Quantitative Analysis Of A Biological Sample Of Unknown Quantity: Fill & Download for Free

The principle involved can be partition chromatography or adsorption chromatography. The compounds in the mixture separate themselves based on the differences in their affinity towards stationary and mobile phase solvents under the capillary action of pores in the paper.Applications Of Paper Chromatography• Separating Colored Pigments. An effective technique used for separating colored pigments from a mixture. ...• Reaction Monitoring. ...• Qualitative Analysis. ...• Isolation And Purification. ...• Pathology And Forensic Science. ...• Foods. ...• Analyzing Complex Mixtures.Paper chromatography is used as a qualitative analytical chemistry technique for identifying and separating colored mixtures like pigments. It is used in scientific studies to identify unknown organic and inorganic compounds from a mixture.Limitations of Paper ChromatographyLarge quantity of sample cannot be applied on paper chromatography.In quantitative analysis paper chromatography is not effective.Complex mixture cannot be separated by paper chromatography.Less Accurate compared to HPLC or HPTLC.

Go down this list and see what is important to you.Computer science – study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems.Theory of computation – branch that deals with whether and how efficiently problems can be solved on a model of computation, using an algorithmAutomata theory – study of mathematical objects called abstract machines or automata and the computational problems that can be solved using them.Formal languages – set of strings of symbols.Computability theory – branch of mathematical logic and computer science that originated in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees.Computational complexity theory – branch of the theory of computation in theoretical computer science and mathematics that focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating those classes to each otherConcurrency theory – In computer science, concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each otherAlgorithms – step-by-step procedure for calculationsDistributed algorithms – algorithm designed to run on computer hardware constructed from interconnected processorsParallel algorithms – algorithm which can be executed a piece at a time on many different processing devices, and then put back together again at the end to get the correct result.Data structures – particular way of storing and organizing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently.Computer architecture – In computer science and engineering, computer architecture is the practical art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals and the formal modeling of those systems.VLSI design – process of creating integrated circuits by combining thousands of transistors into a single chipOperating systems – set of software that manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for computer programsComputer communications (networks) – collection of hardware components and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and informationInformation theory – branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering involving the quantification of informationInternet – global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite (often called TCP/IP, although not all applications use TCP) to serve billions of users worldwide.World wide web – part of the Internet; system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet.Wireless computing – any type of computer network that is not connected by cables of any kind.Computer security – branch of computer technology known as information security as applied to computers and networks.Cryptography – practice and study of hiding information.Fault-tolerant computing – property that enables a system (often computer-based) to continue operating properly in the event of the failure of (or one or more faults within) some of its componentsDistributed computing – field of computer science that studies distributed systemsGrid computing – federation of computer resources from multiple administrative domains to reach a common goalParallel computing – form of computation in which many calculations are carried out simultaneously, operating on the principle that large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which are then solved concurrently ("in parallel").High-performance computing – computer at the frontline of current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculationQuantum computing – device for computation that makes direct use of quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on dataComputer graphics – graphics created using computers and, more generally, the representation and manipulation of image data by a computer with help from specialized software and hardware.Image processing – any form of signal processing for which the input is an image, such as a photograph or video frame; the output of image processing may be either an image or a set of characteristics or parameters related to the imageScientific visualization – interdisciplinary branch of science primarily concerned with the visualization of three-dimensional phenomena (architectural, meteorological, medical, biological, etc.), where the emphasis is on realistic renderings of volumes, surfaces, illumination sources, and so forth, perhaps with a dynamic (time) component".Computational geometry – branch of computer science devoted to the study of algorithms which can be stated in terms of geometrySoftware engineering – application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software; that is the application of engineering to softwareFormal methods – particular kind of mathematically based techniques for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware systemsFormal verification – act of proving or disproving the correctness of intended algorithms underlying a system with respect to a certain formal specification or property, using formal methods of mathematicsProgramming languages – artificial language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computerProgramming paradigms – fundamental style of computer programmingObject-oriented programming – programming paradigm using "objects" – data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions – to design applications and computer programsFunctional programming – programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable dataProgram semantics – field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languagesType theory – any of several formal systems that can serve as alternatives to naive set theory, or the study of such formalisms in generalCompilers – computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code)Concurrent programming languages – form of computing in which programs are designed as collections of interacting computational processes that may be executed in parallelInformation science – interdisciplinary field primarily concerned with the analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of informationDatabase – organized collection of data, today typically in digital formRelational database – collection of data items organized as a set of formally described tables from which data can be accessed easilyDistributed database – database in which storage devices are not all attached to a common CPU.Object database – database management system in which information is represented in the form of objects as used in object-oriented programmingMultimedia – media and content that uses a combination of different content forms.hypermedia – computer-based information retrieval system that enables a user to gain or provide access to texts, audio and video recordings, photographs and computer graphics related to a particular subject.Data mining – process that results in the discovery of new patterns in large data setsInformation retrieval – area of study concerned with searching for documents, for information within documents, and for metadata about documents, as well as that of searching structured storage, relational databases, and the World Wide Web.Artificial intelligence – branch of computer science that deals with intelligent behavior, learning, and adaptation in machines.Automated reasoning – area of computer science and mathematical logic dedicated to understand different aspects of reasoning.Computer vision – field that includes methods for acquiring, processing, analyzing, and understanding images and, in general, high-dimensional data from the real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information, e.g., in the forms of decisions.Machine learning – scientific discipline concerned with the design and development of algorithms that allow computers to evolve