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I don’t see why Lincoln and/or Washington would have a difficult time politically in today’s electoral environment. Proviso: issues such as LGBTQ and slavery would need to be taken off the board; I will treat the two icons as if they could be transported to our present age as if filtered of their own historical biases.Both men were intelligent and seen as leaders of men; both could create the necessary social impetus to allow others to rally around them. Lincoln was not even holding office in 1860, though he was a political insider in Illinois. He had just lost the post of senator (senators were appointed by the legislature at the time) to Stephen Douglas. But in his well publicized debates with Senator Douglas he could be seen as having gone toe-to-toe on the major issue of the day—slavery in the new territories—and showed that his gravitas was major league. Washington was the general of armies, and so enough said. He also could command great respect from others due to his reputation as a man of his word, respectful, a man of honor.Both could give a good speech. We know about Lincoln and the debates with Douglas, his “House Divided” speech in 1858 launching his campaign for US senator; his “Lost Speech” given during the inaugural Republican convention for the Illinois Republican Party; and all those speeches he gave as president which will always be the high water mark for US presidents or anyone else not Martin Luther King Jr or Frederick Douglass. Washington too gave a pretty good account of himself when he spoke to the malcontent (and mutinying) officers at Newburgh and then there was the first inaugural address and his Farewell Address. Neither Lincoln nor Washington were said to be great orators, good speakers with voices that might influence others. Their speeches moved because of their content. (I did find this explanation that summed up Washington’s weaknesses and strengths and I’m betting it could be applied, mostly, to Lincoln as well—Lincoln was said to be “shrill, squeaking, piping, unpleasant.”)And both were tall. That counts for a lot in our present age. A man such as Robert Reich cannot be given much of a chance politically in America simply because he is too short. Reich is brilliant, and would likely make a fine president but…too short. Says a lot about the citizens of America. Washington stood at 6′ 2″ and Lincoln, our tallest president, was 6′ 4″. It is true that we’ve had short presidents: Madison, our shortest was 5′ 4″ and Martin Van Buren was 5′ 6″. I believe we can shove aside our shorter historical occupants quite easily since the present age is much more visually focused. The only president we’ve had under 5′ 10″ since Truman was Jimmy Carter (and he was just shy at 5′ 9.5″). Being short is a handicap to candidates for the presidency that none can overcome, except possibly with lifts. Still, one could simply lie to achieve greater height. While obviously taller than six feet tall, Trump still feels the necessity of listing his height at 6′ 3″. (He has been photographed next to Obama who is 6′ 1″ and seen to be of equal height; Trump, as recently as 2012, stated he was 6′ 2″ and that too was likely a lie.)And both men were white. While we recently had a man of color sit in the Oval Office—and achieve some measure of success—candidates within the Caucasian classification still rank more easily in the top tier of elections than those of minority descriptions. Being white is much more an advantage than a disadvantage. And while neither man would be seen as handsome this is simply not that important, even in today’s television and YouTube environment. Now, if you happen to have the disadvantage of being female, then you’d best look more like Gillibrand or Harris or AOC. Looks matter for female candidates. Males? Not so much. [This will get me some push-back, I know. Beto O’Rourke, Biden, Romney, Reagan, Obama, Booker et. al. will show that male candidates’ looks can be seen as important, but for every handsome male you can still achieve success with some clunkers, viz. Trump, McCain, Carter, Johnson, Nixon, Sanders. One wonders how Hillary would have fared if she ran in 2016 as her younger self, when she was quite a stunner—if you don’t remember then see here. Meanwhile Trump can win when looking as he does now, though when younger he was much better looking.] Men can be old; women can be too (cf. Elizabeth warren) but not nearly as much. Washington and Lincoln would not have had a problem running at fifty or seventy.Both men are, as well, males. Males, even in this age of #MeToo, are given the leg up in elections over female candidates. Observe the current assemblage of Democratic candidates for president. How many women are within the (as of this writing) twenty-four candidates? Six. That is 25% in the age of #MeToo. After the record number of women winners in the 2018 election we still only achieved about 25% of House congresspersons as female. That is what counts as astonishing in American politics. Wow! One-quarter of the House is female! And that is a win? And consider this: Marianne Williamson and Tulsi Gabbard and Kirsten Gillibrand are not going to get past the first round of primaries. They don’t have the poll numbers and they don’t have the money. Amy Klobuchar likely will not either. That leaves two female candidates who can be considered first or second tier: Kamala Harris and Elizabeth Warren. That’s 8%. (I know that this is a specious statistic as we should only include those candidates who are in the first or second tier: so let’s revise this to read two out of eight of the top two tiers are female, but that leaves us again with 25%.) The point is valid: males are more likely to achieve electoral success in today’s America. Lincoln and Washington are in like Flynn.Both Lincoln and Washington were fit as a fiddle: both were seen as strong as a bull. Especially so in Lincoln’s case. Lincoln was easily the strongest president we’ve ever had (see this answer in Quora). Washington had a number of athletic feats of his own to his credit, including the tossing of an iron bar at his estate and the hurling of a piece of slate across the Rappahannock River. Strength and athletics plays quite well in today’s America. Not an essential trait but it gives quite an advantage.Washington fits in better with today’s America than Lincoln does since he was one of the wealthiest people of his day. In today’s terms we can value his wealth as around $500M. He may have been the wealthiest president in history (Kennedy was reported to be over $1B but I believe that may have been the entire Kennedy trust, not his own personal wealth; Trump is reported to be over $3B but until we see the tax returns and financial papers from his banks I do wonder if his debits are actually more than his credits). So Washington had the wherewithal to run and win in today’s money-is-honey environment. Lincoln, however, as one of our poorest presidents, would need to go the Sanders route and amass some major small donor lists (or go the Hillary route with some major investor coffee klaches).All in all both men would fare well in any election held today. The cream, it is said, always seems to rise to the top. And yet we still have the example of Trump. Ah, well, what can we say? Even above the cream you may find a layer of mold.

On 31 May 1918, when German forces were steamrolling French units less than 50 miles away from Paris and as their French reserves were rushed piecemeal into the the breech, that “they evaporated immediately, like drops of rain on a white hot iron,” US Army Colonel Preston Brown, Division Chief of Staff of the US Army 2nd Infantry Division, reassured a skeptical French General Degoutte that the untested 2nd Infantry Division which was being thrown into a defensive line in front of Paris would stop the German advance, “these are American regulars. In one hundred and fifty years they have never been beaten. They will hold.” And they did, for more than 30 days, the US 2nd Infantry Division consisting of the 3rd (Infantry) Brigade (9th and 23rd Infantry Regiments) and the 4th (Marine) Brigade (5th and 6th Marines) with only a 3 day respite by the 7th Infantry Regiment from the US 3rd Division held Belleau Wood, Bouresches, seized Vaux and saved Paris. How could Colonel Brown make such a guarantee?First, defining the regular army versus other units during the Civil War. What is a regular army soldier? Wikipedia has this definition, “the official army of a state or country (the official armed forces) contrasting with irregular forces, such as volunteer irregular militias, private armies, mercenaries etc; a standing army, the permanent force that is maintained under arms during peace. Characteristics of a regular army are disciplined, reliable, dependable, steady, determined and professional. These are full time soldiers that are proud of their capabilities, unit, reputation, history and legacy.Going back to the birth of the United States Army on 14 June 1775, the Continental Congress authorized the raising of 10 companies of riflemen. However, on 2 July 1784 after Independence was won and the Treaty of Paris was signed, Congress disbanded the Continental Army except for 80 gunners at West Point and Fort Pitt, New York. The reason was “standing armies in times of peace are inconsistent with the principles of republican governments, dangerous to the liberties of a free people, and generally converted into destructive despotism” and, of course, the expense of standing Army was a drain on the Treasury. They were looking for a “peace dividend” even back then. The Treaty of Paris ceded title to the United States all the territory west of the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River, the 31st Parallel and the Great Lakes, referred as the “Old West.” The new Republic was being governed under the Articles of Confederation until 1789 which did not allow taxation (the real good old days😃) so Congress wanted to reduce their crushing war debt by selling this land to settlers and farmers. Despite the treaty, their were many actors that wished the new republic to fail including the Spanish in the Floridas and Louisiana, British (loyal Canadians) and numerous Indian tribes (about 76,000 natives including 19,000 braves) whose land was now ceded to the United States.The realities of situation soon became apparent to the Congress and they realized that their sovereign borders needed to be defended (then as now) from encroachment. Despite the treaty, British forts were still on United States land. Like any good steward of the public trust, the Congress tried to meet the demands in the “Old West” with the most cost efficient solution and decided to send a modest temporary force and asked Pennsylvania, Connecticut, New Jersey and New York to field a regiment of eight Infantry and two artillery companies from their militias for one year service the day after it disbanded the Continental Army on 3 June 1784. They funded these efforts to police 248,000 acres of the “Old West” paying a Private $3 a month and took back $1 for medicine and clothing. To make a long story short, these half hearted efforts resulted in severe thrashings by both the Indians and the British including the St. Clair Defeat (or Massacre) on 3 November 1791 which was the bloodiest defeat of the U.S. Army’s history by the Indians where of the 1400 soldiers present for duty; 657 were killed and 271 were wounded. In response to this humiliation, on 24 December 1793, Major General “Mad” Anthony Wayne marched his command to the site of St. Clair’s Massacre and through up the works of Fort Recovery. This culminated in the battle of Fallen Timbers in 28 July 1794 which Wayne’s force (2,000 regulars and 1500 mounted volunteer riflemen) destroyed a like force of 500 to 1000 Indians and a Company of Canadian militia. The victory brought the hostile tribes to sign the Treaty of Greenville which opened two-thirds of Ohio and a corner of eastern Indiana to settlers. As quickly as this crisis was overcome and the Army was reduced to 2,579 in 1805.George Washington was a proponent of a professional military due to his experience in the British Army and commanding the Continental Army. In 1783, he proposed a military academy, “A peace establishment for the United States of America may in my opinion…(include) Academies one or more for the instruction of the art military; particularly the branches of it which respect Engineering and Artillery, which are highly essential, and the knowledge of which is the most difficult to