Addis Ababa University College Of Natural Science: Fill & Download for Free

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This is one of many disingenuous straw-man questions that are posited by troll type individuals here on Quora (and there are a lot of them). This is a distorted, exaggerated and misrepresented position. I’ve never in my entire life, heard such nonsense echoed by any so-called African-Americans.The purpose of this question is to promote the Eurocentrist view that African-Americans, who for the most part are descendants of West Africans, have no place speaking on anything regarding Northeast Africa and ancient Egypt in particular. I’ve seen this sentiment expressed many a time, most curiously from the descendants of Asiatics, who are the ones who should have nothing at all to say. Yet, they're the ones who write the most on this topic. This is very ironic, considering Europeans have laid claim to numerous cultures that are NOT genetically tied to Europe. Take ancient Greece, Rome, and Egypt for instance. Neither group is genetically related to Europeans, according to all of the recent, credible and verifiable data. But that has never stopped Europeans from claiming these cultures. It is still persists to this day (with the exception of ancient Egypt). It’s the heights of hipocrasy.The real issue the questioner has is with the fact that the so-called African-Americans have pushed back against false Eurocentric constructs. Namely, the imagined Caucasian Anatolian/Levantine/Asiatic origins of the ancient Egyptians. The angers the Euro-centered, and causes them to reach in their bag of tricks (logical fallacies) for lack of a substantive retort.The belief of the Eurocentric is that African-Americans or “blacks” in the U.S. should have nothing to say about Northeast Africans ie. ancient Egyptians, because they’re alleged to descend from Western Africans, exclusively. Tell that to my Ethiopian-American neighbor's “black” children. Not only is this a common Eurocentric trope, but it's very poorly thought out. The Euro-centered will certainly be upset with this offering, as the truth has the greatest potential to cause them harm.Now let's get to the facts of the matter, shall we?E-P2, also known as E1b1/E1b1a (E-M2)Before the OOA migrations the E and related E-P2 haplogroups did not exist as East and West Africans. They were still part of a population that originated in North-East Africa, and eventually developed the E and E-P2 haplogroups. Eventually spreading E-P2 across Africa along with its MtDNA haplogroups counterparts (like L2a, L3bf (L3b, L3f), L3cd (L3c, L3d), L3eijx (L3e, L3i, etc), L0a, etc.) which can be seen all over Africa in Yoruba, Somali, Zulu, etc.Frigi et al (2010), in Ancient Local Evolution of African mtDNA Haplogroups in Tunisian Berber Populations noted that:Quote:The results show that the most ancient haplogroup is L3*, which would have been introduced to North Africa from eastern sub-Saharan populations around 20,000 years ago. Our results also point to a less ancient western sub-Saharan gene flow to Tunisia, including haplogroups L2a and L3b. This conclusion points to an ancient African gene flow to Tunisia before 20,000 BP. These findings parallel the more recent findings of both archaeology and linguistics on the prehistory of Africa. The present work suggests that sub-Saharan contributions to North Africa have experienced several complex population processes after the occupation of the region by anatomically modern humans. Our results reveal that Berber speakers have a foundational biogeographic root in Africa and that deep African lineages have continued to evolve in supra-Saharan Africa.“Our results also point to a less ancient western African gene flow to Tunisia involving haplogroups L2a and L3b. Thus, the sub-Saharan contribution to northern Africa starting from the east would have taken place before the Neolithic. The western African contribution to North Africa should have occurred before the Sahara’s formation (15,000 BP)”.Citation Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47810347_Ancient_Local_Evolution_of_African_mtDNA_Haplogroups_in_Tunisian_Berber_PopulationsPaleo-African, the Khoisan “San”P2 /E1b1a (E-M2)Before the Holocene, during the Pleistocene, that is before 10,000BCE, West African origins among the E-P2 (PN2) populations in Eastern Africa (Sudan, Ethiopia, etc). More than 80% of most West African populations are from the E-P2 haplogroup lineage.E-P2 populations in Eastern Africa and future West Africans, likely migrated to the Green Sahara during the African humid period, when much of the Sahara and Northern Africa was covered in grasses, trees, and lakes. Needless to say more wildlife.Niger-Kordofanian speakers arrived in the interior of West Africa after the dessication of the Green Sahara during the Holocene. There they met and assimilated small groups of hunter-gatherers. Few genetic or linguistic traces of them are left now in West Africa. Those hunter-gatherers were likely from the haplogroup A and B which are in minority in modern West Africa. It should be mentioned that E-P2 carriers weren't part of the main OOA migration.Quote:“Using the principle of the phylogeographic parsimony, the resolution of the E1b1b trifurcation in favor of a common ancestor of E-M2 and E-M329 strongly supports the hypothesis that haplogroup E1b1 ORIGINATED IN EASTERN AFRICA, as previously suggested, and that chromosomes E-M2, so frequently observed in sub-Saharan Africa, TRACE THEIR DESCENT TO A COMMON ANCESTOR present IN EASTERN AFRICA”.Research Source: A New Topology of the Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E1b1 (E-P2) Revealed through the Use of Newly Characterized Binary PolymorphismsThe majority of Niger-Congo speakers belong to E1b1a, Elb1b, E2 and R1. Around 90% belong to Y-Chromosome group E (215, M35*). E-P2 unites African people and is probably one of the main haplogroups among ancient Egyptians along with other A, B and E haplogroups. Most Niger-Congo (Kordofanian), Cushitic and Chadic speakers are carriers of E-P2.All Africans originate from East Africa stupid!!!Dr. Louis LeakeyLouis Seymour Bazett Leakey (7 August 1903 – 1 October 1972), also known as L. S. B. Leakey, was a Kenyan paleoanthropologist and archaeologist whose work was important in demonstrating that humans evolved in Africa, particularly through discoveries made at Olduvai Gorge with his wife, fellow paleontologist Mary Leakey.Dr. Leakey says:Quote:“..the WHOLE HUMAN RACE HAD IT'S ORIGINS IN AFRICA AND PARTICULARLY EASTERN AFRICA. Importance result of necessity “THE EARLIEST MEN WERE ETHNICALLY HOMOGENOUS AND NEGRO”. — Dr. Louis LeakeyAll Africans have a common origin in East Africa. This racist archaic Eurocentric idea that West Africans are “different” from East Africans is yet another Eurocentric construct designed to created to foster division. Yet, this rarely ever occurs when people speak about “European” populations. Everything is not so heavily scrutinized then.The "Tera-neter" tile was discovered in a temple at Abydos by the father of Egyptology, William Flinders Petrie. According to Petrie, the image on the tile is that of a proto-historic figure of Tera-neter, a southern negro nobleman of the Anu or Aunu race, the first inhabitants of Egypt.Bantu scholars propose that Nubia (Sudan) is their homeland and from there people named the "Anu" expanded into Egypt. A recent study (and several older ones) have noted that the Pleistocene (around 12,000 years ago) Nubians were near identical to West African/Bantu populations ("Negroid") as opposed to contemporary more "Ethiopic" or "Nilotic" populations in the Sudan.Origin stories told by West African griots and the oral traditions have long placed the origins of West Africans in East Africa. Bantu people of Kenya, the Dogon, the Luhya, Baganda, the Luo, Nyarwanda, the people of Samia, the Bakusu, Rundi of Burindi, Kikuyu, the Obachani clan, Abakhekhe and the Zulu ALL claim a southerly migration from Egypt.Moreover there are groups of Bantu speakers from Tanzania, Mozambique, Congo, Zambia, Malawi, South Africa, who testify a southerly migration from Egypt as well.Quote:“Some migrated North, some West some south, while some stayed in place, while others left the region altogether. It's never been an issue of if, various African peoples are related, but how long ago did they branch off from the original family and when and where they settled”?Information Source: Where Is the Birthplace of Humankind? South Africa and East AfricaThe human race is of African origin. The oldest known skeletal remains of anatomically modern humans (or homo sapiens sapiens) were excavated at sites in East Africa. Human remains were discovered at Omo in Ethiopia (near its border with Kenya) that were dated at 195,000 years old, the oldest known in the world.Ethiopia, a country situated in the Horn of Africa, is the oldest independent country in Africa and one of the oldest in the world. Ethiopia has offered a greater richness in archaeological findings and historical buildings which makes it a country of rich heritage. Thus, Ethiopia is regarded as the cradle of both mankind and civilization.195,000 year old Herto IdaltuWhen the bones of two early humans were found in 1967 near Kibish, Ethiopia, they were thought to be 130,000 years old. A few years ago, researchers found 154,000- to 160,000-year-old human bones found in a desolate area about 140 miles northeast of Ethiopia's capital, Addis Ababa, near the village of Herto, Ethiopia. Now, a new study of the 1967 fossil site indicates the earliest known members of our species, Homosapiens, roamed Africa about 195,000 years ago.