communicating with police and emergency personnel, both to tell them what you are witnessing and to have a link with information from the outside. During lockdown, communications may be disrupted, or it may not be advised to broadcast escape information while the shooter is active. This isolates victims, which can be deadly. For that reason, it is important for someone in the room to keep an active communication line to the police in the event of an emergency. Most police departments are equipped to handle overflow traffic in the event of a major emergency.My personal advice is that the person on the phone shouldn't be the person charge, be it a teacher, the boss, or whoever takes charge of a situation. They need to be in charge of leading the students in whatever circumstances take place from then on. If specific instructions need to be given, than the leader can be given the phone, but generally, the leader's job in this instance is to keep the rest of the room calm and prepared. Communicating with the outside takes the leader's focus away from the room and away from what is going on outside their safe space. The communicator needs to calm and level headed and able to communicate; the type of person who can decipher what is important for police and the leader to know and what to communicate. For high school, a student who is calm and reliable should be able to communicate with emergency response and relay important information to the teacher. Most middle school classrooms should, as well. For elementary and primary schools, the teacher unfortunately needs to be the one responsible for many roles.Key things to be aware of at all times, but particularly in lockdown:Know the source of dangerWhere is the threat? Know where the danger is coming from. Is this person shooting actively? Are they on the move? In which direction?Maintain your wits and try to assess what actually caused the threat. Don't take more than a few seconds on this. Don't take more than a few seconds on this. This doesn't mean you create a doctoral thesis on the threat's relationship with his mother. Where is it that you get the instinctive reaction that the threat is coming from? Don't look at which way people are running, or running from. Numerous accounts exist of people, usually in panic, running directly toward the danger, in some instances leading others as well. This isn't their fault. They just lacked the training to know what to do. From there, you have a few options that you need to consider.Find the exitsAttempt to get away from the immediate danger. Find the nearest avenue to an escape as possible. It may be a better idea to lockdown and stay where you are, but either way, you need to know where the danger is and what avenues you have to escape. Again, time is key, a few seconds at most to find the exits.Arm yourselfAt my school, when we practice for one of these lockdown drills every student has at their disposal a stack of books and other objects to throw or use as weapons. The Marines call these weapons of opportunity and they are any tool you can use to help you defend yourself if you directly encounter the threat. Once you find a tool to use, keep it with you until you have successfully escaped.Escape/Evade/EvacuateI'm going to go out of order and talk about escape before counter. As I have said, the ultimate goal of any terror event should be to escape the situation. This needs to be repeated for emphasis. The goal should not be for individuals to stop the shooter, but to get to a safe area. Everything else listed in this answer is strictly in the event escape is deemed more unsafe than staying put, or the shooter has removed the option to escape.Most of the people who become victims do so very early on. Either they were very close to the terrorist when they began their attack,0 or they were isolated because they hesitated in their movements, or found themselves pinned in and immobilized. Once you find the exit, you should be going there. There shouldn't need to be thinking about which exit may be closer, or which exit may be jammed or what if there is someone waiting at the exit... just run. A person should be far enough ahead that you can't get pinned in the event of a wrong turn.If a shooter is in the open, such as an attack on a mall, one should attempt to get away from the immediate danger as fast as possible. Don't call the police immediately, just get to a safe location. Immediately seek cover and concealment by staying low, out of eyesight. Remember that concealment is anything that will prevent an enemy from seeing a target and cover is anything that can both conceal a potential victim and will help deflect or absorb incoming rounds fired at the them.From there, one should remember always to know the source of the threat and find the exits.Knowing this, a person should find the nearest avenue to an escape as possible. Where is the nearest exit? Can I reach it while staying behind cover and/or concealment? If you know the source of danger and you know the route to the exit, watch for hardened obstacles to keep between you and the threat. A hardened pillar or support beam can be a good source of cover, as can a large desk or wall. A large fountain, a car, the corner around a turn; anything that is hard and large should be a goal of someone to keep between them and the threat. It's important not to get pinned behind cover, and to just think of it as a temporary obstacle to keep between you and the threat until you reach the exit or safety. Again, time is key, a few seconds at most to find the exits. As soon as possible, make for the exits.This is also why keeping in contact with police is so vital, primarily if you aren't in the open and in a lockdown situation where your escape is determined by information you can't know because it is outside your room. Keeping communication lines open, even if you are silent and just waiting for information to be given