obtain.” Of note, Thomas Jefferson as Washington’s Secretary of State and an idealist was opposed to the idea of military academies in 1783 however, as President and now a realist, founded the United States Military Academy at West Point on 16 March 1802. As the war between Napoleon’s France and Britain accelerated in 1805, the strength of the regular army was increased. Back in the “Old West,” a Shawnee War Chief, Tecumseh was rallying the other tribes. The Governor of the Indiana Territory, William Henry Harrison used the 4th U.S. Infantry Regiment as the central force to defeat Tecumseh at Tippecanoe Creek in 11 November 1811 which would eventually propel him into the White House 30 years later for just 31 days.The “Old Westerners” blamed the British for the Indian troubles and their representatives in Congress strongly advocated the conquest of Canada in retaliation. This, and the impressment of American sailors on the high seas to support Britain’s war against Napoleon was the main justification for the Madison Administration and Congress to declare war on 18 June 1812.Taking full advantage of Britain’s commitment to their on going war with Napoleon, the Congress authorized the increase of the “Additional Army” to 35,592 regulars and doubled the authorized strength of Infantry regiments. In addition 30,000 volunteers from the state militias were called. The expectation was the conquest of Canada would be as ex-President Jefferson wrote, “….will be a mere matter of marching.”However, despite the eagerness of the President and Congress to fund the war, the response to join the colors was tepid. Pay for privates increased to only $5 a month was not enough to entice large numbers of young men to flock to the colors. The old Army regiments only had 6,744 men and the new only were able to muster 5,000. By the end of 1812 only 15,000 to 19,000 joined the cause. Most regiments operated at either 1/3 or 2/3 strength. The United States Military Academy at West Point had been in operation but not functioning as a worthwhile school, officer candidates were trained with their regiments in the field.Despite the failure to wrest Canada from Britain, numerous setbacks including the Nation’s capital being burned and none of our objectives being achieved (except ending the impressment of sailors which was more a result of the end of the Napoleonic wars); the Regular Army came of age. They proved they could defend the United States against foreign invaders; if not successfully invade and hold Canada. The resulting Treaty of Ghent on 24 December 1814, ending the war restored relations to status quo ante bellum (original borders before the war). Over 48 regular Infantry regiments along with dragoons (precursor to Cavalry), artillery, engineers and supply and service were authorized by Congress. They had evolved into a thoroughly professional small standing army. Of course after the war, the Congress again wanted its “peace dividend” and disbanded most of the regular army down to 8 Infantry regiments, 1 rifle regiment, a corps of artillery and engineers but no dragoons or Cavalry on 3 March 1815, two weeks after the proclamation of peace. The infantry regiments were haphazardly combined, folded and renumbered based on the seniority of the senior commanders. Thus the new 3rd Infantry, (the old 1st, 5th, 17th, 19th, and 28th Infantries) became “The Old Guard.” The new 1st Infantry included the old 2nd, 3rd, 7th, and 44th Infantries.Of personal note, when I was serving in the 2nd Battalion, 22nd Infantry in Wiesbaden, Germany from 1979–1981. We gave a plaque to our departing officers of the famous Winfield Scott’s Brigade at the Battle of Chippewa, “Those Are Regulars By God!” which was exclaimed by British Major General Phineas Riall when he realized the approaching American unit was not running away from the grapeshot being fired into them at point blank range (although they were wearing the militia gray coats due to the cost of indigo blue dye that was used for regular Infantry and that would thereafter be worn by West Point cadets to commemorate this victory). This was because right in the center of the painting were the regimental colors of the 22nd Infantry. Sadly, we were later to find out that we were not the “Regulars, By God!” That our 22nd Infantry was not formed until after the Civil War and the real “Regulars, By God!” were the 6th Infantry then in Illiseim, Germany due to the 1815 consolidation of regiments. When I left, I did not get the cooler “Regulars, By God!” Plaque but plaque with the Regimental colors and all its battle streamers to remind us we were not at Chippewa. In fact, I went into a box and found that plaque and our first battle streamer was North Dakota 1868; after the Civil War.Back to the drawdown of 1815, within 2 months more than 20,000 Infantrymen were expelled from service and 1,700 officers from all branches of the Army lost the their commissions. The newer Regiments were treated like volunteers, only needed for the duration of the emergency. Vacancies in the officer Corps was filled from the list of disbanded officers until May 1816 when preference was given to graduates of the Military Academy at West Point. Interestingly, 1816 and 1810 are the only two years since it’s inception in 1802 that nobody graduated from West Point. Congress continued to trim the peace time Army through 1820s and kept it below an aggregate of 6,000 regulars which entailed eliminating the 8th Infantry and the Rifle Regiment. This was a larger force structure than during the pre 1812 War days but since that time, the Louisiana Purchase and the “Corps of Discovery” (Lewis and Clark Expedition) had occurred which exponentially increased the land mass to the Pacific that the tiny Regular Army had to police and without a mounted arm. The army was spread in less than 100 troop post contingents policing Indian uprisings, squatters on Indian land, white renegades, and British, French, Spanish and Mexican encroachment. In addition, Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1821 which perpetuated a running gun battle between the Seminole Indians and the US Army that lasted from 1816 through 1842 and often required 4,000 troops that made up the Army. In addition to the Seminole Wars, there was the enforcement of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 which required the Army to assist in the forced removal of numerous eastern Indian tribes to new homes in the trans-Mississippi West forever known as the “Trail of Tears.” This removal spawned the Blackhawk War in 1832 which was resolved in the Battle of Bad Axe which was a one sided massacre of the Indians. The end of the Trail of Tears was in 1842 when the Seminoles were finally subdued and shipped West. As soon as the Seminole War ended; Congress reduced the Army’s strength again. As a result of the Blackhawk War and other altercations with the western plains Indians on horseback, Congress reauthorized the 1st Dragoons in 1833, the 2nd Regiment in 1836, and a Regiment of Mounted Rifles in 1846. The Army now had a mounted arm again.In 1845, the United States annexed Texas. This put the US on a collision course with Mexico. Texas had been an independent republic since the Battle of San Jacinto on 21 April 1836. The small US Army with 30 years of frontier duty under its belt had become the fiercest fighting force in the Western Hemisphere. It’s West Point graduates had come of age and played important supporting roles now in the Mexican War as a dress rehearsal for their major roles in the Civil War. To make a long story short, the heavily outnumbered American Army scored victory after stunning victory against the Mexican Army and propelled two of its commanding generals to compete as Whigs for President of the United States. Zachary Taylor was the successful candidate in 1848 (though he died in office) and Winfield Scott was the unsuccessful candidate in 1852. In addition to seizing most of Mexico including Mexico City and Vera Cruz and dictating terms to the Mexicans, the Army simultaneously drove on California through what would become New Mexico and Arizona. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed on 2 February 1848 gave the United States, Texas, Upper California and New Mexico. In addition, in 1846, the James Polk Administration acquired the Oregon Territory south of the 49th parallel in a treaty with Britain as a compromise because Polk did not want to fight two wars at the same time. Remember, “54 40 or Fight!” Subsequent to the Mexican victory, the Congress reduced the Army again to its prewar size despite the additional territory that it now had to police.The 1850’s were dynamic years for the Regular Army coming off the big win in the Mexican War. Despite Zachary Taylor dying in the White House and Winfield Scott losing the 1852 election to to Franklin Pierce, they finally got a champion as Secretary of War in Jefferson Davis. Davis, 1828 West Point graduate and veteran of the Mexican War was able to convince Congress that the Army needed more troops and more cavalry. He was able expand the Infantry to 10 Regiments and added the 1st and 2nd Cavalry Regiments. He even experimented with bringing camels over from the Mideast for the cavalry in the Southwest United States. It never really caught on however, some of their descendants are still giving camel rides on the beach in Cabo, Mexico. Many notables from the Civil War were members of the 1st and 2nd Cavalry including Robert E. Lee, Albert Sydney Johnston, Joseph E. Johnston, George B. McClellan and J.E.B. Stuart. Still with just two cavalry regiments, two dragoon regiments and one regiment of mounted rifles most of the work of policing the West was done by the 10 Infantry regiments in small forts scattered around the vast west, north (Canada was still considered a threat) and south from Mexico. The Infantry used their initiative and created dragoon like units, and used supply wagons to lure in Indians that were going rob them and met them with 80 troopers with rifles when canvas was pulled back. The Army was also sent to subdue the Mormons in Utah in 1857. The standoff lasted about 6 months before the Mormons backed off and accepted the Federal governorship.Davis not only prevailed to increase the size of the regular army in peacetime but also got them a raise. By this time private’s were making $7 a month. He was able to get that raised to $11. All enlisted grades were raised appropriately. He also got Officer pay raised across the board by $20 a month. Duty was tough in these hostile locations. Desertion rates were high. His last contribution was upgrading the Infantryman’s primary weapon to the 1855 Rifle Musket and Rifles that used the Minie’ ball. This new weapon extended the accuracy of the soldier to 600 yards against a point target and 1000 yards against massed targets. It was truly effective against the Indians and would be even more effective in the next decade against American soldiers.On 6 November 1860, when Lincoln defeated three other major candidates for President of the United States on the Republican Party ticket with 180 of 303 electoral votes (152 needed to win) carrying 18 states and 39.8% of the popular vote southern states began conventions and voted themselves out of the Union. On 4 February 1861, delegates met at Montgomery, Alabama voted to form a new republic, the Confederate States of America. On 6 March 1861, the Confederate States created an army. The new Confederate President was the previously mentioned Jefferson Davis. The Federal Regular Army was in no position to contest the succession. With 183 of its 198 Infantry, cavalry and artillery companies spread in 79 locations, the 13,000 to 16,000 man regular army was unable to consolidate to achieve any objective. This, and the mass resignations of 313 of its Southern officers leaving only 767 available to fight for the Union left the regular army in a very weakened state. Some of the companies were stationed in Southern states and were captured, then paroled and released. Others had to make their way east across the country by the fastest means available and this was before the transcontinental railroad. Lincoln called for nine more regular Infantry regiments and one cavalry regiment bringing the totals to 19 Regular Infantry and six Regular Cavalry Regiments. The nine new Regulars Infantry Regiments had 3 battalions of 8 Companies for a total of 24 Companies versus the old first 10 Infantry Regiments were traditional 10 Companies that could be divided into 2 battalions. However, many of these new units were never completely manned. During the war the Union raised 1,696 volunteer Infantry regiments as well as 272 cavalry regiments and 78 artillery regiments. So it is difficult to determine how the regulars performed since the regulars were such a small portion of the aggregate. It also looks like they were rarely given replacements as making new regiments was more expedient than replacing old ones. This lack of a reliable individual replacement and training system forced most of these units down to Company size and many were removed from combat service before the end of the war. It looks as if commanders used used the Regulars the same as Napoleon used his Imperial Guard and saved them until they were in a desperate situation knowing that they were disciplined, reliable, steady and proud and would not fail such as at Gaines Mill, Antietam and Gettysburg in the East and Vicksburg and Chickamauga in the West.