“Herto man”The fossils remains of Homo sapiens Idaltu (idaltu meaning "elder" in the Afar language) were discovered at Herto Bouri near the Middle Awash site of Ethiopia’s Afar Triangle. In 1997 by Tim White, Giday Wolde-Gabriel and Berhane Asfaw, but we’re first unveiled in 2003. These fossils are the oldest known fossils of anatomically modern humans, or Homo sapiens.Ethiopia's Omo River flows below bluffs of the Kibish rock formation, where scientists first excavated the bones of early humans in 1967 and estimated they were 130,000 years old. But in a new study in the journal Nature, scientists from Utah, New York state and Australia determined those bones and newly excavated fossils actually were from a member of our species who roamed the area 160,000 years ago. They are the oldest known fossils of Homosapiens.The nearly complete skulls of an adult male and a child and the partial skull of a second adult appear to represent a crucial stage of human evolution when the facial features of modern humans arose.Discovered in Ethiopia's fossil-rich Afar region of Ethiopia, the skulls have clearly modern features - a prominent forehead, flattened face and reduced brow - that contrast with older humans' projecting, heavy-browed skulls.Francis “Frank” Harold Brown, Professor of Geology and Geophysics, Dean of the College of Mines and Earth Sciences, University of Utah.Brown conducted the research with geologist and geochronologist Ian McDougall of Australian National University in Canberra, and anthropologist John Fleagle of New York state's Stony Brook University. The researchers dated mineral crystals in volcanic ash layers above and below layers of river sediments that contain the early human bones. They conclude the fossils are much older than a 104,000-year-old volcanic layer and very close in age to a 196,000-year-old layer, says Brown.Brown says that pushing the emergence of Homo sapiens from about 160,000 years ago back to about 195,000 years ago:Quote:“..is significant because the cultural aspects of humanity in most cases appear much later in the record – only 50,000 years ago – which would mean 150,000 years of Homo sapiens without cultural stuff, such as evidence of eating fish, of harpoons, anything to do with music (flutes and that sort of thing), needles, even tools. This stuff all comes in very late, except for stone knife blades, which appeared between 50,000 and 200,000 years ago, depending on whom you believe.”“These are the oldest well-dated fossils of modern humans (Homosapiens) currently known anywhere in the world".“It pushes back the beginning of anatomically modern humans”.Citation Source: Frank Brown, University of Utah, The Oldest Homo sapiensRick PottsRichard B. Potts is a paleoanthropologist and has been the director of the Smithsonian Institution Museum of Natural History's Human Origins Program since 1985. He is the curator of the David H. Koch Hall of Human Origins at the Smithsonian.Rick Potts comments on the Ethiopian finds:Quote:“the skulls, while still large and thick-boned, are undeniably modern”.Potts said he would not be surprised if additional excavations in Africa push back the origins of modern humans further back to about0 200,000 years - humans who would have then spread to Europe and Asia.Quote:“Two Ethiopian fossils have been crowned as the oldest known members of our species. An estimated 195,000 years old, the pair were witness to the earliest days of Homo sapiens”.Citation Source: Ethiopia is top choice for cradle of Homo sapiensQuote:“All the genetics have pointed to a geologically recent origin for humans in Africa - and now we have the fossils," said Professor Tim White, one of the co-leaders on the research team that found the skulls”.Citation Source: Ethiopia is top choice for cradle of Homo sapiensQuote:“The discovery adds yet more weight to the argument that AFRICA, and ETHIOPIA in particular, was the BIRTHPLACE OF HUMANS. The dating sits well with GENETIC ANALYSIS OF MODERN POPULATIONS, which suggest that Homosapiens first appeared in Africa around 200,000 years ago”.Citation Source: Ethiopia is top choice for cradle of Homo sapiensFIRST PEOPLES | Omo 1 - The World’s First Modern Humans | PBS (1:00)Philip RightmireG. Philip Rightmire Paleoanthropologist (State University of New York at Binghamton), Research Associate in the Department of Human Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University, is a biological anthropologist with research interests in skeletal biology, morphometrics, paleoanthropology, and human evolution. He has carried out extensive studies of fossil remains from localities in Africa, Europe, and Asia and is particularly concerned with interpreting the Plio-Pleistocene record of genus Homo. His current projects center on Middle Pleistocene hominids, the evolutionary significance of the assemblage from Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus), the paleobiology of Homo erectus, and the identification of likely antecedents to this species in Africa.Quote:“The clearest fossil evidence to date for an African origin of modern humans, and strike another blow against the idea that modern humans had a "multiregional" origin both within and outside the African continent”.“I think this pretty much serves as another NAIL IN THE COFFIN OF MULTIREGIONALISM”.“The skulls are a spectacular find.”Citation Source: 160,000-Year-Old Skulls Found, CBS NewsGeneticistPeter Forster FRSB (born 27 June 1967) is a geneticist researching the prehistoric origins and ancestry of mankind. In addition to archeogenetics, he has published on the reconstruction and spread of prehistoric languages and in the field of forensic genetics.From an article written by Gray Tech and Science:Quotes:“The entire human race outside Africa owes its existence to the survival of a single tribe of around 200 people who crossed the Red Sea 70,000 years ago, scientists have discovered”.Research by geneticists and archaeologists has allowed them to trace the origins of modern homo sapiens back to a single group of people who managed to cross from the Horn of Africa and into Arabia. From there they went on to colonise the rest of the world.Genetic analysis of modern day human populations in Europe, Asia, Australia, North America and South America have revealed that they are all descended from these common ancestors.It is thought that changes in the climate between 90,000 and 70,000 years ago caused sea levels to drop dramatically and allowed the crossing of the Red Sea to take place.The findings are to be revealed in a new BBC Two documentary series, The Incredible Human Journey, that traces the prehistoric origins of the human species.Dr. Peter Forster, a senior lecturer in archaeogenetics at Anglia Ruskin University in Cambridge who carried out some of the genetic work, said: "The founder populations cannot have been very big. We are talking about just a few hundred individuals."“Homo sapiens, known casually as ‘modern human’, are thought to have first evolved around 195,000 years ago in east Africa – the earliest remains from that time were uncovered near the Omo River in Ethiopia”.Citation Source: African tribe populated rest of the world, Richard Gray, Science Correspondent, 2009. Tech and Science.Edited by Peter Mitchell and Paul LaneQuote:“Africa has the LONGEST and arguably the most diverse archaeological record of any of the continents. It is where the human lineage FIRST EVOLVED and from where Homo sapiens spread across the rest of the world. Later, it witnessed novel experiments in food-production and unique trajectories to urbanism and the organisation of large communities that were not always structured along strictly hierarchical lines. Millennia of engagement with societies in other parts of the world confirm Africa's active participation in the construction of the modern world, while the richness of its history, ethnography, and linguistics provide unusually powerful opportunities for constructing interdisciplinary narratives of Africa's past”.Source: The Oxford Handbook of AFRICAN ARCHEOLOGY, Peter Mitchell, Paul Lane.All West, Central, Northern and Southern (indigenous) African people can trace their ancestry to back to an East African ancestor. The majority of them in the Upper and Central Nile Valley. There exists no shortage of evidence that confirms the ancient migratory routes from the Nile across the continent to West Africa, and the Atlantic Ocean for that matter. Therefore, modern so-called African-Americans do indeed have a direct link to the ancient Egyptian people, because they share a common ancestor.Ironically, racist scholars who are extremely comfortable placing Greece & Rome within the context of European/Western history and civilization, are threatened when Egypt is viewed the same way within African civilization. Insecure people.Richard Poe is an award-winning journalist, a self-described conservative and libertarian, is also a New York Times–bestselling author, and the editor of FPM, a popular conservative website. In addition, his columns have appeared on Newsmax.com - Conservative News in Politics, Health, Finance & More, an online newspaper rated as the sixth most-visited website on the Internet by the World Charts Foundation.In his book Black Spark, White Fire the conservative journalist demonstrates that it is not just “Afrocentrists” who make claims about ancient Egypt's “black” African heritage.In the final three chapters of the book, the discussion centers on race and the African character of Ancient Egypt. Poe even discusses the evolution of the “Aryan Model” and speaks on the defunct and debunked Hamitic Hypothesis, which we’ve seen over the years (scientifically) resurrected by European scientists. A clear abuse of this was seen in 2017, with the release of Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods (Verena J Schuenemann et al. Nat Commun. 