to you, lets police and rescue know where you are, which lets you know when it is safe to escape and by what means. Most likely, there will never be a need to encounter a shooter. This is because, once a shooting begins, entire towns shutdown to ensure that the event is taken care of as quickly as possible. For that reason, those who don't begin an attack in a safe place need to find the safest place possible, fortify, call for help, and prepare to evacuate when it is safe to do so.By prepare to evacuate, I don't mean find a safe place and stay there forever. An element of static defenses, those that don't move or change, i.e. our barricades or locked doors, as I said in the previous section, is that a determined adversary can and will overcome them. Think about if a shooter is searching for one particular person, like that bully, mean teacher, their child, ex-spouse, or their boss. If that person was the motive of the attack, then obstacles won't deter them. They might slow them down, but not provide true safety. This is true of muggings, burglaries, terrorism, or military combat. Most of the time these are deterrents that force a shooter on, hoping to find an easier target, however, if a gunman is set to defeat a certain barrier, for any reason, they will attempt to do so. Given enough time, they will defeat it. This is why staying in a state of Lockdown throughout the duration isn't advised.We can see an unfortante proof for this from the Virginia Tech Shooting of 2007. There, 32 students were killed and the majority of those were traced to a single room. A professor locked the students in the room, similar to a lockdown, but wouldn't let them leave even when an opportunity was available. The shooter eventually overcame the lock on the doors. The room had no exits and he then proceeded to kill first the teacher, then everyone else in the room. From this lesson we see that a lockdown is necessary, but not a perfect defense. While we must lockdown, we must also prepare for an escape as quickly as possible. Making a plan out of staying put is itself, a danger.Some guidelines to remember during an escape:Move quicklyMost of the people who become victims do so very early on. Either they were very close to the shooter when they started or they were isolated because they hesitated in their movements, or found themselves pinned in and immobilized. Once you find the exit, you should be going there. There shouldn't need to be thinking about which exit may be closer, or which exit may be jammed or what if there is someone waiting at the exit... just run. Stay far enough ahead that you can't get pinned in in the event of a wrong turn.Use coverCover is the military term for something that can conceal you from a threat and be used as a source of shielding in the event that you're shot at. If you know the source of danger and you know the route to the exit, watch for hardened obstacles to keep between you and the threat. A hardened pillar or support beam can be a good source of cover. A large fountain in the middle of a food court, a car, the corner around a turn, anything that is hard and large should be a goal of someone to keep between them and the threat. Don't get pinned behind cover, just think of it as a temporary obstacle to keep between you and the threat until you reach the exit.Avoid traveling along wallsBullets travel along walls. I don't know why, but a bullet that is fired at close to the same angle of a wall will ride the wall and stay very close to it. From what I have seen, they can do this a while. Try to stay at least six or so inches from the wall if you can.CounterIf a terrorist or gunman enters your safe space, or if he pulls a weapon in the middle of whatever you are doing, say during a class period, work, or, just passing by they have left you with no time to prepare. You have to accept that the gunman has removed all good options from you and that you're now left with very few alternatives. All your remaining choices boil down to basic human responses to fear. You have probably heard of "fight or flight", and that is what I am talking about, but there are more and each choice has very different ramifications depending on the circumstances. They are flight, freeze, submit, posture, or fight. Before I continue, we need to consider these five basic human responses to fear and how they would manifest themselves in an active shooter or terror environment.Flight - generally speaking, if you can, fleeing is the best option. That said, as a teacher, fleeing isn't always an option. For example, in my classroom, which is virtually identical to all the other classrooms in the Middle School, High School, and Elementary, there is only one door. The windows are also shatter resistance, designed to prevent an intruder from the outside getting in, but also preventing students from being able to break out, as well. ( They are actually designed for storm debris because far more people are killed by tornadoes where I live than the violence of this question.) There is only one entrance to the room, and therefore, only one exit. While the ultimate goal of being in an event is the escape the situation, and most of the time, an avenue is available... frankly, sometimes we don't have that as a real option.Freeze - Freeze is a common response to panic educing situations. For many, it will be the default response. There is a saying, made most famous by the United States Navy SEALs, but common throughout the United States armed forces: "One doesn't rise to the occasion, but falls back to their training." This means that if a person is not trained, or have not prepared themselves to recognize and respond to a stressful situation, they will likely fail in that situation.A person who freezes, or fails to take any action in the presence of an active terrorist will be an easy target. Shooters aren't targeting specific individuals usually, at least not long into the