“Sykes Regular Infantry Division, 1861–1864” was for sale for $245, gave this synopsis. “Chronicles the hitherto unknown career of the Regular U.S. Infantry troops who fought in the Eastern Theater of the Civil War. Despite regional prejudice, recruitment difficulties, and ghastly casualties, the Regular Division formed the backbone of the Army of the Potomac, setting an enviable example for the volunteer regiments. Under the command of George Sykes, the division figured prominently in the battles of Gaines Mill, Second Manassas, Gettysburg and the Wilderness. At Gettysburg half their number were casualties. By 1864, the division had been fought to near extinction, prompting their removal from the field. As professionals their service spanned the years before and following the war, but never received the level of recognition comparable to the volunteer army….”I went to Wikipedia to see what battle honors they received during the Civil War and found that like the War of 1812, many regiments were consolidated during the eventual drawdown.Infantry1st US Infantry, “Always First!”- was in Texas when CW began; Wilson’s Creek, MO; Vicksburg, MS, New Orleans, LA.2nd US Infantry, “Noli Me Tangere!” (Do Not Touch Me!) - Started in Kansas and Nebraska. Was part of Sykes Regular Division. 1st Bull Run, Peninsula, Mechanicsville, Gaines Mill lost 138 of 446 engaged, saved a artillery battery and provided a rear guard for the Corps; Turkey Bridge, Malvern Hill, back to Centervillie, Groveron, 2nd Bull Run - lost 3 officers and 71 enlisted; Antietam, Fredericksburg, Gettysburg and Petersburg. Survivors consolidated into Company C in June 1864. Consolidated with 16th Infantry after War.3rd US Infantry, “Noli Me Tangere!” (Touch Me Not!) -Started in Texas at 3 different forts. Companies B, D, G, H, and K followed orders to NY. Companies C and E follow orders to Fort Pickens, FL. Companies A, F and I surrendered at Mattagorda Bay, TX. Enlisted offered commissions in Confederate Army. All declined and after parole rejoined Regiment in 1862. Companies B, D, G, H and K move to Washington DC and joined McDowell’s Army and joined the battalion of Regulars under Major George Sykes at 1st Bull Run losing 5 enlisted killed, 26 missing, 4 enlisted wounded and 2 officers wounded and taken prisoner. While guarding Washington DC, McDowell remarked to Lincoln, “Mr. President, there are the men who saved your army at Bull Run.” Companies C and E fought on Santa Rosa Island (near Fort Walton Beach, FL), Companies C and E were bombarded at Fort Pickens and were captured, paroled and exchanged losing 2 enlisted killed and 7 wounded. Companies B, D, G, H and K joined Sykes Regular Infantry Reserve Brigade and moved to the Virginia Peninsula and Seige of Yorktown. Companies C and E rejoin Regiment for Richmond, Mechanicsville and Gaines Mil where Major Rossell was killed and Captain John Wilkins took command of the regiment. Turkey Hill, Malvern Hill, Harrison's Landing, 2nd Bull Run, Antietam, Shepherdstown Ford, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg advanced across a Plum Run near Little Round Top. Casualties 8 enlisted killed, 4 officers and 63 wounded and 1 missing, New York City draft riots, Bristoe, Rappahannock, Washington DC and finally City Point, VA.4th US Infantry, “Noli Me Tangere!” (Don’t Tread On Me!)- Started at 10 different posts on the west Coast consolidated at San Francisco, CA and moved to Washington DC, five officers resigned and joined the Confederacy. Joined Sykes Regular Infantry (Reserve) Brigade. Richmond, Mechanicsville, saved Wood’s and Tidball’s batteries at Gaines Mill, VA, Groveton, 2nd Bull Run, Held Middle Ridge at Antietam, Shepherdstown Ford, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, fought at Devil’s Den at Gettysburg losing 10 enlisted killed, 2 officers and 23 enlisted wounded, New York City riots, Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, Petersburg; consolidated last 134 veterans at City Point, VA on 22 June 1864 to be US Grant’s guard. Consolidated with 30th Infantry 31 March 1869.5th US Infantry, “I’ll Try, Sir!” - stayed in NM for duration of war. Valverde, Gloretta Pass, Peralta6th US Infantry, “Regulars, By God!”- started in CA. Lewis Armistead Regt CO prior to CW. Attached to Sykes Regular Infantry Reserve Brigade. Peninsula, Yorktown, Richmond, Mechanicsville, Gaines Mill 1 officer and 5 killed, 2 officers and 61 enlisted wounded, Turkey Bridge, Malvern Hill where Captain Bootes breveted to Major for meritorious service. Groveton, 2nd Bull Run, Antietam, Fredericksburg 5 enlisted killed and 1 officer and 20 wounded, Captain Bootes breveted to Lieutenant Colonel, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg was with rest of Regulars near Little Round Top 8 enlisted were killed and 1 officer and 30 enlisted were wounded, Captain Bootes breveted to Colonel. Moved to New York City for draft riots. Regiment consolidated into companies H and L and drilled as heavy artillery. Captain Bootes promoted to Major in 17th Infantry.7th US Infantry, “Volens et Potens!” (Willing and Able!)- started in New Mexico; concentrated at Fort Fillmore, action at Mesilla, 27 July 1861 Companies A, B, D, E, G, I and K Surrendered at St Augustine Springs were paroled and moved to Jefferson Barracks, MO. Companies C, F and H at Valverde, NM. Surrendered companies join Army of the Potomac, 2nd Division, V Corps at Snicker’s Gap, VA, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg - arrived 2 July formed at the right of the line at Little Round Top, advanced across Plum Run to the crest of the rocky wooded hill near the Wheatfield and faced to the left and occupied the stonewall on the edge of the woods. The Confederates having advanced through the Wheatfield were in the rear of the Brigade at it was withdrawn under a deadly fire of musketry on both flanks and rear and shot and shell from the batteries formed in line on the right of Little Round Top. On 4 July advanced a mile in support of a skirmish line with the 12th and 14th Infantry. Casualties include killed: 1 officer and 11 enlisted; wounded 3 officers and 42 enlisted; 2 enlisted missing, moved to New York City Draft Riots 14 August 1863 for riots; moved to Florida May 1865.8th US Infantry, “Patriae Fidelas” (Loyalty to Country!” - started in Texas, forced to surrender trying to get north on various dates in April and May 1861; Company G 1st Bull Run, Companies F & G part of Porter’s Washington DC City Guard, Peninsula, Yorktown, Pamunkey, Shenandoah, Harper’s Ferry, Richmond, Mechanicsville, Gaines Mill, Turkey Bridge, Malvern Hill, Cedar Mountain, Rappahannock, Sulphuric Springs, 2nd Bull Run, Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg only Regular Regiment not assigned to the Regular Division of V Corps at Gettysburg. It was the provost guard. New York City Draft Riots, Washington DC, Rapidan, Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, Petersburg, Mine Explosion, Hatcher’s Run, Baltimore9th US Infantry, “Keep Up the Fire!” - started in WA, ordered to SF, CA for duration of the war.10th US Infantry, “Courage and Fidelity!” Scattered in posts in Nebraska, Utah, New Mexico. Three battalions operated independently. The first battalion included Companies B, E, G, and I; 2nd battalion included Companies A, F, and H and the third battalion Companies D and K. 1st Battalion attached to Sykes Regular Infantry (Reserve) Brigade Peninsula, Yorktown Richmond, Mechanicsville, Gaines Mill, Turkey Bridge, Malver Hill, Groveton, 2nd Manassas, Antietam, the battalion attached to the 2nd Infantry to support the horse batteries on the left south side of the Boonesboro Pike and deployed as skirmishes.under heavy fire engaged the skirmishes of Garnett’s Brigade and was reinforced by 17th Michigan and the 14th Infantry and upon the expenditure of ammunition withdrew across Antietam creek. Shepherdstown Ford, the second battalion (Companies A, F and H) fought at Valverde, NM then moved to Albuquerque then Peralta and then Fort Leavenworth, KS then joined Regiment at Aquia Creek, Fredericksburg. The third battalion Companies D and K went to Fort Kearney then joined Regiment for Chancellorsville, Gettysburg with Regulars Near Little Round Top and lost 1 officer and 15 enlisted killed and 5 officers, 27 enlisted wounded and 3 enlisted missing., New York City Draft Riots , attached to 9th Army Corps at at Bealton. Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, transferred to V Corps, Petersburg, Fort Hamilton, NY.11th US Infantry, “Semper Fidelis!” (Always Loyal!) [Sorry Marines]- On 4 May 1861 was organized at Fort Independence, Boston Harbor, MA; was attached to Sykes Regular Infantry Reserve Brigade, Army of the Potomac taking part in the Peninsula, Yorktown, Mechanicsville, Gaines Mill, Turkey Bridge, Malvern Hill, Harrison’s Landing, Groveton, 2nd Bull Run, Antietam, Shepardstown Ford, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, Bristoe, Rappahannock Station, Mine Run, Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, Petersburg and Hatchers Run. The Regiment lost 8 officers, 117 enlisted killed and 2 officers, 86 enlisted wounded. 1LT John Patterson was awarded Medal of Honor for actions at Wilderness.12th US Infantry, “Ducti Amore Patriae!” (Having Been Led By Love of Country!)- On 4 May 1861 was organized at Fort Hamilton, NY moved to Washington DC and attached to Sykes Regular Infantry Reserve Brigade, Army of the Potomac. Peninsula, Yorktown, Richmond, Mechanicsville, Gaines Mill, Turkey Bridge, Malvern Hill Captain Blunt breveted to Major for gallantry. Groveton, 2nd Bull Run, Antietam relieved the 4th Infantry guarding the middle bridge and deployed as skirmishers to drive Confederates away from horse batteries and suffered 1 enlisted killed and 3 wounded. Shepherdstown Ford, Fredericksburg- Captain Blunt breveted to Lieutenant Colonel for gallantry. Chancellorsville Captain Anderson wounded. Gettysburg moved with the Regulars around the right of Little Round Top. Casualties were 1 officer and 7 men killed, 4 officers and 67 enlisted wounded and 13 enlisted missing. New York City Draft riots, Bristoe, VA, Mine Run, Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, Petersburg first assault, Mine Explosion, moved to NY.13th US Infantry, “Forty Rounds! or “First at Vicksburg!” On 4 May 1861 was organized at Jefferson Barracks, MO with William T. Sherman as its Colonel and Philip H. Sheridan as its 2nd Captain both remained part of the Regiment until their appointments as Brigadier Generals on 4 July 1863 and 20 September 1864, respectively. Lieutenant Colonel Sidney Burbank (USMA 1829) assumed command on 23 July 1861 as Sherman was appointed Brigadier General of Volunteers. Vicksburg Campaign, Chickasaw Bayou, Champion Hills, Arkansas Post, Haynes Bluff, Jackson. General Sherman said, “The battalion of the Thirteenth US Regulars, commanded by Captain Edward C. Washington, was at the head of the column on the right road, and pushed the rebels close behind their parapets.” The other Corps arrived during the 18th and were posted with McPherson in the center and McClernand on the left… General Grant ordered a frontal assault on entrenched rebels on the 19th. The attack was made along the entire line, and failed. At only one point on the entire line of rebel works did Federal troops secure a foothold and plant their colors and this was done by the First Battalion, Thirteenth United States Infantry. The splendid conduct of this battalion was recognized by awarding it “First at Vicksburg.” The unit took 77 casualties out of 250 engaged including Captain Washington killed and 5 other officers wounded. After fall of Vicksburg, battalion became Sherman’s headquarters guard due to reduced numbers. It lost another 9 casualties at Jackson. Sherman’s headquarters, including the battalion of the 13th as headquarters guard were stopped on a train at Colliersville by a rebel force of 3,150 with 5 pieces of artillery. The locomotive was disabled and the 240 men of the 13th deployed along with another 240 from the 66th Indiana defended the headquarters for 4 hours being outnumbered 6 to 1. Sherman said, “There is no doubt our opportune arrival and the efforts of the regulars saved the place, and prevented the enemy from capturing our force at Colliersville, with its store of supplies, and is more importance, the railroad at that point. I avail myself of this opportunity to record my high appreciation of the services of this small but devoted battalion. They have served near my person for about a year, and have been subjected to every sort of test, and have been proven equal to them all. At the fight at Chickasaw, at Arkansas Post, at Deer Creek, at the assault on Vicksburg May 19, at Jackson, Miss, and now Colliersville, always at the most exposed point, they have suffered terribly, having lost in battle fully one half their original number….”