2017).In the eleventh chapter of the book, he provides the linguistic, archeological, cultural, and scientific connection between ancient Egypt and Africa.Below is an excerpt from a May 22, 2000 interview he gave to Hisham Aidi for (Africana.com). Africana.com, was purchased by Time Warner the same year and no longer exists. However, the interview is carried on a Richard Poe’s personal website (linked below).Note: The Aryan Model and Hamitic Hypothesis (both attempted to explain how “black” people were in fact the ever elusive “dark-skinned” Caucasians. Harder to spot as an actuality in this world as “Bigfoot” is.Taken from the article:DID AFRICAN EXPLORERS CIVILIZE ANCIENT EUROPE? AN INTERVIEW WITH RICHARD POEHisham Aidi is a lecturer at Columbia University's School of International and Public Affairs.The interview was conducted by Morracan scholar Hisham Aidi:Question:You say there's a double standard at work when white critics of Afrocentrism say it's wrong for black Americans to identify with ancient Egypt. As you write, "an Anglo-Saxon descended from wild Germanic tribes could legitimately take pride in his cultural inheritance -- however distant and tenuous -- from ancient Greece. But a black African must not take pride in ancient Egypt." Can you elaborate on this point?RIchard Poe:Answer:“The standard talking point of people who attack Afrocentrism is, "I'm Scottish, I don't claim a Greek civilization." THAT'S A LIE. Speaking as a European American myself, the EUROPEAN AMERICANS WHO SAY THEY DON'T THINK OF THEMSELVES AS EUROPEAN, as not considering Europe as their heritage, ARE LYING THROUGH THEIR TEETH. EVERY WHITE EUROPEAN AMERICAN HAS A CLAIM TO EVERY EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION”.“In the introduction to Black Spark, White Fire, I say I'm proud of European culture. I say that in my opinion, The Iliad and The Odyssey are the two greatest works of literature. I don't set out to beat up on either of the two cultures [European and African]. ANY PERSON WHO DOES NOT HAVE SELF-RESPECT, RESPECT FOR THEIR OWN HERITAGE, CANNOT RESPECT OTHERS”.Source: INTERVIEW: Did African Explorers Civilize Ancient Europe?Hisham Aidi:Question: Would you call yourself an Afrocentrist?Richard Poe:Answer:Quote:“I'm wary of the phrase "Afrocentrist," just as I'm wary of any political label. I wouldn't call myself an Afrocentrist. I'm not about being Afro-centered. I'm EURO-CENTERED. My book is Eurocentric, it's about the colonization of Europe by Egyptians. EUROPE IS THE CENTER OF MY INTELLECTUAL WORLD. But my book is sympathetic to Afrocentrism. And again, you don't have to beat up on another culture to be proud of your own. I'm proud to be Russian Jewish and Mexican American, and I have no problem with the idea that AFRICA COLONIZED MUCH OF EUROPE”.Source: INTERVIEW: Did African Explorers Civilize Ancient Europe?Note: Afrocentrism is simply a counter to Eurocentrism. As a matter of fact, one can't exist without the other. If there were no Eurocentrism, then there'd be no Afrocentrism. Fact.Egyptians to plot closest to tropical Africans and not Mediterranean Europeans. The stature of the Ancient Egyptians was more similar to the stature of African-Americans.Studies have been conducted comparing ancient Egyptian osteology to that of White Americans and African-Americans. White Americans are largely the descendants of Europeans. African-Americans are for the most part descendants of West Africa, who according to Eurocentrists, are not related in any sense to East Africans, namely the ancient Egyptians. Of the two groups only one is tropically adapted and share similarities, and it's not that of the European descendants.Erik Trinkaus, Ph.D., (born December 24, 1948) is a paleoanthropologist specialised on Neandertalbiology and human evolution. Trinkaus researches the evolution of the species.Homo sapiens and recent human diversity, focusing on the paleoanthropology and emergence of late archaic and early modern humans, and the subsequent evolution of anatomically modern humanity. Trinkaus is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, a contributor to publications including Natural History and Scientific American, and is frequently quoted in the popular media. Trinkaus is the Mary Tileston Hemenway Professor of Physical Anthropology at Washington University inin St. Louis.Trikhanus (1981) found Egyptians to plot closest to tropical Africans and not Mediterranean Europeans residing in a roughly similar climatic area. A more recent study compared ancient Egyptian osteology to that of African-Americans and White Americans, and found that the stature of the Ancient Egyptians was more similar to the stature of African-Americans, although it was not identical.Source: E. Trinkaus, Aspects of human evolution, Neanderthal limb proportions and cold adaptation.Note: I'm not sure how any group today could possibly be identical anyway. I'm not sure why the emphasis.Research and studies show the ancient Egyptians physically more like tropically adapted Black Americans than White Americans, confirming older studies that show today's Egyptians in general are closer to US blacks than Northern Europeans, and Southern Europeans as well.Quote:“We also compare Egyptian body proportions to those of modern American Blacks and Whites... Long bone stature regression equations were then derived for each sex. Our RESULTS CONFIRM that, although ANCIENT EGYPTIANS ARE CLOSER IN BODY PROPORTION TO MODERN AMERICAN BLACKS THAN THEY ARE TO AMERICAN WHITES, proportions in Blacks and Egyptians are not identical... INTRALIMB INDICES ARE NOT SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT BETWEEN EGYPTIANS AMERICAN BLACKS... BRACHIAL INDICES ARE DEFINITELY MORE 'AFRICAN”... There is no evidence for significant variation in proportions among temporal or social groupings; thus, THE NEW FORMULAE MAY BE BROADLY APPLICABLE TO ANCIENT EGYPTIAN REMAINS."Source: "Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: A new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature." Michelle H. Raxter, Christopher B. Ruff, Ayman Azab, Moushira Erfan, Muhammad Soliman, Aly El-Sawaf, (Am J Phys Anthropol. 2008, Jun;136(2):147-55.Supporting research studies: Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: A new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a civilisationhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/286645750_Ancient_Egypt_Anatomy_of_a_civilisation_Second_editionStature estimation in ancient Egyptians: a new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature.Older limb studies confirm Trinkhaus findings:Quote:"An attempt has been made to estimate male and female Egyptian stature from long bone length using Trotter & Gleser negro stature formulae, previous work by the authors having shown that these rather than white formulae give more consistent results with male dynastic material... When consistency has been achieved in this way, predynastic proportions are founded to be such that distal segments of the limbs are even longer in relation to the proximal segments than they are in modern negroes. Such proportions are termed "super-negroid"...Robins (1983) and Robins & Shute (1983) have shown that more consistent results are obtained from ancient Egyptian male skeletons if Trotter & Gleser formulae for negro are used, rather than those for whites which have always been applied in the past. .. their physical proportions were more like modern negroes than those of modern whites, with limbs that were relatively long compared with the trunk, and distal segments that were long compared with the proximal segments. If ancient Egyptian males had what may be termed negroid proportions, it seems reasonable that females did likewise."Source: (Robins G, Shute CCD. 1986. Predynastic Egyptian stature and physical proportions. Hum Evol 1:313–324. Ruff CB"The raw values in Table 6 suggest that Egyptians had the “super-Negroid” body plan described by Robins (1983).. This pattern is supported by Figure 7 (a plot of population mean femoral and tibial lengths; data from Ruff, 1994), which indicates that the Egyptians generally have tropical body plans. Of the Egyptian samples, only the Badarian and Early Dynastic period populations have shorter tibiae than predicted from femoral length. Despite these differences, all samples lie relatively clustered together as compared to the other populations."Source: Zakrzewski, S.R. (2003). "Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 121 (3): 219-229.Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions.Supporting studies:Population continuity, demic diffusion and Neolithic origins in central-southern Germany: the evidence from body proportions."Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: A new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature." Michelle H. Raxter, Christopher B. Ruff, Ayman Azab, Moushira Erfan, Muhammad Soliman, Aly El-Sawaf, (Am J Phys Anthropol. 2008, Jun;136(2):147-55Raxter & Ruff, et al. (2008). Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: a new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature.Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians. Amer J. Phy Anthro 136 (2), 147-55.Source/Research study: Corrigenda to “estimation of stature from long limb bones of American Whites and Negroes,” American Journal Physical AnthropologyTrinkaus found Holocene Egyptians plotting nearer to, or resemble more other tropically adapted peoples like Pygmies, US Blacks and Melanesians. The closest match is with fellow Africans. Southern Europeans like Yugoslavs, Northern Europeans like Belgians, and white Americans are more distant from the US blacks and Egyptians (Trinkhaus, E. (1981) ‘Neanderthal limb proportions and cold adaptation’. p. 211). Trinkhaus' results confirm studies going back to the 1950s, and recent limb studies by Zakrewski (2003). Raxter, Ruff et. al. (2008) applied limb analysis to ancient Egyptians. The outcome was the same. US Blacks linked closer to the Egyptians, than whites.See also (Raxter & Ruff, et al. (2008) Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians. Amer J. Phy Anthro 136 (2), 147-55.)Most samples drawn from northern Egypt near the Mediterranean, closer to Europe and the Levant, but still link more with Blacks Americans.Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10738731_Variation_in_Ancient_Egyptian_Stature_and_Body_ProportionsQuote:"Estimates of living stature, based on X-ray measurements applied to the Trotter & Gleser (1958) negro equations for the femur, tibia and humerus, have been made for ancient Egyptian kings belonging to the 18th and 19th dynasties. The corresponding equations for whites give values for stature that are unsatisfactorily high. The view that Thutmose III was excessively short is proved to be a myth. It is shown that the limbs of the pharaohs, like those of other Ancient Egyptians, had negroid characteristics, in that the distal segments were relatively long in comparison with the proximal segments. An exception was Ramesses II, who appears to have had short legs below the knees".Source: Robins and Schute. The Physical Proportions and Stature of New Kingdom Pharaohs," Journal of Human Evolution 12 (1983), 455-465Professor Trenton Holliday, Ph.D., Professor & Department Chair Anthropology, School of Liberal Arts, Tulane University, [email protected] received his B.A. in anthropology from Louisiana State University in 1988, and his M.A. (1991) and Ph.D. (1995) in anthropology from the University of New Mexico. A paleoanthropologist, he studies fossil hominins from a host of different time periods. He is particularly interested in the origins of modern humans (Homo sapiens), a topic which is intimately tied to the question of the fate of the Neandertals (H. neanderthalensis). He is also interested in late Australopithecus and the origins of the genus Homo, and in interspecific hybridization among extant mammals and its implications for human evolution.Professor Holliday teaches courses in human evolution, functional morphology, and modern human adaptation and variation.Ancient Egyptians group with tropical Africans and African-Americans:Quote:"These same log shape variables were subjected to two forms of cluster analysis: neighbor-joining (NJ) and unweighted pair-group method using averages (UPGMA) tree analysis. Figure 8 is the NJ tree. It has two main branches—a long and linear body build branch that includes the Egyptians, Sub-Saharan Africans (except for the Pygmies), and African-Americans and a second, less linear body form branch that includes the Inuit, Europeans, Euro-Americans, Puebloans, Nubians, and Pygmies. Note that the Nubians used in this study are thought by some to represent an immigrant population from Europe or Western Asia [see Holliday (1995)".Source: Holliday, T. (2010) Body proportions of circumpolar peoples as evidenced from skeletal data. AmerJrPhyAntrho, 142: 2. 287-302Holliday 2010 limb proportion slice- Egyptians group with Kerma [Sudan], West Africa, East Africa, and African Americans.Additional studies supporting Holliday’s research and findings:Quote:This pattern .. indicates that the Egyptians generally have tropical body plans. . all samples lie relatively clustered together as compared to the other populations." (Zakrzewski, S.R. (2003).Source: "Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions". Amer J. Phy Anth. 121 (3): 219-229., Research study: Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions."Gallagher et al. also points out that:Quote:"body proportions are under strong climatic selection and evidence remarkable stability within regional lineages".Research study: Healthy percentage body fat ranges: an approach for developing guidelines based on body mass index, Gallagher et al.Zakrzewski (2003) studied skeletal samples from the Badarian period to the Middle Kingdom. She confirmed the results of Robins and Shute that Ancient Egyptians in general had "tropical body plans” but that their proportions were actually "super-negroid".Zakrzewski Study: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10738731_Variation_in_Ancient_Egyptian_Stature_and_Body_ProportionsQuote:“The raw values in Table 6 suggest that Egyptians had the “super-Negroid” body plan described by Robins (1983)..Research study/source: The physical proportions and living stature of New Kingdom pharaohsAfter an extended passage of time, modern humans who migrated to northern climates, began to evolve cold-adapted limbs, it took several millenia for this to occur. Some of the earliest remains of modern humans in Europe exhibit "tropic limbs" which is how scientists were able to determine they were recently migrated from a "tropical" or warmer climate. Later remains of modern humans, in Northern Europe and Northern Asia, began to show an adjustment in the limbs, as a result of evolving thru the Glacial periods in the Northern latitudes, they adapted colder limb proportions.Using this data, one can easily refute the possibility of Ancient Egyptians descending from the Nordic regions.Research papers: Evolution at the Crossroads: Modern Human Emergence in Western AsiaBrachial and crural indices of European late Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic humans.Ancient DNA and the rewriting of human history: be sparing with Occam’s razorStature estimation in ancient Egyptians: a new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature.Another line of evidence showing a relationship between ancient Egyptians and populations from tropical Africa concerns the skeleton beyond the skull, specifically the proportions of the limbs. Tropical African populations have proportionately longer limbs than European or Asian populations, because longer limbs dissipate heat more easily. Measurements of ancient Egyptian skeletons has shown that their limb proportions were within the range of tropical African populations (Zakrzewski 2003), and sometimes their limbs were proportionately longer than those of some tropical Africans, leading Robins and Shute (1986) to call them "super-Negroid".DNA data suggests that many modern Egyptians are not identical to the ancient Egyptians. While there is some linkage among SOME of today's Egyptians, particularly in the tropical south, from whence the Dynasties sprung, new data indicates that many Egyptians today are Arabized/Eurasian types or hybrids. This is not necessarily a new finding. Bone studies show that the very late period Egyptians (600-350BC) have datasets that are not "typically" Egyptians, like the earlier tropical African types before. Still, especially in the south, the tropical African influence still shows. Note this is not an "either/or" situation- but a matter of degree. MOST modern Egyptians seem Arabized/Eurasian but the DNA data still shows about one-third African, even with the Arabized takeover of Egypt.Quote:“There is long-standing disagreement regarding Upper Pleistocene human evolution in Western Asia, particularly the Levant. Some argue that there were two different populations, perhaps different species, of Upper Pleistocene Levantine hominids. The first, from the Israeli sites of Qafzeh and Skhul, is anatomically modern”.