shooting. If they are attempting to right some injustice, the shooting eventually turns indiscriminate, where shooters are attempting to not find specific targets of opportunity, those that aren't actively seeking escape, or using cover and concealment. This obviously isn't the best solution, but not honestly the fault of the victim. A person must be trained to recognize and prepare for the possibility of violence and have a plan on how to act. If they don't, they default to the freeze state.Submit - submit refers to complying to the shooter's demands. This is the hostage scenario. Hostage takers bargain with victims for compliance. They offer safety in exchange for control of the situation. For active shooters, those involved with terrorist attacks, school shootings, and workplace massacres, this is not common. They aren't interested in a prolonged engagement and may not even care if they get out alive. Typically, these events take place, from beginning to end in less than 12 minutes, that being the amount of time it would take a dedicated shooter to either run out of ammunition, be brought down by police, or as often as is the case, end the encounter by taking their own lives.Therefore, it isn't common for shooters to make demands that will keep people alive. Typically, they are there for a set purpose of inflicting causalities. For that reason, in the event of an active shooter, it is extremely unlikely that giving into the shooter by following any of their demands will ensure survival. In the Umpqua Community College Shooting, this is what students did. The shooter began by first executing the teacher of the room before making demands that all Christians in the room make themselves known by standing. The classroom full of students did as they were instructed and several who stood, were then executed.Posture - Posture is creating the appearance of threat without actually being a threat. Imagine boxers before a fight, trying to look intimidating to psyche out the other opponent. This is an attempt to psychologically dominate an opponent during a fight, in the hopes that it makes them easier to deal with.I can't imagine a worse idea in a terror situation. Shooters are obviously unbalanced people, so attempting to intimidate someone who, because of their weapons, is in an obviously tactical advantage seems, to me, to be suicidal. Furthermore, I can only imagine it further enraging an active shooter, so that, once they are done with whoever tried to appear intimidating is dead, the rest will receive an even more relentless assault.What is currently being taught, in these danger close circumstances, where escape is not a timely or possible solution, is to fight, some would say attack, the attacker.The idea here isn't to combat an attacker one-on-one armed with only a book or stapler against a gunman. It has been shown, however, that working as a group, a number of victims can overcome an attacker and, if nothing else, minimize the harm which he could inflict.In the instance of a single attacker against a room full of individuals, the presence of massive amounts of common items being thrown to assault, en masse, is the key defensive element. This means that a person doesn't need to be a martial arts expert, or spend countless hours in training and exercise to prepare for the event. It also doesn't require that any one individual has the physical and mental capability to disable the shooter. The act only requires coordination of many people moving very quickly. This doesn't end the threat, but is intended to stun the attacker long enough for the students, once again en masse, to swarm the attacker, ground him, and hold him until others are able to evacuate or hold the attacker until police are able to intervene. Through swarm tactics, which is how they are literally termed in some ALICE training, the groups of potential victims are able to maximize their collective survival by overwhelming attackers.During this time, students are encouraged to use "weapons of opportunity" or "improvised weapons" in their own defense. "Weapon of opportunity" is a term used from the Marine Corps Martial Arts Program and other self-defense programs, which basically means any common place item which can be used a weapon. The Marines train to fight, in the last resort, with sticks, rocks, and anything else which may be available to them. For a classroom or office setting, this translates to books, staplers, tape depressors, and even chairs being used as throwing objects or even blunt force items. It is also advised to keep on hand pepper spray and a very good improvised weapon is also the fire extinguisher. The cloud is both stunning and disorienting, and the canister itself is an extremely blunt object which can be both deadly and easily used as a club. The fact that any good classroom or office should have fire extinguishers available anyway, makes this one of the best self-defense tools for this question.There is practical rationale to this tactic that is, as well, based on military combat psychology. The term is violence of action.