. The battalion suffered 9 killed, 27 wounded including two officers and 25 missing at Colliersville. At Missionary Ridge was in reserve due to only having about 200 men but was committed when the Confederates retreated to the south. The 13th finished the war as Sherman’s headquarters guard vicinity of Nashville. The 22nd and 31st US Infantries spawned from the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the 13th after the war.14th US Infantry, “Right of the Line!”- On 4 May 1861 was organized at Fort Trumbull, CT with Lieutenant Colonel John Reynolds Commanding. Moved to Washington DC attached to Sykes Regular Infantry Reserve Brigade. Peninsula, Yorktown Richmond, Mechanicsville, Gaines Mill, Turkey Bridge, Malvern Hill, Groveton, 2nd Bull Run. Antietam at middle bridge crossed and supported 4th Infantry and the 2nd and 10th Infantries, Shepherdstown Ford, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg moved with the Regulars to the right of Little Round Top. Advanced with 3rd, 4th and 6th Infantries as a reconnaissance in force on 4 July. Suffered 16 enlisted killed, 2 officers and 106nenlisted wounded and 4 enlisted missing. New York City Draft riots. Bristoe, Mine Run, Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, Petersburg, Mine Explosion, New York, Provost Guard, City Point, VA.15th US Infantry, “Can Do!” On 4 May 1861 was organized at Wheeling, WV and moved to Cleveland, OH. Was the first new Infantry Regiment to engage in battle at Shiloh on 7 April 1862. Corinth, Chattanooga, Chickamauga, Murfreesboro and Atlanta. It was part of Brigadier General John King’s regular brigade, the only Regular brigade in Sherman’s Army.16th US Infantry, “Semper Paratus!” Confusion on whether this unit participated in Civil War in Wikipedia due to Army renumbering schemes. Found them in the narrative on the Rock of Chickamauga so they were part of the Regular Brigade in the West. See 15th, 18th and 19th Infantries narratives.17th US Infantry, “Truth and Courage!” On 4 May 1861 organized at Fort Preble, ME. Moved to Washington DC attached to Sykes Regular Infantry Reserve Brigade, Peninsula, Yorktown, Richmond, Mechanicsville, Gaines Mill, Turkey Bridge, Malvern Hill, Groveton, 2nd Bull Run, Antietam, Shepherdstown Ford, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg advanced with the Regulars to the right of Little Round Top and suffered 1 officer and 24 enlisted killed, 13 officers and and 105 enlisted wounded and 7 missing of 25 officers and 235 enlisted present. New York City Draft riots, Bristoe, Mine Run, Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, Petersburg, Mine Explosion, New York.18th US Infantry, “Till’ The Last Round!” Established with other US Regular Army Regiments in the Regular Army Brigade at Camp Thomas, OH in July 1861. Participated in the Western Campaigns of the war as part of XIV Army Corps under George Thomas, John M. Palmer and Jefferson C. Davis (no not that one). Perryville, Stones River, Chickamauga, Chattanooga, Atlanta, Utoy Creek, GA Regular Brigade (15th and 18th US Infantries) drove Confederate Cavalry Brigade from their position on Peyton Road south of Atlanta.19th US Infantry- “Rock of Chickamauga!” On 4 May 1861 organized in Indianapolis, IN. 1st Battalion ( Companies G and H) sent to Washington DC on provost Guard for defenses of capital. Antietam Company G attached to 17th Infantry and H to Provost Guard of Army of Potomac. Fredericksburg, rejoined Regiment in Department of the Cumberland. In West at Shiloh, Murfreesboro, Chickamauga, Chattanooga, Atlanta, Kentucky 1862, Mississippi 1862, Tennessee 1863, Georgia 1864. At Chattanooga the Regular Brigade (3rd Brigade, 1st Division, XIV Corps) filed into position near Kelly’s farm in northwest Georgia, 13 miles south of Chattanooga. The Brigade commanded by Brigadier General John King consisted of 5 battalions and a battery and was the largest body of US Regulars west of the Appalachians. The Regulars had moved to support an attack when they were overwhelmed with Confederates and lost the 1st of the 16th and the battery to capture. The remaining 62 members joined with the 19th Infantry. The veterans of Shiloh and Stones River were not discouraged. General Thomas was told by General Roscrans to hold the Rossville Gap. King’s Regulars (now down to 1000 men) Was unable to man his front. He organized his regulars in 4 lines with 1/18 in front behind brestworks, next 2/18 to support the front line. The third and forth lines were the 15th and 19th Infantries, respectively to support the front line and wheel to the left to protect the open flank. The plan worked as designed. Confederate Brigadier General Ben Hardin Helm was killed in the assaults. The Regulars kept moving back fighting as other union units gave way. At the end of the battle, only 36 officers and 573 enlisted were present for duty. A total of 573 men were captured but they held gap, as ordered. General Roscrans was relieved and General Thomas elevated after this debacle. The Regular Brigade was never able to fight as a separate unit again. They were withdrawn in October 1864 due to casualties and preparation for occupation duties in the South after the war.Cavalry1st Dragoons (1st Cavalry) “Animo Et Fide” (Courageous and Faithful!) - Most of Regiment was on Pacific Coast with Headquarters and Companies D and G in New Mexico. Colonel Fauntleroy resigned his commission and returned to Virginia and was appointed Brigadier General in Provisional Virginia Army but when transferred to the Confederacy refused to confirm his commission and retired. Lieutenant Colonel Beall assumed command of regiment. 3 August 1861, redesignated 1st Cavalry Regiment. Regiment minus battalion of D an G returned from the West Coast via Panama arrived in Washington DC attached to Cooke’s Cavalry Reserve, Army of Potomac. Battalion of D and G Companies participated in Glorietta, Peralta, NM battles then unit was broken up and members sent to Carlisle Barracks, PA. Rest of Regiment was at Peninsula, Yorktown, Williamsburg, Captain Benjamin F. Davis led a squadron in a successful charge against Confederate cavalry capturing enemy flag and lost 13 men at Cheese Cake Church. Richmond, Gaines Mill lost 26 men including Colonel Blake Commanding brigade. Malvern Hill, Charlestown, WV, Fredericksburg, Kelly’s Ford, Stoneman’s Raid, Brandy Station, Middleburg, Upperville lost 51 casualties in Sabre charge against Jeff Davis Legion and 1st and 2nd North Carolina. Gettysburg lost 1 killed and 9 wounded. On 3 July moved with Brigadier General Merritt’s brigade from Emmitsburg and attacked the Confederate right and rear and was engaged for 4 hours until action brought to a close by heavy rains. Williamsport lost 2 men attacking up turnpike taking a Confederate Officer and 13 men prisoner. Boonsboro lost 14 men. Brandy Station again lost 15 men. Remounted back at Washington DC, recreated Companies D and G and finally had full Regiment together. Bristoe, Mines Run, Barnett’s Ford captured 4 prisoners in a charge and lost two men the next day. Custer Raid in Albemarle County drove Confederates from camp and burned Rosanna Bridge. Stannardsville enemy charged 5th Cavalry and 1st Cavalry supported countercharge capturing 25 rebels and killed and wounded others. Wilderness, Todd’s Tavern 5 officers wounded and 10 men killed. Sheridan’s Raid to the James River, Yellow Tavern, Cold Harbor 1 Officer and 2 men killed, 1 officer and 4 men wounded. Trevillian Station 2 officers and 3 men killed and officer and 29;men wounded. Deep Bottom routed Confederate cavalry brigade and captured battle flag. Returned to Washington DC to defend against Early attack. Marched for Harpers Ferry and Sheridan’s Valley Campaign. Engaged Confederate Cavalry at near Winchester routed. Toll Gate near White Post and Newtown drove enemy Cavalry until they were reinforced by Infantry. Dismounted and fought on foot across an open plowed field and drove enemy from woods but were repulsed by heavy flank fire and forced to take refuge behind barricades and hold position losing 1 Officer Wounded. Mosby raided the regimental trains and killed the quartermaster, destroyed records and personal effects of officers near Charlestown, WV. Near Strasburg destroyed wheat and forage and seized horses, cattle, sheep and hogs in the valley. Halltown took many prisoners after engagement. Leetown and Smithfield met a full Confederate Cavalry Brigade that charged with the pistol and two bodies met. Confederates retreated. Captain Hoyer was killed and 10 to 12 men wounded. Lieutenant Harris took over Hoyer’s squadron and Captain Baker took over Command of the regiment from Captain Sweitzer. Third battle of Winchester took part in epic charge of the Reserve Brigade with 2nd Cavalry and captured 2 stands of colors and 200 prisoners losing 37 casualties including one officer. Mosby attacked ambulance and Lieutenant McMaster was killed after capture. 1st and 2nd Cavalry chased guerillas and killed and captured 10 or 12 and hung several in retaliation at Front Royal. Rockfish Gap lost 18 casualties. Tom’s Brook captured 4 guns, 4 wagons and some prisoners and lost 2 men. Cedar Creek defended dismounted behind stonewalls in the morning with the greatest of difficulty. Rallied and counterattacked mounted in the afternoon and pursued Early’s beaten forces for 2 days. Waynesboro destroyed or captured last remnants of Early’s forces. Five Forks charged Confederate entrenchments and took 200 prisoners. At surrender of Lee at Appomattox.2nd Dragoons (2nd Cavalry) “Toujours Pret” (Always Ready!) - Started scattered in 7 forts in Nebraska, Utah, Kansas, New Mexico. Companies C, G and I remained in the Western Theatre. 1st Bull Run Companies B and K participated. Redesignated 2nd US Cavalry Regiment. Assigned to Cavalry Reserve, Army of Potomac. All companies but C, G and I in Washington DC. Peninsula, Yorktown, Wesley Merritt (USMA ‘60) promoted to Captain. Ellison’s Mill, Richmond, Reconnaissance to Charlestown, WV. Companies G and I arrive Washington DC. Fredericksburg, Sergeant Martin Hagen awarded Medal of Honor for covering Union retreat by holding back a Confederate Brigade with a small detachment without losing a man. Companies G and I join regiment at Falmouth. Attached to Reserve Brigade, 1st Division, Cavalry Corps, Army of the Potomac. Chancellorsville and Stoneman’s Raid. Company C rejoined Regiment at Falmouth. Captain Merritt commands Regiment at Brandy Station. Middleburg, Upperville. Captain Merritt promoted to Brigadier General of US Volunteers and Captain Theophilus F. Rodebough took command of Regiment. Gettysburg on 3 July moved with Brigade under Brigadier General Merritt from Emmitsburg and attacked the Confederate right and rear and was engaged for 4 hours until action brought to a close by heavy rain losing 3 men killed, 1 Officer and 6 men wounded and 1 Officer and 8 men missing. Wilderness, Yellow Tavern, Trevillian Station where Captain Rodebough was Wounded and awarded the Medal of Honor for “great skill and valor” in handling the Regiment. 