“The second, from sites such as Amud, Kebara, and Tabun, is archaic, or "Neandertal" in morphology. Others argue that this is a false dichotomy and that all of these hominids belong to a single, highly variable population. In this paper I attempt to resolve this issue by examining postcranial measures reflective of body shape. Results indicate that the Qafzeh-Skhul hominids have African-like, or tropically adapted, proportions, while those from Amud, Kebara, Tabun, and Shanidar (Iraq) have more European-like, or cold-adapted, proportions. This suggests that there were in fact two distinct Western Asian populations and that the Qafzeh-Skhul hominids were likely African in origin - a result consistent with the "Replacement" model of modern origins”.Citation Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279544428_Evolution_at_the_crossroads_Modern_human_emergence_in_Western_AsiaQuote:“What we can say, however, is that in the Holocene, humans from southwest Asia DO NOT EXHIBIT TROPICALLY ADAPTED BODY SHAPE (Crognier 1981; Eveleth and Tanner 1976; Schreider 1975). In addition, while Levantine winters today are generally characterized as mild (Henkin et al. 1998), they are nonetheless quite often cold, with frequent snowfall—for example, the winter of 1992 was particularly cold and snowy in Israel (Vishnevetsky and Steinberger 19%). Given that the Holocene is a warm phase, yet recent LEVANTINE HUMANS DO NOT EXHIBIT A TROPICALLY ADAPTED MORPHOLOGY, there is little reason to assume that in the (generally colder) Pleistocene epoch, natural selection alone could result in tropically adapted morphology in the region”.“Thus, the discovery of tropically adapted hominids in the region would therefore likely indicate population dispersal from the TROPICS, and the most logical geographic source for such an influx is Africa.In this regard, Trinkaus (1981, 1984, 1995) and have argued that the high brachial and crural indices, narrow biiliac breadths, and small relative femoral head sizes of the Qafzeh-Skhul hominids suggest an influx of African genes associated with the emergence of modern humans in the region”.Source: Trenton Holliday (2000) Evolution at the Crossroads: Modern Human Emergence in Western Asia. American Anthropologist. New Series, Vol. 102, No. 1, 54-68. Evolution at the Crossroads: Modern Human Emergence in Western AsiaMore supporting limb studies:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13571870_Climatic_influences_on_human_body_size_and_proportions_Ecological_adaptations_and_secular_trendsClimatic influences on human body size and proportions: Ecological adaptations and secular trends https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13571870_Climatic_influences_on_human_body_size_and_proportions_Ecological_adaptations_and_secular_trendsNear Eastern Late Archaic HumansMorphological adaptation to climate in modern and fossil hominidsStature estimation in ancient Egyptians: A new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of staturePredynastic and dynastic Egyptians link closer to Sudanese and East African populations:Quote:Analysis of skeletal and cranial remains reveals that the ancient Egyptians of the early Dynastic and pre-Dynastic phases, link closer to nearby Saharan, Sudanic and East African populations than Mediterranean and Middle Eastern peoples. Greeks, Romans, Hyskos, Arabs and others were to appear later in Egyptian history. Craniometric studies generally place ancient Upper Egyptian populations closer to the range of tropical Africans in the Nile Valley and East Africa than to Mediterraneans, or Middle Easterners.Source: S. O. Y. Keita, "Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships," History in Africa 20 (1993) 129-54Older studies often show misclassification or exclusion of Nile Valley remains deemed 'negroid'. Although clearly of the "African" type, such remains were frequently relabeled "Mediterranean."Quote:"Analyses of Egyptian crania are numerous. Vercoutter (1978) notes that ancient Egyptian crania have FREQUENTLY ALL BEEN LUMPED (implicitly or explicitly) AS MEDITERRANEAN, although Negroid remains are recorded in substantial numbers by many workers... "Nutter (1958), using the Penrose statistic, demonstrated that NAQADA I and BADARI I CRANIA, BOTH REGARDED AS NEGROID, WERE ALMOST IDENTICAL AND THAT THESE WERE MOST SIMILIAR TO THE NEGROID NUBIAN SERIES FROM KERMA studied by Collett (1933). Collett, not accepting variability, excluded "clear negro" crania found in the Kerma series from her analysis, as did Morant (1925), implying that they were foreign..."Source: (S. Keita (1990) Studies of Ancient Crania From Northern Africa. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 83:35-48).Europeans, supposedly the defining Caucasians, are simply a hybrid population. Nothing “pure” about ’em when it comes down to it.Genetic data shows that the biochemical systems of Asian and European populations, appear to be more similar to each other, than they are to African populations. thus, Asians (Mongols) and Europeans (Caucasians) may have shared a common ancestry with each other, some 40,000 years ago and a common ancestry with African populations before that. The Out of Africa (OOA) migration, which took Africans into Asia, occurred at about 50,000 B.C. The modern Mongol shows great affiliation with San Africans in body type and facial features, thus the presumed genesis below.Research: African people have very little Neanderthal DNA because their ancestors didn't make the trip through Eurasia, scientists think.There is a 'mysterious' chromosome/alu in Europeans and Asians. It's the NEANDERTHAL GENE. It is not found in most Africans, with exception to those who are mixed with Europeans or Asians.Quote:“The overall contributions from Asia and Africa were estimated to be around two-thirds and one-third respectively. Simulations explain this hypothesis explains quite well the discrepancy between trees obtained by maximum likelihood and neighbor joining”.Citation Source: Colliquium Paper: Genes, peoples, and languages. Genes, peoples, and languagesQuote:".. it appears that Europeans are about two-thirds Asians and one-third African."Source: (Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza (2000). Genes, peoples and languages. FARRAR STRAUS AND GIROUX). Genes, peoples, and languagesNumerous studies of North Africa use samples down near the coast while EXCLUDING much larger inland areas and countries that make up "North Africa" giving a misleading picture of African diversity in North Africa.Quote:"These same log shape variables were subjected to two forms of cluster analysis: neighbor-joining (NJ) and unweighted pair-group method using averages (UPGMA) tree analysis. Figure 8 is the NJ tree. It has two main branches—a long and linear body build branch that includes the Egyptians, Sub-Saharan Africans (except for the Pygmies), and African-Americans and a second, less linear body form branch that includes the Inuit, Europeans, Euro-Americans, Puebloans, Nubians, and Pygmies. Note that the Nubians used in this study are thought by some to represent an immigrant population from Europe or Western Asia [see Holliday (1995)".Source: Holliday, T. (2010) Body proportions of circumpolar peoples as evidenced from skeletal data. AmerJrPhyAntrho, 142: 2. 287-302Research study: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/oa.2315Linguistically:All modern African languages family, including Niger-Congo have their ancient origin in North-Eastern Africa:Citation Source: Reconstructing Ancient Kinship in Africa by Christopher Ehret (From Early Human Kinship, Chap 12).

The Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) is an examination that primarily tests the comprehensive understanding of various undergraduate subjects in engineering and science for admission into the Masters Program Sector Companies. GATE is conducted jointly by the Indian Institute of Science and seven Indian Institutes of Technologies at Roorkee, Delhi, Guwahati, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Chennai (Madras) and Mumbai (Bombay) on behalf of the National Coordination Board – GATE, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD), Government of India.The GATE score of a candidate reflects the relative performance level of a candidate. The score is used for admissions to various post-graduate education programs (e.g. Master of Engineering, Master of Technology, Master of Architecture, Doctor of Philosophy) in Indian higher education institutes, with financial assistance provided by MHRD and other government agencies. Recently, GATE scores are also being used by several Indian public sector undertakings for recruiting graduate engineers in entry-level positions. It is one of the most competitive examinations in India. GATE is also recognized by various institutes outside India, such as Nanyang Technological University in Singapore.[7]Financial assistance in post-graduate programs[edit]The GATE is used as a requirement for financial assistance (e.g. scholarships) for a number of programs, though criteria differ by admitting institution.[2] In December 2015, the University Grants Commission and MHRD announced that the scholarship for GATE-qualified master's degree students is increased by 55% from ₹8,000 (US$110) per month to ₹12,400 (US$170) per month.