[The following is an excerpt from SEAL SURVIVAL GUIDE: A Navy SEAL's Secrets to Surviving Any Disaster, written by Former Navy SEAL and preeminent American survivalist Cade Courtley.]Violence of action means the unrestricted use of speed, strength, surprise, and aggression to achieve total dominance against your enemy. I'm repeating this to drive home the concept that any fighting technique is useless unless you first totally commit to violence of action. Don't be afraid to hit first, and when you do, hit hard. Remember, you are fighting because this is the best and only option. Pull the trigger -- because you are in a battle for your life! Your instincts, assessment, and situational awareness have told you that you are in mortal danger. You don't know the other person's intentions fully, and you never can. What you can do is survive -- it is your right to not be killed or harmed by another person. As with most things survival-related, fighting has its own set of priorities that need to be addressed at lightning speed.Stories of violence of action successes are well documented in the military, showcasing how lone soldiers or Marines pushed back or dominated enemy forces when they were very much outnumbered. In an active shooter scenario, however, a single person will almost never be able to dominate an aggressor because of the presence of their gun. Working in conjunction with an entire classroom, all working to stun, disorient, and then hold down an enemy until help arrives, would have the effect of violence of action. As a seasoned shooter myself, I don't know how I could manage to carry on an attack while simultaneously dodging a barrage of non-lethal items. As a teacher, I was extremely pleased with this approach because it addresses the danger involved in Lockdown only training, in which a static defender is always the victim to violent attackers.If you feel this is a terrible idea, I agree with you. It does put those attacked in momentary extreme danger. It is very, very hard for me to say this, because, to me, these children aren't statistical, but faces with names and it terrifies me to think of them being in harm. Yet, I know that for this to even be considered, they were already in extreme danger. It's just very hard for us to imagine it that way. I also know that statistically, though some may come to harm if more organizations implement ALICE type group defense, more of these rampages will have ended before a shooter has a full 14 minutes to blow away anyone who he sees. The long term reality of this is fewer children and innocent people will die. This is particularly true of the children in the room, those who have had the choice to hide and wait taken from them. If history is our guide, these children have faced the cruelest and most unforgivable odds of all, being trapped face to face with an active shooter. Grimly speaking, they are most benefited by fighting back for their own lives.We see this example too, demonstrated recently by actions of military veterans who took part in ending shootings or aiding others in their escape. The first of these examples is Chris Mintz.Image courtesy of Chris Mintz - UCC Shooting Survivor.Chris Mintz is the current man of the hour. Mintz is a 10 year veteran of the United States Army, but became national news when he protected classmates in a shooting rampage at the local community college he was attending. According to eyewitnesses, Mintz ran at the attacker and blocked a door to a classroom in the attempt to protect fellow classmates.According to a student witness Chris"ran to the library and pulled all the alarms. He was telling people to run. ... He actually ran back towards the building where the shooting was. And he ran back into the building."While attempting to stop the shooter Mintz was shot an incredible seven times. He was rushed to surgery, and is now on the road to recovery and a normal life, but will require a great deal of recuperative care. To repay his heroism, a gofundme was set up for $10,000 to go toward his medical expenses. That fund is currently just over $800,000. What Chris' heroic acts showed was how a dedicated person can slow down and prevent a shooter, making it possible for others to survive and, just as importantly, that this act itself is not a death sentence.A better example comes from the recent attack aboard a train between France and Belgium. There, a terrorist opened fire on a train wounding a few of the passengers. Onboard the train were National Guard Specialist Alek Skarlatos, a recent Afghanistan veteran, Airman 1st Class Spencer Stone, along with a civilian friend Anthony Sadler. They earned international praise for stopping nothing less than a full on terrorist gunman in the middle of what amounted to a holiday vacation.“My friend Alek (Skarlatos) yells, 'Get him,' so my friend Spencer (Stone) immediately gets up to charge the guy, followed by Alek, then myself," Anthony Sadler said in an interview with CNN.Stone received injuries during the fight between the Moroccan born gunman, armed with an AK-47 rifle, a pistol, several magazines of ammunition, and a knife. The Americans wrestled him to the ground after he opened fire. In the end, he was hog tied and, though one of the heroes received superficial injuries, no one, not even the shooter, was killed. No better example currently exists for the argument that active defense is necessary in ending the threat posed by an active shooter or terrorist.While both of these events center around veterans who placed themselves in harm's way while in civilian roles, what they did isn't something that requires one to be a military person to do. In these specific cases, it was just people who believed they could control the situation, who knew how to react to danger, and who were, at least instinctively aware that the collective's survival was most ensured by the group fighting back.I know that it is hard for many people to accept this idea. ALICE training is highly controversial because, when it is implemented in schools, it asks teachers to encourage kids to work together to take on lethal and murderous shooters in certain, very limited, situations. No one feels this as much as I do. This has been one of the hardest articles I have ever written in the last six years of writing online. As a teacher, it's painful for me to accept that this is even something we need to prepare for. I had to stop and gather myself several times when the thought passed through my mind of my kids (students) being put in this scenario. As a Marine, however, I know that our actions are often determined by those who want to do us harm. Sometimes, a terrible idea, such as leading a group of children to assault a deadly attacker, is the only option left to you.I know that if