3rd Winchester Captain Rodebough led a charge and again severely wounded losing his right arm and unhorsed. First Sergeant Conrad Schmidt of Company K rode back under heavy fire to rescue the Captain and was awarded the Medal of Honor. Fisher’s Hill, Tom’s Brook, Private Edward Hanson of H Company awarded the Medal of Honor for capturing flag of the 32nd Virginia Cavalry Regiment. Cedar Creek. Assigned to Cavalry Brigade in Shenandoah.1st Mounted Rifles (3rd Cavalry) “Blood and Steel!” Formed at Jefferson Barracks, MO on 19 May 1846 and reorganized on 3 August 1861 as the 3rd United States Cavalry began the war scattered in Company size outposts in New Mexico Territory including present day Colorado, Texas, Nevada, Arizona and Utah. Upon succession lost 13 officers to the Confederacy including: Joe Wheeler, William Loring, Dabney Maury and George Crittenden. Not a single enlisted man defected from the regiment. A Confederate force of 3,000 Texans began a campaign at Fort Bliss, to seize territories of New Mexico and Colorado. The Companies B and F opposed them at a hard fight at Mesila under Major Isaac Lynde. They were driven back by accurate rifle fire and retired to Fort Filmore where it was later surrendered. After redesignation at Fort Thomas the regiment dwindled in size and troopers from Companies A, B and H were transferred to other commands leaving only Companies C, G and K to defeat rebel Cavalry near Fort Thorn, NM. On 21 February 1862 Companies C, D, G, I and K under Major Thomas Duncan fought at Valverde, the largest land battle west of the Mississippi River. The battle occurred at a strategically important Ford over the Rio Grande River in New Mexico. The Union forces under General Edward Canby attempted to hold the Confederates under General Henry Sibley but were out flanked (The Good, the Bad and the Ugly is the historical context). Captain Alexander McRea from North Carolina, Commanded Company E and a battery of artillery and inflicted heavy damage on the Confederates but was eventually overrun and he was among the dead. The Regiment fought both Confederates and Indians at Comanche and Apache Canyons and Gorietta Pass and Peralta where 3rd Cavalry defeated the Confederates and forced them back to Texas. After this campaign went to Memphis, TN via Jefferson Barracks. It performed reconnaissance missions for Sherman during Knoxville Campaign and skirmished enemy at Murphy, North Carolina and Loudon, TN. At end of war stationed at Little Rock, Arkansas. During the war they lost 5 officers and 135 enlisted from all causes.1st Cavalry (4th Cavalry), “Prepared and Loyal!” Started at Forts Washita, Wise and Kearney on the Western frontier. Colonel Robert E. Lee appointed to Command Regiment. Colonel Lee resigns having never joined the regiment in the field. Captain JEB Stuart of Company K resigned. Companies A and E join Heintzelman’s Division, Army of Northeast Virginia for 1st Bull Run and to Centerville after the battle. On 22 June 1861, Former 1st Cavalry Officer, George McClellan now a Major General requested Companies A and E as his personal escort. Redesignated the 4th US Cavalry. Peninsula, Yorktown, Richmond, Gaines Mill, Malvern Hill, Antietam. Rejoined Regiment in Tennessee 1862. The bulk of the Regiment was in squadron (2 Companies) and battalion (4 Companies) operations in the western theater including Forts Henry and Donelson and the battle of Shiloh. On 31 December 1862, a squadron routed a Confederate Brigade near Murfreesboro, TN. On 30 June 1863 another squadron charged a 6 gun battery and captured the entire battery and 300 prisoners. On 14 December 1864, the Regiment attacked Nashville, TN under the Cavalry Corps of General James Wilson and turned the Confederate flank sending them in retreat. As Rebels delayed at West Harpath, TN, Lieutenant Joseph Hedges charged and captured an artillery battery and received the Medal of Honor. In March 1865, General Wilson took his Cavalry Corps through Alabama to capture the supply depot at Selma. It defeated Nathan Bedford Forrest’s cavalry with support numbers and fire power. The 4th US Cavalry led the charge and dismounted to press the attack destroying munitions, supplies, foundries and arsenals. The force then went to link up with General Sherman going through Montgomery, AL and Columbus, GA before arriving in Macon, GA where word came of the surrender of Lee and Johnston’s armies. The Regiment participated in the Battle of Columbus, GA on 16 April 1865, the last battle of the Civil War and the capture of Jefferson Davis.2nd Cavalry (5th Cavalry), “Loyalty and Courage!” Started in Texas under acting command of Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee. The Regimental Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston was serving in California as Commander of the Department of the Pacific. General David Twiggs, Commander of the Department of Texas surrendered all United States forces in the Department. Arrangements were made for the 2nd Cavalry to be evacuated north and Lieutenant Colonel Lee returned to Washington DC. When Colonel Johnston learned of Texas succession, his adopted state, he resigned his commission. The companies evacuated Texas by various routes and means. Notable officers that Captains Kirby Smith, Field and, Bradfute resigned. Colonel George Thomas became Colonel and Thomas Wood Lieutenant Colonel of the Regiment. 1st Lieutenant Wesley Merritt appointed Adjutant. Falling Waters skirmish, Blackburn’s Ford. Companies B, E, G and I at 1st Bull Run with 1st Brigade, Hunter’s 2nd Division, Department of Northeastern Army. Companies A, C, F, and K moved to Harper’s Ferry. Redesignated 5th United States Cavalry. Attached to Cavalry Command in Army of the Potomac. Peninsula, Yorktown, Williamsburg, Hanover, Richmond, Gaines Mill, Captain Charles Whiting led 220 men charging Hood’s Texas Brigade which had broken the Federal lines and took 58 casualties and slowed the Confederate attack and allowed many Federal guns to be withdrawn. Hood had served as a lieutenant under Whiting in the old 2nd Cavalry. Antietam, Captain Joseph McArthur led the crossing the Middle Bridge over the Antietam and supported the artillery. Shepherdstown Ford, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Brandy Station with Captain James Harrison in Command. Gettysburg under Captain Julius Mason moved with the Merritt Brigade from Emmitsburg and attacked Confederate right and rear and was engaged for 4 hours until brought a close by a heavy rain losing 5 men. Custer Raid in Albemarle County. Trevillians Station, Petersburg. 3rd Winchester, Fisher’s Hill, Cedar Creek, Five Forks and Appomattox.3rd Cavalry (6th Cavalry), “Ducit Amor Patriae!” (Led By Love of Country!) Organized as 3rd US Cavalry at Pittsburgh, PA. Redesignated 6th United States Cavalry with Lieutenant Colonel Emory Commanding. In 1862, declared ready for combat with 34 officers and 950 men. Peninsula, Yorktown, Cheese Cake Church, Mechanicsville, Hanover Court House, Richmond, Malvern Hill, Antietam, under Captain Willam Sanders was detached in skirmish order as Provost Guard in the right rear of Army of Potomac. Shepherdstown Ford, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Brandy Station Commanded by Captain George Cram. Gettysburg under Major Samual Star on 3 July moved with the Merritt Brigade from Emmitsburg to attack right and rear but was detached to intercept Confederate wagon train near Fairfield and engaged Jones’s Cavalry Brigade of 6th, 7th, 11th, Virginia Cavalry, Clue’s battery and 35th Virginia Battalion in severe hand to hand fighting and forced to retire with heavy losses. Of 400 engaged lost 242 including 6 men killed, 5 officers and 23 men wounded and 5 officers and 203 men missing and presumed captured. Trevillian’s Station, Petersburg, Fisher’s Hill, Cedar Creek, Five Forks, Sailor’s Creek and Appomattox.ArtilleryThere was too much regular artillery employed at battery and below level to go into the eaches. The 1st through 5th United States Artillery Regiments had elements in the East mostly with the Army of the Potomac. This synopsis is from Wikipedia.The Union Army entered the war with a strong advantage in artillery. It had ample manufacturing capacity in Northern factories, and it had a well trained and professional Officer Corps manning that branch of the service. Brigadier General Henry Hunt, who was the Chief of Artillery for the Army of the Potomac for part of the war, was well recognized as a most efficient organizer of artillery forces and he had few peers in the practice of gunnery and logistics.The basic unit of artillery was the battery which consisted of 6 guns. Efforts were made that all 6 guns were of the same caliber to simplify training and logistics. Each gun was operated by a gun crew of 8, plus 4 additional men to handle horses and equipment. Two guns operating under the control of a lieutenant was a section. The battery of 6 guns was commanded by a Captain. Artillery Brigades of 5 batteries were commanded by colonels and supported an Infantry Corps. In the Army of the Potomac, 5 Brigades formed the Artillery Reserve. George McClellan had one regular battery for every 4 volunteer batteries to provide an example of regular Army professionalism to them. This arrangement, championed by Hunt, allowed artillery to be massed in support of the entire army’s objective, rather than being dispersed all across the battlefield.The Union had 3,325 guns by the end of the war and 53% were field pieces. The advantage heavily favored the Union in regards to artillery and much of this was because of the professionalism of the regulars.EngineersThe Corps of Engineers officers typically came from the very top graduates of West Point since its inception in 1802. In fact, the Corps was responsible for running the institution. It’s typical missions were fortifications and traversing rivers. Many of the engineer officers left their duties in the Corps for duties leading volunteer Infantry formations leaving the Corps short handed for technical talent. For example, both Lee and McClellan were engineer officers both graduating 2nd in their respective Classes of 1829 and 1846. Of 46 officer positions in the Corps of Engineers, 26 of these officers had left to serve with volunteer units or Army staffs and 7 resigned to join the Confederacy leaving a huge void. This was filled using recently graduated West Pointers with the aptitude for Engineering rather than accepting officers from other branches due to quality concerns. The defenses of Washington was a prime concern that included forts and the ring road connecting them and served as an anchor of the grand strategy in the East. After 1st Bull Run, these fortifications is all that protected Washington and the Confederate forces. By 1865, they had completed 68 forts within a 37 mile perimeter around Washington. In 1864, Lee sent Jubal Early’s 20,000 man force against Washington which he found impregnable despite minimal manning.In addition to the defense of Washington, the Corps of Engineers was authorized a battalion of enlisted that it put on the offensive in the field. Recruited mainly from New England these volunteers were carpenters, masons, and other skilled workers. The battalion had 4 companies and served the Army of the Potomac from the Peninsula to Appomattox. The engineer learned Bridge building from Sergeant Frederick Gerber and were able to construct pontoon bridges, the first in the United States. They created pontoon bridge trains to follow the Army of the Potomac. They also fought as Infantry when required at Malvern Hill and Wilderness.in the West, engineers were used extensively in the seige at Vicksburg. Throughout the war, engineers were critically short.Summary: The Regular Army’s contribution to the Union has never been fully explored. Needless to say that when things were at there darkest or a mission needed to be accomplished, the Regulars were often called upon or committed and they lived up to expectations. They were disciplined, reliable, dependable, steady and proud of their legacy. By the end of the war most were out of the front lines because they could not replace their losses with trained personnel. I leave it to you to decide if they were ever beaten.BibliographyBonk, David, “Chateau Thierry & Beleau Wood 1918,” Oxford, Osprey Publishing, 2007.Irwin, Gregory J. W., “The United States Infantry 1775–1918, London, Blanford Press, 1988.Katcher, Philip, “The American War 1812–14,” Oxford, Osprey Publishing, 1990.Kochan, James L., “United States Army 1812–15,” Oxford, Osprey Publishing Company, 2000.Latimer, Jon, “Niagara 1814,” Oxford, Osprey Publishing Company, 2009.McAlexander, Ulysses Grant, “History of the Thirteen Regiment United States Infantry,” 1923.Internet:WikipediaHistorynetCivil War in the East