[8][9]Eligibility[edit]The following students are eligible to take GATE:[5]Bachelor's degree holders in Engineering / Technology / Architecture (3 years after 10+2/ 10+2+3(ongoing)/ 10+2+4(ongoing)/ http://Post-B.Sc./ Post-Diploma) and those who are in the final year of such programs.Master's degree holders in any branch of Science/Mathematics/Statistics/Computer Applications or equivalent and those who are in the final year of such programs.Candidates in the second or higher year of Four-year integrated master's degree programs (http://Post-B.Sc.) in Engineering / Technology.Candidates in the fourth or higher year of Five-year integrated master's degree programs or Dual Degree programs in Engineering / Technology.Candidates with qualifications obtained through examinations conducted by professional societies recognized by UGC/AICTE (e.g. AMIE by IE(India), AMICE by the Institute of Civil Engineers (India)-ICE(I), AMIETE By IETE(India)) as equivalent to B.E./B.Tech.Those who have completed section A or equivalent of such professional courses are also eligible.There is no age limit criterion defined by the exam conducting authority to appear in GATE.[10]Disciplines, structure, syllabus, and marking scheme[edit]Disciplines[edit]At present, GATE is conducted in the following 27 disciplines. A candidate can select any one of these.[2]GATE PaperCodeGATE PaperCodeAerospace EngineeringAEInstrumentation EngineeringINAgricultural EngineeringAGMathematicsMAArchitecture and PlanningARMechanical EngineeringMEBiomedicalBMMining EngineeringMNBiotechnologyBTMetallurgical EngineeringMTCivil EngineeringCEPetroleum EngineeringPEChemical EngineeringCHPhysicsPHComputer Science and Information TechnologyCSProduction and Industrial EngineeringPIChemistryCYTextile Engineering and Fiber ScienceTFElectronics and Communication EngineeringECEngineering SciencesXE*Electrical EngineeringEELife SciencesXL**Environmental Science and EngineeringESHumanities and Social SciencesXH***Ecology and EvolutionEYStatisticsST[11]Geology and GeophysicsGGThe paper sections under XE* , XL** and XH*** are defined by some dedicated codes which are mentioned in the following table-* Engineering Sciences (XE) Paper Sections(A and any 2 of B to H)Code** Life Sciences (XL) Paper Sections(P and any 2 of Q to U)CodeHumanities and Social Sciences (XH) Paper Sections(B1 and any 1 of C1 to C6)CodeEngineering Mathematics (Compulsory)AChemistry (Compulsory)PReasoning and Comprehension (Compulsory)B1Fluid MechanicsBBiochemistryQEconomicsC1Materials ScienceCBotanyREnglishC2Solid MechanicsDMicrobiologySLinguisticsC3ThermodynamicsEZoologyTPhilosophyC4Polymer Science and EngineeringFFood TechnologyUPsychologyC5Food TechnologyGSociologyC6Atmospheric and Oceanic SciencesHDuration and examination type[edit]The examination is of 3 hours duration, and contains a total of 65 questions worth a maximum of 100 marks. The examination for all the papers is carried out in an online Computer Based Test (CBT) mode where the candidates are shown the questions in a random sequence on a computer screen. The questions consist of some Multiple Choice Questions or MCQs (four answer options out of which only ONE is correct, which has to be chosen). Remaining questions may be of Multiple Select Questions or MSQs (four answer options out of which ONE or MORE than ONE is/are correct, hence correct options need to be chosen) and/or Numerical Answer Type questions or NATs (answer is a real number, to be entered via an on-screen keypad and computer mouse).[2]Syllabus[edit]Verbal Ability: English grammar, sentence completion, verbal analogies, word groups, instructions, critical reasoning and verbal deduction.Numerical Ability: Numerical computation, numerical estimation, numerical reasoning and data interpretation.Engineering Mathematics (not for all Papers)Technical Ability: Technical questions related to the Paper chosenQuestions and marking scheme[edit]The examination will consist of totally 65 questions, segregated as One-mark and Two-mark questions. Out of 65 questions, 10 questions will be from General Aptitude (Verbal and Numerical ability) and 55 questions will be Technical, based on the Paper chosen. The General Aptitude section will have 5 One-mark questions and 5 Two-mark questions, accounting for about 15% of total marks. The Technical section and Engineering Mathematics section will combinedly have 25 One-mark questions and 30 Two-mark questions, accounting for about 85% of total marks. Further, all the sections may have some Multiple Choice Questions or MCQs, while remaining questions may be Multiple Select Questions or MSQs and/or Numerical Answer Type questions or NATs. The examination awards negative marks for wrong MCQ answers. Usually, 1/3rd of original marks will be deducted for wrong MCQ answers (i.e. -0.33 for wrong One-mark answers and -0.66 for wrong Two-mark answers) while there are no negative marks for MSQs and NATs. Also there is NO partial credit for MSQs and NATs.Result and test score[edit]GATE results are usually declared about one month after the examinations are over. The results show the total marks scored by a candidate, the GATE score, the all-India rank (AIR) and the cut off marks for various categories in the candidate's paper. The score is valid for 3 years from the date of announcement of the GATE results. The score cards are issued only to qualified candidates.Normalized GATE Score (new procedure)[edit]Calculation of "normalized marks" for subjects held in multiple sessions (CE, CS, EC, EE and ME):Graph showing the linear relationship between "actual marks" and "normalized marks" of a candidate, in a multiple-session subject (CE, CS, EC, EE and ME) of GATE.Mgt= average marks of top 0.1 % candidates in all sessions of that subject.Mgq= mean + standard deviation, of marks of all candidates in all sessions of that subject.Mti= average marks of top 0.1 % candidates in the ith session of that subject.Miq= mean + standard deviation, of marks of all candidates in the ith session of that subject.From 2014 onward, examination for CE, CS, EC, ME and EE subjects is being held in multiple sessions. Hence, for these subjects, a suitable normalization is applied to take into account any variation in the difficulty levels of the question sets across different sessions. The normalization is done based on the fundamental assumption that "in all multi-session GATE papers, the distribution of abilities of candidates is the same across all the sessions". According to the GATE committee, this assumption is justified since "the number of candidates appearing in multi-session subjects in GATE 2014 is large and the procedure of allocation of session to candidates is random. Further it is also ensured that for the same multi-session subject, the number of candidates allotted in each session is of the same order of magnitude."Based on the above, and considering various normalization methods, the committee arrived at the following formula for calculating the normalized marks, for CE, CS, EC, EE and ME subjects:[12]Normalized mark (︿Mij) of jth candidate in ith session, is given by[math]{\displaystyle {\hat {M}}_{ij}={\frac {{\bar {M}}_{t}^{g}-M_{q}^{g}}{M_{ti}-M_{iq}}}(M_{ij}-M_{iq})+M_{q}^{g}}[/math]where,Mijis the actual marks obtained by the jth candidate in the ith session,Mgtis the average marks of the top 0.1 % candidates in all sessions of that subject,Mgqis the sum of mean and standard deviation of marks of all candidates in all sessions of that subject,Mtiis the average of marks of top 0.1 % candidates in the ith session of that subject,Miqis the sum of mean and standard deviation of marks of all candidates in the ith session of that subject.After evaluation of the answers, normalized marks based on the above formula will be calculated using the raw (actual) marks obtained by a candidate in the CE, CS, EC, EE or ME subject. The "score" will be calculated using these normalized marks. For all other subjects (whose tests are conducted in a single session), the actual marks obtained by the candidates will be used in calculating the score.Calculation of GATE Score for all subjects (single-session and multiple-session):Graph showing the linear relationship between marks and score in GATE.Mq= Qualifying marks for general category candidates.Mt= Average marks of top 0.1 % candidates (for subjects with 10000 or more appeared candidates) or top 10 candidates (for subjects with less than 10000 appeared candidates).Sq= 350.St= 900.Note: In case of multiple-session subjects (EC, CS, ME, EE and CE), "marks" considered are the "normalized marks".From GATE 2014 onward (and year 2014-15 of the 2-year validity period of GATE 2013 score), a candidate's GATE score is computed by the following new formula.