this information becomes commonplace enough, many innocent people are going to make it out all right, who otherwise wouldn't. Furthermore, when those people who are thinking about attacking schools and workplaces, or committing acts of terror see similar actions foiled in the first few minutes by groups of individuals before they turn into massacres, they wouldn't see the sinister glory in it. They wouldn't be able to dream of suicide after committing massacre or death by cop. Instead, they might even face prison. Their goals would be worthless.Furthermore, ALICE initiatives take away the helplessness of the victim, and let's them know that they have options and responsibility in their own survival, as well as the survival of others. This knowledge is empowering in that it lets them know that the power doesn't just revolve around the attacker, but that they have agency in the matter, as well. I know in my heart that if the people who attack others like this were to become more afraid of the victims, than the victims are of them - school shootings, gun massacres, and vile acts of terror would disappear.In Summary, two brief lists to remember:ALICEAlert - notify people around you and authorities of the problem.Lockdown - secure yourself in a location so it's hard for a terrorist to get to you and those nearby.Inform - continue to keep authorities apprised of the situation and know your surroundings.Counter - if you have no other options, confront or interrupt the attacker.Escape/Evade/Evacuate - if you can escape the situation safely, then do so.And the other:Stay positive - A calm and collected attitude of optimism avoids panic, maintains clear thinking, and the preserves belief of survival.Know the source of danger - Where is the threat? Know where the danger is coming from and stay away.Find the exits - Attempt to get away from the immediate danger. Find the nearest avenue to an escape as possible.Arm yourself - Anything can be used as a weapon. Make yourself as dangerous as possible in the event you are forced to defend yourself.Move quickly - Never plan on staying still. Always be prepared to move and quickly get to where ever it is you need to go.Use cover - when on the move, move from one strong point to the next, never staying in open longer than is needed.Avoid traveling along walls - Bullets travel along walls. Try to stay at least six or so inches from the wall if you can.Thanks for reading!For more answers like this check out On War by Jon Davis and follow my blog War Elephant for more new content. Everything I write is completely independent research and is supported by fan and follower pledges. Please consider showing your support directly by visiting my Patreon support page here: Jon Davis on Patreon: Help support in writing Military Novels, Articles, and Essays.

The Administration of Chandragupta MauryaNot only Chandragupta Maurya was a great conqueror and an able empire-builder, but also he was one of the strongest administrators the history of India saw.His administrative system, later on modified by a humane touch of Ashoka, provided ample proof that the ancient Indian monarchy and polity were the products of wise statesmanship and practical considerations.Luckily enough a clear picture of that administration is derived from two most important sources of history, namely, Kautilya’s Arthasastra and the Indika of Megasthenes which has survived in fragments in shape of extracts in the writings of other classical writers. Some scholars suggest that the Arthasastra was written at a much later time.Some even doubt if Kautilya was the real author of that work. But, traditions associate the name of Chanakya or Kautilya with the name of Chandragupta so closely, that their names are almost inseparable in that great enterprise of empire making. The deep-rooted tradition, resting on several literary sources, has also shown Chanakya as the Prime Minister of the Maurya Empire. There are reasonable evidences to show that Chanakya lived in the time of Chandragupta, and in his other name of Kautilya, was the author of Arthasastra.A great work such as Arthasastra could have been only the work of a vastly wise and practically experienced man like Kautilya. In ages to follow, other writers might have added something more on the body of the original Arthasastra to create doubt about its actual time. Similarly, Kautilya’s omission of some essential names of the time might have been for the fact that he was writing the Arthasastra not to describe the Mauryan polity, but as a standard guideline for all rulers and states of all times.From the Arthasastra, and the accounts of the Greek writers, and from other historical sources, the system of the Maurya administration, as under Chandragupta, had been more or less ascertained. The following were the important features of the Maurya administration.The King:The Maurya king was the head of the State and of the administration as in most ancient monarchies. The Nanda kings before Chandragupta were powerful monarchs. The legacy of that power continued. But, under new conditions, Chandragupta’s kingship had to rest on greater powers.The kings of ancient India under Hindu polity enjoyed limited power. They ruled in accordance with the principles of Dharma, social customs and usages. They worked as the guardians of the Law, but were not the law-givers themselves. But in Chandragupta’s time monarchy assumed a new character. According to Kautilya: “Dharma, contract, custom and royal decree are the four legs of law. Of these, each later item is of superior validity to its predecessor.” This means that the King’s order or decree was above all other forms of Law.The earlier kings before the Maurya era ruled over small kingdoms. Chandragupta ruled over a vast empire. The empire contained many types of people with different social customs and usages. It was necessary, therefore, that the king should become the fountain-source