The Torah is not an historical document but rather a book of faith and should be appreciated in that way. That said, Judaism is a religion and not a race. With that the majority of “Jews” that are encountered today find their origins in Poland not in North Africa as it often assumed.The Reichstag enacted the Nuremberg Laws in 1935 Germany racializing German citizens who were practitioners of the Hebrew faith. under these laws Germen identity became codified by religiosity. These laws were very similar to America’s “Negro Laws” in that they racialised pigmentation ( a polymer). A regime can racialise anything for sociopolitical and economic exploitation.Compare the “Nuremberg Laws” of Germany to the “Negro Laws” of America below. Both sets of laws were designed to racialize phenotype or specific appearances and or religious practices to oppress certain people usually for economic reason.These legal classifications created the notion of being “Jewish” as compared to being “black” and ”negro”The Nuremberg LawsHolocaust and Human BehaviorChapter 6HolocaustTransforming Germany in the 1930sViolence was a crucial tool of the Nazi government, but its leaders were also eager to show that they were acting within the framework of the law. As they worked to consolidate power and reshape Germany according to their racial ideals, Nazi leaders passed a number of new laws that redefined citizenship and laid the groundwork for a “racial state.”On September 15, 1935, at a party rally in Nuremberg, the Nazis announced two new laws that changed who could be a German citizen. The Reich Citizenship Law required that all citizens have German “blood.” As a result, Jews and others lost their rights to citizenship, which not only stripped them of the right to vote but also made them stateless. This meant that they could not get a valid passport for travel between countries or acquire a visa to leave Germany.The second law was called the Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor, which stated the following:In 1933, Jewish businessman Oskar Danker and his girlfriend, a Christian woman, were forced to carry signs discouraging Jewish-German integration. Intimate relationships between “true Germans” and Jews were outlawed by 1935.Moved by the understanding that purity of German blood is the essential condition for the continued existence of the German people, and inspired by the inflexible determination to ensure the existence of the German nation for all time, the Reichstag has unanimously adopted the following law, which is promulgated herewith:Article 1Marriages between Jews and subjects of the state of German or related blood are forbidden. Marriages nevertheless concluded are invalid, even if concluded abroad to circumvent this law.Annulment proceedings can be initiated only by the state prosecutor.Article 2Extramarital relations between Jews and subjects of the state of German or related blood are forbidden.Article 3Jews may not employ in their households female subjects of the state of German or related blood who are under 45 years old.Article 4Jews are forbidden to fly the Reich or national flag or display Reich colors.They are, on the other hand, permitted to display the Jewish colors. The exercise of this right is protected by the state.Article 5Any person who violates the prohibition under Article 1 will be punished with a prison sentence.A male who violates the prohibition under Article 2 will be punished with a jail term or a prison sentence.Any person violating the provisions under Articles 3 or 4 will be punished with a jail term of up to one year and a fine, or with one or the other of these penalties.Article 6The Reich Minister of the Interior, in coordination with the Deputy of the Führer and the Reich Minister of Justice, will issue the legal and administrative regulations required to implement and complete this law.The two new laws announced at Nuremberg made sharp distinctions between the rights and privileges of Germans and Jews. They also raised an important question: What determined who was and who was not a Jew? According to most Jewish teachings, an individual was defined as a Jew if he or she was born to a Jewish mother or formally converted to Judaism. If a Jew converted to Christianity, he or she was no longer considered Jewish by most Jews. The Nazis did not accept that definition. They regarded Jews as members of neither a religious group nor an ethnic group (defined by their cultural heritage). Instead, they regarded Jews as members of a separate and inferior “race.” Since, according to Nazi logic, “race” was not altered by conversion, people who were born Jewish would always be Jews regardless of their religious beliefs or practices.Though the Nazis believed that identity was biological, something “carried in the blood,” this idea had no scientific reality. Whether someone was German or Jewish could not be determined by medical or scientific tests. The question of defining German and Jewish identity was further complicated by the fact that there had been a great deal of intermarriage between the two groups, and there were thousands of people of mixed Jewish and non-Jewish ancestry, known to the Nazis as Mischlinge(“half-breeds” or “mixed-blood”).On November 14, 1935, the Nazi government officially defined who was a German and who was a Jew through an additional decree called the First Regulation to the Reich Citizenship Law. (Debates about how to classify Mischlinge went on for years and were never completely resolved.) It stated:Article 1Until further regulations regarding citizenship papers are issued, all subjects of German or kindred blood, who possessed the right to vote in the Reichstag elections at the time the [Nuremberg] Citizenship Law came into effect, shall for the time being possess the rights of Reich citizens. The same shall be true of those to whom the Reich Minister of the Interior, in conjunction with the Deputy of the Führer, has given preliminary citizenship.The Reich Minister of the Interior, in conjunction with the Deputy of the Führer, can withdraw the preliminary citizenship.Article 3Only the Reich citizen, as bearer of full political rights, exercises the right to vote in political affairs or can hold public office. The Reich Minister of the Interior, or any agency empowered by him, can make exceptions during the transition period, with regard to occupation of public office. The affairs of religious organizations will not be affected.Article 4A Jew cannot be a citizen of the Reich. He has no right to vote in political affairs and he cannot occupy public office.Jewish [government] officials will retire as of December 31, 1935. If these officials served at the front in the world war, either for Germany or her allies, they will receive in full, until they reach the age limit, the pension to which they were entitled according to the salary they last received; they will, however, not advance in seniority. After reaching the age limit, their pensions will be calculated anew, according to the salary last received, on the basis of which their pension was computed.The affairs of religious organizations will not be affected.The conditions of service of teachers in Jewish public schools remain unchanged until new regulations for the Jewish school systems are issued.Article 5A Jew is anyone who is descended from at least three grandparents who are racially full Jews. Article 2, para. 2, second sentence will apply.A Jew is also one who is descended from two full Jewish parents, if (a) he belonged to the Jewish religious community at the time this law was issued, or joined the community later, (b) he was married to a Jewish person, at the time the law was issued, or married one subsequently, (c) he is the offspring of a marriage with a Jew, in the sense of Section I, which was contracted after the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor became effective, (d) he is the offspring of an extramarital relationship with a Jew, according to Section I, and will be born out of wedlock after July 31, 1936.Article 6Requirements for the pureness of blood as laid down in Reich Law or in orders of the NSDAP [the Nazi Party] and its echelons—not covered in Article 5—will not be affected.Any other requirements for the pureness of blood, not covered in Article 5, can be made only by permission of the Reich Minister of the Interior and the Deputy Führer. If any such demands have been made, they will be void as of January 1, 1936, if they have not been requested by the Reich Minister of the Interior in agreement with the Deputy Führer. These requests must be made by the Reich Minister of the Interior.Article 7The Führer and Reich Chancellor can grant exemptions from the regulations laid down in the law.In time, the Nazis extended the Nuremberg Laws, as these laws institutionalizing Nazi racial theory came to be known, to include marriages between “Aryans” and other “racially inferior” groups. Nazi officials interpreted the wording to mean that relations between “those of German or related blood” and “Gypsies,” Afro-Germans, or their offspring were also forbidden. Some people within the Nazi government considered requiring “Aryans” to divorce their Jewish spouses, but they did not go through with this plan.Connection QuestionsHow do the Nuremberg Laws define what makes someone a “German”? How do they define Germany’s universe of obligation?How do the Nuremberg Laws reflect earlier ideas about racial difference and hierarchies (see Chapter 2, We and They)? How do they reflect what you have already learned about Nazi ideology?Why do you think Article 3 was included in the Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor? What idea might the law be implying?How did the Nuremberg Laws make it necessary for the Nazis to issue the First Regulation to the Reich Citizenship Law two months later? Why might it have been so complicated to figure out who was “Jewish” without these laws?The Nuremberg Laws meant that Jews could no longer define their identities for themselves. What does it mean to lose the right to define yourself? How was the problem confronting Germans of Jewish descent in 1935 similar to that faced by the Bear in reading, The Bear That Wasn’t in Chapter 1? How do the two differ?What happens when a government says that one part of your identity is more important than other parts?Negro Law and Legal DefinitionThe word Negro is used in the English-speaking world to refer to a person of black ancestry or appearance. The usage was accepted as normal, even by people classified as Negroes, until the Civil Rights movement. During the American Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African American leaders in the United States objected to the word, preferring Black, because they associated the word Negro with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination. During the 1960s the term Negro became considered to be a so-called "ethnic slur"."Negro" superseded "colored" as the most polite terminology, at a time when "black" was more offensive. The United States Census Bureau announced that Negro would be included on the 2010 United States Census, alongside "Black" and "African-American," because some older Black Americans nevertheless self-identify with the term.ABRAHAM LINCOLN ON THE “NEGRO LAWS”Abraham Lincoln Represented a Moorish plaintiff from Portugal in William Dungey v. Joseph Spencer. Lincoln Successfully argued:“My client is not a Negro, though it is a crime to be a Negro–no crime to be born with a black skin. But my client is not a Negro. His skin may not be as white as ours, but I say he is not a Negro, though he may be a Moore.” “Mr. Lincoln,” interrupted Judge Davis, scarcely able to restrain a smile, “you mean a Moor, not Moore.” “Well, your Honor, Moor, not C.H. Moore,” replied Mr. Lincoln, with a sweep of his long arm toward the table where Moore and I sat. “I say my client may be a Moor, but he is not a Negro.”In its most general sense, the term “badge of slavery” therefore refers to indicators, physical or otherwise, of African Americans’ slave or subordinate status. As Professor George Rutherglen has pointed out, the phrase “badge of slavery” was used metaphorically as far back as the Roman Empire to refer to “evidence of political subjugation. See George Rutherglen, The Badges and Incidents of Slavery and the Power of Congress to Enforce the Thirteenth Amendment, in The Promises Of Liberty: The History And Contemporary Relevance Of The Thirteenth Amendment 163, 166 & n.23 (Alexander Tsesis ed., 2010) (citing P. Cornelius Tacitus, The Annals And The Histories bk. XV, at 31 (1952)) (recounting incident where a victorious general was asked to treat a conquered king so that he “might not have to endure any badge of slavery”); see also id. at n.19 (citing use of phrase during English Civil War).This is not the first time that Moors rejected the Negro/Black Badge, much earlier in 1790. On January 20, 1790, a petition was presented to the South Carolina House of Representatives from a group of four individuals who were subjects of the Moroccan emperor and residents of the state. They desired that if they happened to commit any fault amenable to be brought to justice, that as subjects to a prince allied with the United States through the Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship, they would be tried as citizens instead of under the Negro Act of 1740. The Free Moors, Francis, Daniel, Hammond and Samuel petitioned on behalf of themselves and their wives Fatima, Flora, Sarah and Clarinda.