[13][math]{\displaystyle S=S_{q}+(S_{t}-S_{q}){\frac {M-M_{q}}{{\overline {M}}_{t}-M_{q}}}}[/math]where,S = Score (normalized) of a candidate,M = Marks obtained by a candidate ("normalized marks" in case of multiple-session subjects CE, CS, EC, EE and ME),Mq= Qualifying marks for general category candidates in that subject (usually 25 or μ + σ, whichever is higher),μ = Average (i.e. arithmetic mean) of marks of all candidates in that subject,σ = Standard deviation of marks of all candidates in that subject,Mt= Average marks of top 0.1 % candidates (for subjects with 10000 or more appeared candidates) or top 10 candidates (for subjects with less than 10000 appeared candidates),St= 900 = Score assigned to Mt,Sq= 350 = Score assigned to Mq.A scorecard in the Mechanical Engineering test of GATE 2015. (The candidate's photograph, signature, name, registration number, and QR code are blurred.)Percentile:A candidate's percentile denotes the percentage of candidates scoring lower than that particular candidate. It is calculated as:Percentile = ( 1 - All India rank/No. of candidates in that subject ) x 100%Old formula[edit]Till GATE 2012 (and year 2013-14 of the 2-year validity period of GATE 2013 score), the score was calculated using the formula:[14]GATE score = [math]{\displaystyle 10(a_{g}+s_{g}{\frac {m-a}{S}})}[/math]where,m = Marks obtained by the candidate,a = Average of marks of all candidates who appeared in that subject, in that year, with marks less than zero converted to zero,S = Standard deviation of marks of all candidates who appeared in that subject, in that year, with marks less than zero converted to zero,ag= Global average of marks of all candidates who appeared across all subjects in current and past 5 years (i.e. 2010 to 2013 for GATE 2013), with marks less than zero converted to zero,sg= Global standard deviation of marks of all candidates who appeared across all subjects in current and past 5 years (i.e. 2010 to 2013 for GATE 2013), with marks less than zero converted to zero.Qualifying marks[edit]The rules for qualifying marks have varied from year to year. The qualifying marks (out of 100) are different for different subjects as well as categories.CategoryQualifying mark (out of 100)General (GN)25 or 25+, whichever is higher.Other backward classes (OBC)90% of general category's qualifying mark.Scheduled castes (SC) and scheduled tribes (ST)2/3 (i.e., 66.67%) of general category's qualifying mark.Here μ is the average (i.e., arithmetic mean) of marks of all candidates in the subject (with negative marks converted to zero) and σ is the standard deviation of all marks in that subject.Usually, the general category's qualifying mark is in the 25 to 50 range.The Government of India implemented reservations for other backward classes in college admissions and public sector job recruitment in the year 2008. Before that, all OBC candidates were included in the "general" category. There was no separate OBC category then.Statistics[edit]The following line chart shows the number of candidates registered, appeared, and qualified (total of all subjects).RegisteredAppearedQualifiedhideYearRegisteredAppearedQualifiedPercentage of appeared that qualifiedReference(s)2008About 180,000 *About 170,000*[15][16][17]2009About 230,000*About 210,000*[15][17]2010About 415,000 *[18][unreliable source?]2011About 553,000 *[19][unreliable source?]2012777,134686,614108,52615.81%[20]20131,200,728984,855136,69913.88%[21]20141,033,625889,156149,69416.84%[22]2015927,580804,463121,060[13,874 general category candidates who scored above the OBC (NCL) qualifying mark, but below the general category qualifying mark, received scorecards. But they did not qualify.]15.05%[23]2016971,831818,850135,39216.53%[24]2017922,167787,148129,14916%[25]* Precise figures unavailable right now.The following line chart shows the variation of the number of candidates appeared in the 5 subjects with the largest numbers of appeared candidates, since GATE 2010:Electronics and Communication Engineering (EC)Computer Science and Information Technology (CS)Mechanical Engineering (ME)Electrical Engineering (EE)Civil Engineering (CE)All other subjectshideYearElectronics and Communication EngineeringComputer Science and Information TechnologyMechanical EngineeringElectrical EngineeringCivil EngineeringOthersTotalReference(s)2010104,291107,08659,33852,24619,406About 72,000*About 415,000*[18][unreliable source?]2011137,853136,02781,17572,68029,347About 96,000*About 553,000*[26][unreliable source?]2012176,944156,780112,320110,12536,15694,289686,614[20]2013256,135224,160165,814152,38167,472118,893984,855[21]2014216,367155,190185,578141,79990,87299,350889,156[22]2015172,714115,425185,758125,851101,429103,286804,463[23]2016183,152131,803234,727146,293118,1474728818,8502017152,318108,495197,789125,859119,87382814787,1482018125,870107,893194,496121,383153078* Precise figures unavailable right now.Gate Statistics by Years[edit]showGATE 2012 statisticsshowGATE 2013 statisticsshowGATE 2014 statisticsshowGATE 2015 statisticsDifficulty level[edit]GATE, for long, has been known to test the Engineering basics in a smart way. Complaints of "lengthy" problems have been rare. But the task of mastering an entire course of Engineering (around 30 undergraduate subjects) for a three-hour test, itself gives the test a certain level of toughness. Each year, only around 15% of all appearing candidates qualify. High percentiles (more than 99th percentile, in some cases) are required to get admission in M.Tech. or M.E. degree programs in Indian Institutes of Technology and Indian Institute of Science, or get shortlisted for job interviews in Indian public sector undertakings.Admission to post-graduate programs[edit]Unlike undergraduate admissions in India, candidates must apply individually to each institute after the institute has published its M.Tech. notification (usually in the month of March). There is no separate counselling held. For admissions in NIT's and IIIT's, CCMT is held every year and the notification is released around April of each year.[31]Some institutions specify GATE qualification as mandatory even for admission of self-financing students to postgraduate programs. GATE qualified candidates are also eligible for the award of Junior Research Fellowship in CSIR Laboratories and CSIR sponsored projects. Top rank holders in some GATE papers are entitled to apply for "Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Fellowship" awarded by CSIR. Some government organizations prescribe GATE qualification as a requirement for applying to the post of a Scientist/Engineer.In recent years, various academicians have recognized GATE as being one of the toughest exams in its category. Some non-Indian universities like the National University of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University in Singapore and some technical universities in Germany also identify GATE score as a parameter for judging the quality of the candidates for admission into their Masters and Ph.D. programs.Some management institutes like NITIE, Mumbai offer admission to Post Graduate Diploma in Industrial Engineering on the basis of GATE score.Most Indian institutes do not specify cut-off marks for previous years. So there is a general confusion in terms of selecting institutes and specializations. But in the recent years IIT Kharagpur and IIT Guwahati have been specifying last year cut-off mark list. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi has a very detailed website on Post Graduate (PG) activities and admissions where students can find the relevant information on cut-off marks etc. Typically the Indian Institute of Science and Indian Institutes of Technology are the most selective followed by National Institutes of Technology and others. Also there are some state universities in India, whose standards and facilities are very much comparable to top IITs and NITs. Some of them are Punjab Engineering College( Deemed to be University) (Chandigarh), Bengal Engineering and Science University (recently converted to IIEST), Jadavpur University, Delhi Technological University, gautam budh technical university, u.p, Cochin University of Science and Technology (CUSAT), Andhra University College of Engineering, Osmania University etc. Even within the top institutes, the selection criteria varies widely across departments and programs depending on expertise areas. The Directorate of Technical Education of Maharashtra state has also started conducting CAP round from the year 2013 for GATE and non-GATE candidates in all institutes in Maharashtra that offer M.E./M.Tech. programs.CSIR's JRF - GATE fellowship[edit]The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) introduced the Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) - GATE scheme in 2002 to allow GATE-qualified engineering graduates and GPAT-qualified pharmaceutical graduates to pursue research through suitable Ph.D. programs at CSIR laboratories.[32]Stipend and tenure:The fellowship amount is ₹25,000 (US$350) per month plus HRA (house rent allowance). In addition, contingency grant of ₹20,000 (US$280) per annum (calculated on pro-rata basis for fraction of a year) is also provided. On completion of 2 years as JRF - GATE, the fellowship may be upgraded to SRF (Senior Research Fellowship) - GATE and stipend may be increased to ₹28,000 (US$390) per month in the subsequent years, on the basis of assessment of CSIR JRF-NET guidelines.The total duration of the fellowship is 5 years, within which the candidate is expected to complete the Ph.D. degree.[32]Recruitment[edit]Public sector undertakings (PSUs) in India, for long, have had troubles conducting their recruitment processes with more than 100,000 students taking the exams for less than 1000 jobs (a selection rate of less than 1%). After sensing the exponential rise in the number of engineering graduates in India who wish to get a PSU job, the PSUs have decided that a GATE score shall be the primary criteria for initial shortlisting. This change was the primary cause for the rapid increase in applicants for GATE 2012.Indian Oil Corporation was the first PSU which successfully tested out this system and was followed two years later by National Thermal Power Corporation, Bharat Heavy Electricals, Bharat Electronics & PowerGrid Corporation of India.Usually these companies release their recruitment notifications right after GATE notification, indicating that candidates have to take GATE to be considered for a job in their organizations.List of companies[edit]Many companies have signed Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) with the GATE organizing committee, for using GATE score as a screening tool for recruiting engineers at entry-level positions.Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd.[33]Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd.[34]Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.[35][36]National Hydroelectric Power Corporation Ltd.[37]Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.[38]Mazagon Dock Ltd.[39]Gujarat State Electricity Corporation Ltd.[40]Oil and Natural Gas Corporation[41]Central Electronics Ltd.[citation needed]Coal India Ltd.[citation needed]National Thermal Power Corporation Ltd.[citation needed][42]Punjab State Power Corporation Ltd.[citation needed]THDC Ltd.[citation needed]Odisha Power Generation Corporation[citation needed]Ircon International Ltd.[citation needed]Bharat Broadband Network Limited[43]National Highways Authority of India[44]Airport Authority of India[citation needed]Delhi Metro Rail Corporation[citation needed]Bihar State Power Holding Company Limited[citation needed]The syllabus for the GATE exam and its preparation remains the same, irrespective of whether one is applying for a job at a PSU or seeking admission for post graduation in engineering.Changes in recent years[edit]YearChangesReference(s)2009The Information Technology and Computer Science tests were merged into a single Computer Science and Information Technology test (code "CS").The GATE score was valid only for one year but later the GATE committee made it valid for two years in 2010.2010Pharmacy was no longer a GATE subject, with the Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test (conducted by the All India Council for Technical Education) as the replacement.The Biotechnology section of the Engineering Sciences GATE paper had been removed and a separate Biotechnology test (code "BT") was started.An additional section of General Aptitude was introduced in GATE. Ten questions carrying 15 marks makes up this section of GATE Exam.2011Based on a trouble-free pilot project in 2010, four of the GATE papers in GATE 2011 were run using computer based online mode. The four online papers for 2011 were Aerospace Engineering (code "AE"), Geology and Geophysics (code "GG"), Mining Engineering (code "MN") and Textile Engineering and Fiber Science (code "TF").GATE was held in morning (9:00 to 12:00) session for some papers and afternoon (14:00 to 17:00) session for others. Also, the computer based tests was held on a different date.2012Only final year students and passed-out candidates were declared eligible to take GATE. Pre-final year B.E./B.Tech. students, who were eligible till 2011, were no longer eligible.The application process was made completely online. Candidates could view their responses of the ORS and also GATE Office released official solutions for GATE papers.The admit card was made downloadable from the application website. Sending admit cards by post was discontinued.The exam mode was changed from paper-based to "online" (i.e. computer-based) for 2 additional subjects: Agricultural Engineering (code "AG") and Architecture and Planning (code "AR").The use of pencils to darken the bubbles in the answer sheet was discontinued. Candidates could use only black ink ball point pens for darkening of the bubbles in the answer sheet.[45]2013Female candidates were exempted from paying the application fee.Candidates were required to upload scanned copy of photograph and signature. Print-out of the completed application form was to be mailed to the institute by post.The application fee was increased from ₹ 1000 to ₹ 1200.The GATE score formula was changed. Scores calculated using the old formula were effective during the year 2013–14. Scores calculated using the new formula were effective during the year 2014–15.[46][47]2014A new subject of Ecology and Evolution (code "EY") was introduced.Examinations for all the 22 subjects was conducted by an online Computer-Based Test (CBT). The online examination contained some questions for which numerical answers must be keyed in by the candidate using the "virtual" (i.e. on-screen) keypad. Rest of the questions were of Multiple Choice Question (MCQ) type.Female candidates were required to pay some fee for application, a change introduced due to many raising complaints about a large portion of female candidates who registered but did not appear for the exam in 2013.Application fee was increased from ₹ 1200 to ₹ 1500 for general category, OBC male/other candidates, and ₹ 750 for all female candidates and SC, ST male/other candidates.GATE score's validity is increased from 2 years to 3 years.Examinations were held during forenoon and afternoon sessions on alternate weekends (Saturday and Sunday) between 1 February 2014 and 2 March 2014. Examination for the subjects ME, EE, EC, and CS was held in multiple sessions due to the large numbers of registered candidates.[48][49]2015The entire application process is made online. All required documents have to be scanned and uploaded on the online application system. Candidates no longer have to send anything by post.Printed (i.e. hard-copy) score cards are no longer sent to candidates. Only a digital (i.e. soft-copy) score card can be downloaded by qualified candidates from the official GATE website.[50][51][52]2016Candidates are not permitted to bring their own calculators. An online virtual (i.e. on-screen) calculator will be available during the examination.The syllabus has been revised for some subjects.A new subject of Petroleum Engineering (code "PE") has been introduced.After completion of all test sessions, an Answer Key will be provided for candidates to check. Candidates can challenge the GATE 2016 Answer Key on a nominal fee for a specified time period.[53]2017A New Section has been introduced in the Engineering Sciences (XE) Paper. This section is the Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences (section H).International students from countries namely Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Ethiopia and United Arab Emirates are now eligible to apply for GATE 2017.[54]2018While choosing the exam centres for GATE 2018, the candidates will have to select their first two choices from the same GATE zone. The third choice can be from any other GATE zone.Candidates are not required to upload the scanned image of their thumb impression while filling the GATE online application.GATE will be held across 200 cities in India.GATE 2018 will also be held in following international cities- Addis Ababa, Colombo, Dhaka, Kathmandu, Dubai and Singapore.[55][56]2019GATE 2019 introduces a new paper "Statistics" with a code of "ST".Candidates who fail to apply by 21 September 2018 can still apply till 1 October 2018 by paying a late fee of ₹ 500. The late fee in case of foreign centres is US$20.[57]2020Two new subjects - Environmental Science and Engineering (ES) and Humanities and Social Science (XS) have also been added in GATE exam 2021.Also, there will be relaxation in minimum eligibility for applying to GATE 2021 due to Covid-19 situation. As per the announcement, candidates in their third year of undergraduate degree will be eligible for GATE 2021.Year and Organizing Institute[edit]Each year's GATE is organised by any one of 8 institutes: IISc and 7 IITs. The overall co-ordination and responsibility of conducting GATE lies with this institute, which is designated as the Organizing Institute (OI) for GATE of that year. GATE coaching institutes often make speculations regarding the topics to focus upon depending upon the institute that is the OI of that year.[citation needed]InstituteGATE editions organizedIndian Institute of Science1984, 1990, 1996, 2002, 2008, 2016.Indian Institute of Technology, Madras1985, 1991, 1997, 2003, 2011, 2019.Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi1986, 1992, 1998, 2004, 2012, 2020.Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay1987, 1993, 1999, 2005, 2013,2021.Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur1988, 1994, 2000, 2006, 2014.Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur1989, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2015.Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee2009, 2017.Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati2010, 2018.See also[edit]Examinations[edit]Fundamentals of Engineering Examination (FE exam)Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination (PE exam)Graduate Record Examination (GRE)Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT)Common Admission Test (CAT)Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)International English Language Testing System (IELTS)All India Engineering/Architecture Entrance Examination (AIEEE)Joint Entrance Examination (JEE)Institutes[edit]Indian Institute of ScienceIndian Institutes of TechnologyNational Institutes of TechnologyIndian Institutes of Information Technology