of Law and of the unity of administration. It was the size of the empire which made the kingship of Chandragupta more powerful. The king was the centre of a great administrative system, and was required to shoulder huge responsibilities.Though the king was absolute in power, yet he did not claim divinity like the ancient Pharaohs of Egypt or even like Alexander the Great who asked his generals and soldiers to believe that he was the son of the Greek God Zeus. At the best, the Maurya monarch, especially Asoka, could claim himself as Devanam-priya or the Beloved of the Gods.With unlimited powers, the Maurya king nevertheless followed the moral principle of ancient Indian kingship that ” In the happiness of his subjects lies the happiness of the king; in their good is his own good, and not in what is pleasing to him. He must find his pleasure in the pleasure of his subjects.”The king, according to Kautilya, was the government itself. He appointed his ministers, priests, officers and servants. The king was required to trust nobody, and, therefore, he was to employ spies to know about the conduct of the officers and of the people. The Maurya intelligence department was thorough and efficient, with its network of secret informers everywhere.It is known both from Kautilya, and Megasthenes that the Maurya administration paid highest attention to the safety of the person of the king. Whenever the king went out of the palace, the routes of his journey were guarded by armed forces. Kautilya describes the safety measures which were adopted both inside and outside the palace.The king’s food was tasted by a number of persons before it was served to him to avoid the risk of poisoning. Even the king’s dresses and ornaments were checked and inspected by trusted maid-servants before use. Megasthenes informs that Chandragupta Maurya was guarded inside the palace by women body guards. To avoid attacks on life, the king slept in different rooms in different nights. The king lived in pomp and splendour. He was carried in golden palanquins and used richly decorated elephants while going out on hunting.The King’s Palace and the Capital Administration:The palace of Chandragupta Maurya symbolised the wealth and power of his empire. According to the Greek sources, the splendour of the palace of Pataliputra excelled that of the Persian palaces of Susa and Ekbatana. ” The palace is adorned with gilded pillars clasped all round with a vine embossed in gold, while silver images of those birds which most charm the eye diversify the workmanship.”There were a number of apartments for the king, members of his family, bodyguards and archers, kinsmen and ministers, and the armed soldiers. Centuries after, the Chinese traveller Fa-hien saw the Maurya palace in excellent condition and beauty, and could not believe that it was built by human beings. He wrote: ” The King’s palace in the city, with its various halls, all built by spirits who piled up stones, constructed walls and gates, carved, designed, engraved and inlaid, after no human fashion, is still in existence.” The capital of the Maurya Empire, Pataliputra, was the centre of the imperial administration. It was build at the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and the Sone.Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta described the capital in the following words:“At the Junction of this river (Ganges) with another is situated Palibothra, a city of eighty stadia (14.72 kilometers) in length and fifteen stadia (2.72 kilometers) in breadth. It is of a shape of a parallelogram and is girded with a wooden wall, pierced with loopholes for the discharge of arrows. It has a ditch in front for defence and for receiving the sewage of the city. This ditch, which encompassed it all round, is 600 feet in breadth and 30 cubits in depth, and the wall is crowned with 570 towers and has four and sixty gates.”The capital, being the headquarters of the entire central government, required a special administration of its own. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes, who spent his time there, left behind him a vivid picture of that administration. The city of Pataliputra was in charge of a Commission with 30 members.They were divided into 6 Boards of 5 members in each board. Collectively, all the members worked like a Municipal Body to manage the affairs of the capital. Separately, the 6 Boards were in charge of six separate departments, such as, industrial affairs and wages, foreigners, births and deaths, trade and commerce, manufactures, and the collection of taxes.The Structure of Central Administration:The central administration of the Mauryas represented a comprehensive system. “Administration cannot be work of one man, just as one wheel cannot drive a chariot.” says Kautilya. It was necessary, therefore, that the king should depend on the advice of the ministers or Mantrins, and the help of state officers or Amatyas. Kautilya prescribed four tests for the officers for fitness for employment, namely, fear, virtue, wealth and law.Evidences show that Chandragupta ruled with the advice of a Council of Ministers or Mantri Parishad. The size of the council, as recommended by Kautilya, could be only three or four, or as many as the king required according to his need. The number of the state officials or Amatyas could be much more.The central administration was divided into several departments. Kautilya mentions of a large number of departments which looked after such important subjects as Revenue, Exchequer, Stores, Armoury, prisons, Accounts, Agriculture, Mines, Metals, Mint, Salt, Forests, Cattle, Pastures, Passports, Shipping, Ports, Commerce, Trade-routes, Customs, Frontiers, Excise, Weights and Measures, Spinning and Weaving, Religious institutions, and Intelligence Service, etc. The department of finance was given greater attention since, according to Kautilya, “All undertakings depend upon