[1]They explained how some years ago while fighting in defense of their country, they and their wives were captured and made prisoners of war by an African king. After this a certain Captain Clark had them delivered to him, promising they would be redeemed by the Moroccan ambassador residing in England, and returned to their country. Instead, he transported them to South Carolina, and sold them for slaves. Since then, “by the greatest industry,” they purchased freedom from their respective masters. They requested that as free born subjects of a Prince in alliance with the U.S., that they should not be considered subject to a state law (then in force) known as the negro law. If they be found guilty of any crime or misdemeanor, they would receive a fair trial by lawful jury. The matter was referred to a committee consisting of Justice John Faucheraud Grimké, General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Edward Rutledge.Edward Rutledge reported from the committee on the petition on the same day and the House agreed to the report, which read as follows Vizt: “They have Considered the same and are of opinion that no Law of this State can in its Construction or Operation apply to them, and that persons who were Subjects of the Emperor of Morocco being Free in this State are not triable by the Law for the better Ordering and Governing of Negroes and other Slaves.” Because the report was not forwarded to the state Senate for concurrence, it did not have the force of law but served as an advisory opinion offering the sense of the House. The report was later published in the Charleston City Gazette and the Charleston State Gazette of South Carolina. Click Here to read the Sundry Free Moors Act o 1790.Dr. Arica Coleman, an assistant professor at the University of Delaware who is of Rappahannock and African American descent, discussed how the term negro might actually be referring to an American Indian. According to her latest book, That the Blood Stay Pure, the term’s origins can be traced to medieval Italy where it was a classification of a skin color, not race. Additionally, Europeans often referred to indigenous populations of their communities as negroes. In the Portuguese colony of Brazil, Indians were called negros da terra meaning negroes of the land. Coleman pointed out during the conference that the early Virginia legislature identified Moors and negroes separately.See 6 Shocking Facts About Slavery, Natives and African AmericansIn New Jersey, we have learned from hard experience that although skin color is “public” in a sense, the state must nevertheless assert a compelling governmental interest before using preconceived notions about the implications of skin color to justify police conduct. The New Jersey State Constitution: A Reference GuideBy Robert F. Williams. “The public as a whole has a significant interest in ensuring equal protection of the laws and protection of First Amendment liberties.” Jones v. Caruso, 569 F.3d 258, 278 (6th Cir. 2009).The phrase badge of slavery: acquired a more specific range of meanings in American discourse referred to the skin color of African Americans. In some states and some courts, dark skin was presumptively a “mark or sign” of slave status. See MORRIS, supra note 49, at 21. State v. Whitaker, 3 Del. 549, 550 (1840); see also State v. Rash, 6 Del. 271, 274 (Del. Ct. Gen. Sess. 1867) (“As slavery was exclusively confined to the black or colored race, color became the badge or sign of servitude . . . .”).As a consequence, some legal restrictions that applied to slaves, like the bar on testimony in any case involving a white person, also applied to free blacks because they also wore the badge of slavery. Gerrit Smith, Editorial, THE LIBERATOR, March 7, 1835, at 39.There should be little question that the historical assumption that “black means criminal” continues to hold sway today. See, e.g. ARMOUR, supra note 65, at 2.Additionally, race based criminal suspicion, legally enforced through the Slave Codes, and was used to keep blacks in fear and in their “place” during slavery. HIGGINBOTHAM, IN THE MATTER OF, supra note 35, at 8.Criminality of the Negro was a central concept in numerous public-discourses. “Americans as a mass,” a 1915 editorial in The Crisis astutely observed,“regard . . . Negroes as criminals. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, “Editorial: Mohr,” The Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races 11 (1916): 244.White news papers tended to portray black Americans as especially lawless and the almost ubiquitous mention of (black) race in crime stories“tend[ed] to stamp the entire Negro group as criminals Chicago Commission on Race Relations. The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1922), 525Even efforts to legislatively combat lynch violence were accompanied by rhetorical constructions of black criminality. As the 1921, 1922 debate in the House of Representatives over a federal anti-lynching bill demonstrates, attempts to outlaw lynching were met with decrees from elected officials that such legislation would “encourage rape. Barbara Holden-Smith, “Lynching, Federalism, and the Intersection of Race andGender in the Progressive Era,” Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 8 (1996): 56.For a discussion of this dynamic modern society, see Patricia J. Williams Meditations on Masculinity, in Constructing Masculinity 238, 242 (Maurice Berger et al. eds `1995) (describing the function of the connection between race and crime and stating that this connection results in [a]ny black criminal becom[ing] all black men, and the fear of all black men becom[ing] the rallying point for controlling all black people”).One in four black men born since the late 1970s has spent time in prison. Ex-offenders are excluded from a wide variety of jobs, running the gamut from septic-tank cleaner to barber to real-estate agent, depending on the state. And in the limited job pool that ex-offenders can swim in, blacks and whites are not equal. For her research, Pager pulled together four testers to pose as men looking for low-wage work. One white man and one black man would pose as job seekers without a criminal record, and another black man and white man would pose as job seekers with a criminal record. The negative credential of prison impaired the employment efforts of both the black man and the white man, but it impaired those of the black man more. Startlingly, the effect was not limited to the black man with a criminal record. The black man without a criminal record fared worse than the white man with one. “High levels of incarceration cast a shadow of criminality over all black men, implicating even those (in the majority) who have remained crime free,” Pager writes. Effectively, the job market in America regards black men who have never been criminals as though they were. See The Black Family in the Age of Mass Incarceration“the crime-stained blackness of the negro” It is impossible to conceive of the Gray Wastes without first conceiving of a large swath of its inhabitants as both more than criminal and less than human. These inhabitants, black people, are the preeminent outlaws of the American imagination. Black criminality is literally written into the American Constitution—the Fugitive Slave Clause, in Article IV of that document, declared that any “Person held to Service or Labour” who escaped from one state to another could be “delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.” From America’s very founding, the pursuit of the right to labor, and the right to live free of whipping and of the sale of one’s children, were verboten for blacks. See The Black Family in the Age of Mass IncarcerationThe crime of absconding was thought to be linked to other criminal inclinations among blacks. Pro-slavery intellectuals sought to defend the system as “commanded by God” and “approved by Christ.” In 1860, The New York Herald offered up a dispatch on the doings of runaway slaves residing in Canada. “The criminal calendars would be bare of a prosecution but for the negro prisoners,” the report claimed. Deprived of slavery’s blessings, blacks quickly devolved into criminal deviants who plied their trade with “a savage ferocity peculiar to the vicious negro.” Blacks, the report stated, were preternaturally inclined to rape: “When the lust comes over them they are worse than the wild beast of the forest.” Nearly a century and a half before the infamy of Willie Horton, a portrait emerged of blacks as highly prone to criminality, and generally beyond the scope of rehabilitation. In this fashion, black villainy justified white oppression—which was seen not as oppression but as “the corner-stone of our republican edifice.” See The Black Family in the Age of Mass IncarcerationTo fortify the “republican edifice,” acts considered legal when committed by whites were judged criminal when committed by blacks. In 1850, a Missouri man named Robert Newsom purchased a girl named Celia, who was about 14 years old. For the next five years, he repeatedly raped her. Celia birthed at least one child by Newsom. When she became pregnant again, she begged Newsom to “quit forcing her while she was sick.” He refused, and one day in June of 1855 informed Celia that he “was coming to her cabin that night.” When Newsom arrived and attempted to rape Celia again, she grabbed a stick “about as large as the upper part of a Windsor chair” and beat Newsom to death. See The Black Family in the Age of Mass IncarcerationA judge rejected Celia’s self-defense claim, and she was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death. While she was in jail, she gave birth to the child, who arrived stillborn. Not long after, Celia was hanged. Celia’s status—black, enslaved, female—transformed an act of self-defense into an act of villainy. Randall Kennedy, a law professor at Harvard, writes that “many jurisdictions made slaves into ‘criminals’ by prohibiting them from pursuing a wide range of activities that whites were typically free to pursue.” Among these activities were: learning to read, leaving their masters’ property without a proper pass, engaging in “unbecoming” conduct in the presence of a white female, assembling to worship outside the supervisory presence of a white person, neglecting to step out of the way when a white person approached on a walkway, smoking in public, walking with a cane, making loud noises, or defending themselves from assaults. Antebellum Virginia had 73 crimes that could garner the death penalty for slaves—and only one for whites. See The Black Family in the Age of Mass IncarcerationThe end of enslavement posed an existential crisis for white supremacy, because an open labor market meant blacks competing with whites for jobs and resources, and—most frightening—black men competing for the attention of white women. Postbellum Alabama solved this problem by manufacturing criminals. Blacks who could not find work were labeled vagrants and sent to jail, where they were leased as labor to the very people who had once enslaved them. Vagrancy laws were nominally color-blind but, Kennedy writes, “applied principally, if not exclusively, against Negroes.” Some vagrancy laws were repealed during Reconstruction, but as late as the Great Depression, cash-strapped authorities in Miami were found rounding up black “vagrants” and impressing them into sanitation work. See The Black Family in the Age of Mass IncarcerationThe courts have legitimated the common perception of blacks as criminals. Police may use race as a factor when developing probable cause. Additionally, police and immigration officials often target individuals of a specific race with policies such as street sweeps, gang