The Association For Molecular Pathology, The American: Fill & Download for Free

I assume you’re referring to “virus” in the sense of “microorganism” as contrasted with (e.g.) a computer virus. It used to be possible to patent biological entities merely by isolating them, but in 2013 the US Supreme Court ruled unanimously (in Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics) that one cannot patent a biological entity simply because it has been isolated. That is, since 2013 it is not possible to get a patent on a naturally-occurring virus. It is possible to get a patent for (a) the genetic sequence of an organism (including a virus) or (b) a newly-created virus.

Yes, no, and maybe — depending.Note: I am not a lawyer and this is not legal advice. If you are concerned about a specific situation, please see a lawyer. Also, this answer pertains to the United States. If you are not in the US, your country is likely different. Some countries have no rules on this at all.We finally got the Supreme Court ruling ruling that a company that discovers a naturally-occurring genetic variation cannot patent it; it has to make useful improvements in order to patent it, either create novel DNA sequences, develop methods to work with DNA, etc.US Supreme Court Strikes Down Gene Patents but Allows Patenting of Synthetic DNAAssociation for Molecular Pathology et al. v. Myriad Genetics, 2013https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/12pdf/12-398_1b7d.pdfSo, naturally-occurring DNA sequences are not patentable. No one owns it.Speaking on a more personal level, DNA, tissues, and other useful things are regularly harvested from patients and used for the sole benefit of doctors, hospitals, research institutions, pharmaceutical companies, and other for-profit companies.When a doctor takes some sample from you, or removes some tissue, what happens to it, other than as part of making you healthier? Usually these days a series of lengthy forms that “no one” reads are signed before any such procedure. Many doctors do not know what is in the forms — they have been drafted by lawyers, and are quite complex. Certainly, the aide who brings you the form and insists you sign it before the procedure starts has no idea what’s in it. And it’s non-negotiable — the doctor doesn’t know what’s in it, the aide doesn’t know what’s in it, but their lawyers told them don’t operate until the patient signs it, and they won’t. You only get the forms a half hour before the procedure, and either you sign them, or the procedure is cancelled.In that legal fine print is usually included a series of clauses discussing what happens to any specimens or tissues removed from you. You might expect that they get incinerated or some such thing, and indeed this is often its fate. However, more often these days there is a clause saying something like, the doctor can do whatever they want with your left-over parts.In this case, you have given your DNA to the doctor, and given them the right to test it, analyze it, and, if it is useful, to exploit it, patent the results, and make millions of dollars from it. (IF there is anything useful in it.)The poster child for this is Henrietta Lacks. In 1951, this poor African American woman went to the Johns Hopkins (charitable) hospital for treatment for what proved to be cervical cancer. She signed a consent form typical for the day that allowed the doctors to do whatever they thought prudent to treat her. During surgery, tissue samples from both the cancerous and non-cancerous portions of her cervix were removed. She was given surgical and radiation treatment, but did not survive the cancer.Her tissue was passed to a researcher, who had been trying unsuccessfully to grow human cells in the lab. Henrietta’s cancer cells proved to be the first human cells that successfully grew in the lab. In fact, the researcher sold (for a nominal fee to cover his costs) clones of her tissue, and his special recipe for how to grow it, to researchers all over the world. These “HeLa” cells were used to prove the newly-developed polio vaccine worked, making 2 million test kits. In 66 years, HeLa cells have been used in more experiments than all other human cells combined. They were sent into space. They were tested for the effects from nuclear bombs, vaccines, medicines, chemical agents, ultraviolet light, and myriad other insults. Recently, HeLa cells were used to develop FISH technology (fluorescence in situ hybridization), which visibly tags DNA segments with particular features.The total amount of Hela cells produced is far, far greater than ever existed in Henrietta Lacks’ body - some 20 tons. End-to-end, the cells would wrap around the world several times. More than 60,000 scientific papers have been written based on research using HeLa cells, and there are about 300 more every single month.Almost 11,000 patents have been filed involving HeLa cell research. Whole companies were formed to manufacture HeLa cells and distribute them, and other companies formed to sell the products HeLa allowed to be invented. Millions, perhaps billions of dollars have been made based on research using HeLa cells.Henrietta was dead before most of the research occurred. Her family never knew that such research existed, nor received any payments, royalties, or interest from it. In fact, they were so poor they could not afford health insurance that would have let them benefit from Henrietta’s donation. That is, until Rebecca Skloot wrote a book, both about Henrietta, and about her family that survived her. Because of this book, a foundation has now been set up to provide care for her descendants.Skloot, Rebecca. (2010) “The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks”. Crown Publishers, New York.Henrietta Lacks is just the most famous example. Many other examples exist of doctors and companies making money from the problems that patients present them. Indeed, a fundamental underpinning of DNA companies like 23andMe is that while they analyze your DNA markers and tell you your ancestry, most people also give them permission to use their DNA to do studies, and 23andMe makes almost all their profits from using the data, not from running DNA tests.Patient consent has improved a lot since 1951, but it hasn’t helped the patients themselves. Ethical and legal efforts have been focused on making sure patients have “informed consent” — but, really, the fact that the doctor says they’ll save your life if you sign away your tissues is not much of an ethical choice.So — Are individuals the owners of their own DNA?- Yes, it’s in your own body, and only you can decide to release it, to give it away, and to relinquish any rights you might theoretically have in the tissues. Others have to keep that information private unless you let them do otherwise.- No, nobody owns naturally-occurring DNA.- Maybe. If there’s something special about you, and if you could recognize it, you theoretically could have the first chance at exploiting that.

The medical field is as expansive and multifaceted as the intricacies of the human body, in which each medical specialty fits to serve the needs of a particular realm of care.These below mentioned comprehensive list are according to my perspective are few of the least explored sub-specialties of famous & renowned specialties that need to be further explored & elaborated. You never know — you may discover the specialty you want to devote your career to.Anesthesiology sub-specialties like~• Critical care medicine• Hospice and palliative care• Pain medicine• Pediatric anesthesiology• Sleep medicineSub-specialties within the dermatology field include~• Dermatopathology• Pediatric dermatology• Procedural dermatologymedicine is also home to several unexplored sub-specialties like~• Anesthesiology critical care medicine• Emergency medical services• Hospice and palliative medicine• Pain medicine• Pediatric emergency medicine• Sports medicine• Undersea and hyperbaric medicine• Geriatric medicine & preventive medicineMedical geneticists house several sub-specialties within the field like~• Biochemical genetics• Clinical cytogenetics• Clinical genetics• Molecular genetic pathologyNote that the fields or the specializations mentioned above are recognized by the Association of American Medical Colleges.