finance. Hence, foremost attention shall be paid to the Treasury.” The rich were required to pay more as a matter of principle.The Mantri Parishad conducted its business in all seriousness. The king and even the provincial viceroys consulted the ministers in matters of administration. There was a secretary in charge of the office of the ministers, known as the Mantri-Parishad- Adhyaksha.It was the work of the central government of discharge welfare duties for the benefit of the unemployed, widows, destitute and orphans, and even of musicians and dancers. There were elaborate functions for the department of works and construction all over the empire.The Army:The Maurya Empire possessed a large army. In the days of Chandragupta, it contained 6, 00,000 infantry, 30,000 horsemen, 36,000 men for elephants, and 24,000 men for chariots. The total number of the fighting force thus came to nearly 6, 90,000, besides many thousands of helpers and attendants. The empire required this big army to maintain internal peace and to face external threats.This army required a sound system of management. Megasthenes, who observed the Maurya military power from close quarters, left an account of its administration. According to him, there was a War-Office or War Council having 30 members, divided into 6 Boards of 5 members each. The army was divided into six departments each under the control of one Board. The six departments were (1) The Infantry, (2) The Cavalry, (3) The War-Chariots, (4) The War-Elephants, (5) The War-Transport, and (6) The Fleet.From Kautilya’s accounts it is known that the army was accompanied to the battle fronts by troops of doctors and nurses with medicines, healing oils, surgical instruments and bandages to treat the wounded and give confidence to the fighting soldiers.The Arthasastra mentions that the entire army worked under the control of the Senapati or the commander-in-chief. This supreme commander was required to be in possession of necessary military qualification to run the army and conduct battles. There were other army officers of rank next to the Senapati. Among them were the Prasasta, the Nayaka, and the Mukhya.In battles, the soldiers, elephants and horses were all protected by defensive armour. The soldiers were arranged in squads of ten, companies of hundred, and battalions of thousand men in each. The elephants and chariots usually carried the archers. Various arms like big swords, spears and javelins, and bows and arrows were used, besides some advanced weapons like the Sataghni or the ‘Slayer of a hundred’.The Judiciary:Chandragupta Maurya, as the ruler of a great empire, made the administration of justice thorough. The Law was binding on all and carried the fear of punishment for the breakers of Law.At the top of the judicial system were the king as the highest court of appeal, and the king’s court. Kautilya defined the duty of the king as a judge in the following way: “He shall, therefore, personally attend to the business of gods, of heretics, of Brahmanas learned in the Vedas, of cattle, of sacred places, of minors, the aged, the afflicted, the helpless, and of women, all this in order or according to the urgency or pressure of those works. All urgent calls he shall hear to once.”There were smaller courts of justice right from the village tribunals at the bottom. The village headman and the village elders usually looked into smaller disputes within their local areas.The higher courts were of two kinds, civil and criminal. The civil courts were termed as the Dharmasthiya courts. The criminal courts were called the Kantakasodhana courts (removel of thorns or dangers). In the first category of courts, three Amatyas worked as the judges, assisted by three learned Brahmins. These courts dealt with such cases of dispute as on marriage, divorce, dowry, inheritance of property, houses, lands, boundaries, contracts, debts, etc. An appeal could be taken on any judgment to the court of the king.The criminal courts worked under three Amatyas, assisted by a number of spies and agents. These courts tried traitors to the country, political offenders, and harmful officers. They also tried murderers, thieves, violators of Law, bandits, cheats, and criminals.The Maurya system of punishment was severe. Methods of torture could be applied to get confessions. There were various types of punishment depending on the nature of the crime. Fines, forced labour, whipping, mutilation, and execution were included in the chart of punishment. Kautilya refers to a number of prevailing modes of torture, and suggests that “Those whose guilt is believed to be true shall be subjected to torture.”The newly built empire demanded of the people their fear for Law and justice. Chandragupta had to create a respect for the state and the government by his judicial system. It was in the time of Asoka that much of the severity of administration was reduced, and a paternal disposition towards the subjects was worked out.Provincial Administration:The extensive Maurya Empire was divided into some big provinces. The administration of the provinces was placed either in hands of governors or the princes of the royal house acting as viceroys, and called as Kumaras.The exact number of the provinces at the time of Chandragupta is not known. The Asokan Inscriptions refer to the headquarters of some provinces. They were Kausambi, Ujjayini, Takshasila, Suvarnagiri, and Tosali. Since Kalinga with its capital Tosali was the only territory conquered by Asoka, it is most probable that except Tosali the other four places were the provincial capitals of Chandragupta’s empire.It is also probable that there could have been some more provinces, but not mentioned. The Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman mentions that Saurashtra was governed by Pushyagupta as a Rashtriya under Chandragupta Maurya. That area could have been an administrative unit like a proving.The Maurya