profiles and border stops. Such practices “erase the identities of . . . people as individual human beings and instead defines them, on the basis of their race, as potential criminals.”21 Such policies are at their core essentialist because they are impossible to implement without relying on prevalent stereotypes. See The Constructed Identities of Asian and African Americans: A Story of Two Races and the Criminal Justice System Sheila A. Bedi∗Over the last 100 years, litigated cases have overwhelmingly revealed an implicit view of blacks as inferior, reaffirmed by the limitations imposed, or the tokenism used, to influence the jury selection process involving black jurors. Over the last 135 years the U.S. Supreme Court has used its elevated place to legally define the black race as the explicit “other.” “Negroes” were seen by the Court as “property” (Scott v. Sanford, 1857) or as an “emancipated” race (Strauder v. West Virginia 1880). They have been called the “inferior race,” as opposed to a “superior race” (Strauder V. West Virginia, 1880). Their “black color” has been seen as their distinctive mark of humanity (Ex parte Virginia, 1880; Carter v. Texas, 1900.) They have been named “a citizen of African race” (Neal v. Delaware, 1881; Bush v. Kentucky, 1883) and of African “descent” (Woody v. Brush, 1891). They have been looked on as people apart, truly another race. Equally, the U.S. Supreme Court has defined Mexican-American as “strangers”- “a separate class, distinct from whites” as a group, “those persons of Mexican descent,” and “a person with a Mexican or Latin American name” (Hernandez v. Texas, 1954; Casteneda v. Partida, 1977). The legal edicts offered by the Court have contended that race is the basis of property (owners v. slaves), of power (inferiority v. superiority), and of ethno-social attributes, as when the place of origin of ones forbears or their surnames designate another “race.” Race thereby becomes a way of casting black and Hispanics as outsiders-outside the bounds of rights to the nation’s bounty (Barrera, 1969; Bonacich, 1972, 1973, 1980; Feagin, 1984). – The U.S. Supreme Court, the Constitutional Background of Jury Selection, and Racial RepresentationWith the outbreak of war, thousands of blacks made their way to freedom during the Revolution. Enslaved persons during these years found their freedom through military service, petitions for freedom and by those revolutionist who fully embodied the ideal that “every man is created equal” and manumitted their slaves. At the end of the war over 5,000 enslaved Africans had fought with the Continental Army and joined the new America as free men, vastly increasing the number of free black people in the newly formed states. See Heather Andrea Williams, American Slavery: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2014The presence of free blacks altered the prevailing racial categories. Previously the color of one’s skin was associated with slavery, black indicating enslaved and white indicating free. After the Revolution when tens of thousands of African Americans gained their freedom, either by volunteering or manumission, racial enslavement appeared inconsistent. Free blacks appeared to subvert the logic of racially based enslavement Gillmer, Jason, Suing for Freedom: Interracial Sex, Slave Law, and Racial Identity in the Post-Revolutionary and Antebellum South (January 1, 2004). North Carolina Law Review, Vol. 82, No. 2, January 2004. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1799647Similarly, in State v. Soto, a superior court judge in Gloucester County, New Jersey, granted the defendant’s motion to suppress evidence seized after being stopped on the New Jersey Turnpike. The court held that the seventeen minority defendants who were African-Americans, the majority of whom were males, established a case of selective enforcement based on race. In Soto, the defense conducted a study to determine if law enforcement officers were engaged in racial profiling. The study revealed that an adult black male was present in 88% of the cases where the gender of all occupants could be determined and that where gender and age could be determined, a black male 30 or younger was present in 63 of the cases. Other examples of racial profiling include an incident involving the Maryland State Police, which settled a lawsuit following the discovery of an internal memo that encouraged state troopers to target African-American males driving east on I-68. The profile of the Maryland State Police suggested that being black plus male and driving on I-68 equaled criminal activity. See Racial Profiling of African-American Males: Stopped, Searched, andStripped of Constitutional ProtectionIn the 1660s the price of tobacco declined and the farmers got problems. Only those who had capital enough to engage in large-scale production could continue to make a profit. Rumors of poor working conditions reached England, and contributed to keep free, white workers back in their homeland. In order to provide enough manpower, the colonial legislature passed a law allowing slavery. King Charles II granted a royal charter in order to establish a company that was to transport African slaves to North America. See Slavery in the British colonies in North AmericaIn any case, another association gradually arose in North America and that was between ‘negro’ and ‘slave’. Early legislation commonly referred to ‘negro and other slaves’ or to ‘negro, mulatto, and Indian slaves’. Over the years ‘negro’ and ‘black’ both became synonymous with enslavement. In 1702 an observer wrote that the wealth of Virginia consisted in ‘slaves or Negroes’. But 1806 Virginia judges ruled that a person who was of a white appearance was to be presumed free but ‘in the case of a person visibly appearing to be of the slave race, it is incumbent upon him to make out his freedom.’ In 1819 South Carolina judges stated flatly: ‘The word “Negroes” has a fixed meaning (slaves). See Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red … By Jack D. ForbesBritain relied on slavery and slave-produced products for whatever wealth it got from British America and was heavily involved in slavery as the leading trafficker of slaves across the Atlantic from the mid-17th century until the abolition of the slave trade in 1807. British ships carried millions of slaves to the Americas, where they changed the demographic makeup of European-controlled settlements markedly. Slavery was also a highly significant social institution. It led to the growth of a planter class––the most important and long-lasting elite in British American and American history. It also was important in developing pernicious ideas of race that were used by planters to justify their dominion over enslaved people. And, most importantly, it brought Africans to America. They brought with them their African culture, which was transformed by exposure to other cultural practices and became a distinctive part of the British American experience. Finally, slavery was an institution that relied at bottom on coercion and violence. The application of such coercion met with considerable resistance from those to whom violence was done. Slavery in British America Trevor Burnard LAST MODIFIED: 29 MAY 2015Slavery explicitly was a Racial Institution. In every state but Delaware, blacks were presumed at law to be slaves; proving one was legally white constituted a defense to slavery. The badges and incidents of slavery the Thirteenth Amendment opposes will overwhelming manifest in racial forms. The amendment does not prohibit, and even invites, analyses of racial harm. See The Case for United States Reparations to African Americans by Adrienne D. DavisIn Gibbons, the Chief Justice of New Jersey charged the jury, that the colour of this man was sufficient evidence that he was a slave.” In upholding the jury’s verdict, the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals also affirmed that the law presumes every man that is black to be a slave.” The head-notes to the official report of the case confirmed that “In New Jersey, all blacks were presumed to be slaves until they could prove otherwise. According to the Henry Holt Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins the word “blacklist” originated with a list England’s King Charles II made of fifty-eight judges and court officers who sentenced his father, Charles I, to death in 1649. When Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, thirteen of these regicides were put to death and twenty-five sentenced to life imprisonment, while others escaped. A blacklist (or black list) is a list or register of entities or people who, for one reason or another, are being denied a particular privilege, service, mobility, access or recognition. As a verb, to blacklist can mean to deny someone work in a particular field, or to ostracize a person from a certain social circle.This figurative sense derived from the literal meaning of A badge as a sign deliberately worn to indicate position or status. From certain external features, an individuals social position could be inferred. Thus, in an argument before the Supreme Court in 1843, a lawyer for a slave seeking freedom through a conditional manumission offered the following observation about American slavery: Colour in a slave holding state is a badge of slavery. It is not so where slavery does not exist. Williams v. Ash, 42 U.S. 1, 8 (1843) 2 Being black was evidence of being a slave. According to one nineteenth century history of English law, the phrase refers to those badges of slavery which are imposed upon a conquered people. Owen Flint off, The Rise and Progress of the Laws of England and Wales 139 (1840).Another instance of something becoming retrospectively black begins in antiquity with the Greek workd nekromanteia which means divination by the dead. However, by the thirteenth century it was corrupted to nigromantia, black divination’ (James 1981:23). I would suggest that it is the historical fact of the crusades that encourages this slippage to take place. This gave rise to the contemporary phrases ‘black art’ and ‘black magic’.Another instance of something becoming retrospectively black begins in antiquity with the Greek workd nekromanteia which means divination by the dead. However, by the thirteenth century it was corrupted to nigromantia, black divination’ (James 1981:23). I would suggest that it is the historical fact of the crusades that encourages this slippage to take place. This gave rise to the contemporary phrases ‘black art’ and ‘black magic’.Another instance occurs with the son of Edward III, who lived in the fourteenth century. He was not called the Black Prince until the sixteenth century by Grafton in 1569 (OED: 251) as a way of signifying his malignancy. And by the seventeenth century the phrase Black Prince had become even more evil by becoming another name for the Devil. In tracing the pictorial representation of the devil in west European art, James found that the devil was not regularly coloured black until the Fourteenth century. By the 1880s it had gained a more sinister meaning,that of ‘a captive negro or Polynesian on board a slave or pirate ship….hence Blackbirder, man or vessel engaged in slave traffic. ‘Blackamoor was initially used without ‘depreciatory force (OED), it meant literally black Moor. But by 1663 it had become a synonym for devil. The citation in the OED is ‘He’ is dead long since and gone to the blackmores below’. In the seventeenth century it comes to mean ‘vagabond, loafing, or criminal class of a community, and by the eighteenth century it has increased its forcefulness to mean ‘One of the idle criminal class, a rough; hence, a low worthless character addicted to or ready for crime, an poen scoundrel ( A term of utmost opprobrium)…..pertaining to the dregs of the community; of low, worthless character; brutally vicours or scurrilous’ (OED). See Race, Colour and the Processes of Racialization: New Perspectives from Group … By Farhad DalalThe Negro in the New World By Sir Harry Hamilton Johnston states: “When the Portuguese discovers, urged on by Prince Henry of Portugal, had rounded Cape Bojador, and after reaching Rio d’Ouro in 1435……” In this Footnotes it says “This is the reason why blackamoor in English, Morioan in Dutch, Morian in German, Moro in Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian and Moriaud in French were early names for Negroes. “Negro”, a Spanish word, did not come into common use in England till the nineteenth century. See Why Do Blacks Ignore that Black and Negro Are Synonymous with Slave