province was administered by several classes of officials. Among them were the Pradesikas. Some historians regard them as revenue officers with police functions. According to some others, they were in charge of the divisions of a province. Some even regard them as provincial governors.It is obvious that provinces were administered according to the directions from the centre. By the time of Asoka, the provincial administration became more elaborate for the welfare of the people.The provinces were divided into districts or Janapadas, having their administrative officers.The Village Administration:The Indian villages from time immemorial managed their internal affairs in a smooth and orderly manner. At the time of Chandragupta the same traditional village system continued. Every village had a headman named usually as the Gramika. He was assisted by the village elders in looking to the disputes among villagers and keeping peace in the village. They enjoyed the confidence of the people because of their impartiality and devotion to truthful deeds. The village headman was not an officer of the government, but was the chosen leader of the villagers. A number of villages also formed themselves into groups under a superior headman called Gopa. Many villages constituted a Janapada managed by state officers.Thus that India under Chandragupta Maurya enjoyed a strong and sound administration based on valid principles, systematic organisation and the rule of Law. No doubt the king was the chief executive, the supreme law-maker and the fountain of justice, yet he was only the head of a governmental structure which stood on the foundations of ancient traditions and the needs of the time.Death of Chandragupta Maurya:The Jaina traditions of a later time maintain that Chandragupta, in the later part of his political career, renounced his kingdom, abdicated the throne in favour of his son, and became a Jaina monk. Thereupon he proceeded to the far south, and lived at a place named Sravana Belgola. There, after a few years, he invited death by starvation in accordance with the extreme Jaina method to attain salvation.Chandragupta ruled for twenty-four years. He was succeeded by his son Bindusara in about the year 299 B.C.An Estimate of Chandragupta Maurya:Chandragupta Maurya was one of the greatest and most successful rulers of Indian history. As a hero, a soldier, a conqueror, an empire- builder, and an administrator he earned his distinction for greatness. His rise was timely when India needed a deliverer of her frontier territories from the yoke of foreign servitude. Rising from humble origin and while in his youth, he could defy and offend no less a man than Alexander the Great in his own camp. By extraordinary will and efforts he could organise an army to drive out the Greeks and to overthrow the Nanda monarchy. No mere adventurer, he was capable enough to build up the first great Indian empire, and one of the strongest empires of all history.He conquered far and wide to give to geographical India a political unity. Unlike Alexander, he conquered to consolidate. In that work of consolidation he proved himself one of the ablest of administrators. He was indeed the first Chakravarti King of India from the Himalayas to the seas.His victory over Seleukos Nikator proved the superiority of the Indian army under him over the armies of the West. He was the rare Indian monarch to rule over territories outside the geographical frontiers of India which he so defended and organised that his successors ruled over them without threat to their powerBy giving India a strong dynasty, he opened a new era in the annals of his country. It was an era of greatness and glory, marked with the high tide of political and cultural resurgence.The legacies left by this first Indian emperor influenced the future in a substantial way. To unite India in the Maurya way became the political goal of succeeding empire-builders and their dynasties in times of disintegration and decay.More than two thousand years after Chandragupta Maurya, when the Western Orientalists in nineteenth century identified his name with the name Sandrocottus of the description of the Western classical historians and writers, the imagination of the educated Indian youth was stirred to a sense of pride at the heroic deeds of India’s earliest great emperor. The history of his greatness inspired patriotism and nationalism in the mind of the modern Indians in an age of foreign domination when India was gaining national consciousness to shake off the alien yoke.Accounts of Megasthenes on Indian People:The Greek ambassador Megasthenes had many words of praise for the Indian people in general. He saw the population divided into seven classes, with the philosophers forming the highest class and enjoying the highest honour, though small in their number. He saw the Indian ascetics who “live in the forests on leaves of trees and wild fruits and wear garments made from the bark of the trees. They do not also marry.” These people among the philosopher class were the most honoured and respected.The Indians laid great emphasis on truth and virtue. Theft was rare in the society. The people lived a simple and happy life. They did not drink liquor except in religious sacrifices.Megasthenes appreciated the simplicity of the laws of India. The people very seldom went to the law courts.The general condition of the people was prosperous. They used costly and comfortable dresses. They wanted to appear handsome and beautiful.Megasthenes also refers to weakness of the Indian people. One such weakness was that they married many wives. The Indian families were big, with many children. There was also the caste seclusion. Nobody could marry outside his own caste.The social conditions of the Maurya period are known from such accounts, though the information are scanty. Had Indika survived, much could have been known about the Indian society of that time.