behaviors based on empirical data, such as from sensor data or databasesArtificial neural network – mathematical model or computational model that is inspired by the structure and/or functional aspects of biological neural networksNatural language processing – field of computer science, artificial intelligence (also called machine learning), and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages.Computational linguistics – interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective.Expert systems – computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human expertRobotics – branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robotsHuman-computer interaction – study, planning, and design of the interaction between people (users) and computers.Numerical analysis – study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as opposed to general symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics).Algebraic (symbolic) computation – relates to algorithms and software for manipulating mathematical expressions and equations in symbolic form, as opposed to manipulating the approximations of specific numerical quantities represented by those symbols. Software applications that perform symbolic calculations are called computer algebra systems.Computational number theory – study of algorithms for performing number theoretic computationsComputational mathematics – involves mathematical research in areas of science where computing plays a central and essential role, emphasizing algorithms, numerical methods, and symbolic methodsScientific computing (Computational science) – Computational biology (bioinformatics) – involves the development and application of data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques to the study of biological, behavioral, and social systems.Computational science – subfield of computer science concerned with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers to analyze and solve scientific problemsComputational chemistry – branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problemsComputational neuroscience – study of brain function in terms of the information processing properties of the structures that make up the nervous system.Computer-aided engineering – broad usage of computer software to aid in engineering tasks.Finite element analysis – numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of partial differential equations (PDE) as well as integral equations.Computational fluid dynamics – branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows.Computational economics – research discipline at the interface between computer science and economic and management scienceComputational sociology – branch of sociology that uses computationally intensive methods to analyze and model social phenomena.Computational finance – cross-disciplinary field which relies on computational intelligence, mathematical finance, numerical methods and computer simulations to make trading, hedging and investment decisions, as well as facilitating the risk management of those decisionsHumanities computing (Digital Humanities) – area of research and teaching concerned with the intersection of computing and the disciplines of the humanitiesInformation systems – study of complementary networks of hardware and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute dataBusiness informatics – discipline combining information technology (IT), informatics and management concepts.Information technology – Management information systems – provides information that is needed to manage organizations efficiently and effectivelyHealth informatics – discipline at the intersection of information science, computer science, and health care.Mathematics – search for fundamental truths in pattern, quantity, and change.Algebra – one of the main branches of mathematics, it concerns the study of structure, relation and quantity.Group theory – studies the algebraic structures known as groups.Group representation – describe abstract groups in terms of linear transformations of vector spacesRing theory – study of ring–algebraic structures in which addition and multiplication are defined and have similar properties to those familiar from the integersField theory – branch of mathematics which studies the properties of fields Linear algebra – branch of mathematics concerning finite or countably infinite dimensional vector spaces, as well as linear mappings between such spaces.Vector space – mathematical structure formed by a collection of vectors: objects that may be added together and multiplied ("scaled") by numbers, called scalars in this context.Multilinear algebra – extends the methods of linear algebraLie algebra – algebraic structure whose main use is in studying geometric objects such as Lie groups and differentiable manifoldsAssociative algebra – associative ring that has a compatible structure of a vector space over a certain field K or, more generally, of a module over a commutative ring R.Non-associative algebra – K-vector space (or more generally a module) A equipped with a K-bilinear mapUniversal algebra – field of mathematics that studies algebraic structures themselves, not examples ("models") of algebraic structuresHomological algebra – branch of mathematics which studies homology in a general algebraic settingCategory theory – area of study in mathematics that examines in an abstract way the properties of particular mathematical concepts, by formalising them as collections of objects and arrows (also called morphisms, although this term also has a specific, non-category-theoretical sense), where these collections satisfy some basic conditionsLattice theory – partially ordered set in which any two elements have a unique supremum (also called a least upper bound or join) and a unique infimum (also called a greatest lower bound or meet).Order theory – branch of mathematics which investigates our intuitive notion of order using binary relations.Differential algebra – algebras equipped with a derivation, which is a unary function that is linear and satisfies the Leibniz product rule.Analysis – branch of pure mathematics that includes the theories of differentiation, integration and measure, limits, infinite series, and analytic functionsReal analysis – branch of mathematical analysis dealing with the set of real numbers and functions of a real variable.Calculus – branch of mathematics focused on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series.Complex analysis – branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of complex numbersFunctional analysis – branch of mathematical analysis, the core of which is formed by the study of vector spaces endowed with some kind of limit-related structure (e.g. inner product, norm, topology, etc.) and the linear operators acting upon these spaces and respecting these structures in a suitable senseOperator theory – branch of functional analysis that focuses on bounded linear operators, but which includes closed operators and nonlinear operators.Non-standard analysis – branch of classical mathematics that formulates analysis using a rigorous notion of an infinitesimal number.Harmonic analysis – branch of mathematics concerned with the representation of functions or signals as the superposition of basic waves, and the study of and generalization of the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms.p-adic analysis – branch of number theory that deals with the mathematical analysis of functions of p-adic numbers.Ordinary differential equations – ordinary differential equation (ODE) is an equation in which there is only one independent variable and one or more derivatives of a dependent variable with respect to the independent variable, so that all the derivatives occurring in the equation are ordinary derivatives.Partial differential equations – differential equation that contains unknown multivariable functions and their partial derivatives.Probability theory – branch of mathematics concerned with probability, the analysis of random phenomena.Measure theory – systematic way to assign a number to each suitable subset of that set, intuitively interpreted as its size.Ergodic theory – branch of mathematics that studies dynamical systems with an invariant measure and related problems.Stochastic process – collection of random variables; this is often used to represent the evolution of some random value, or system, over time.Geometry – branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. Geometry is one of the oldest mathematical sciences.Topology – major area of mathematics concerned with properties that are preserved under continuous deformations of objects, such as deformations that involve stretching, but no tearing or gluing.General topology – branch of topology which studies properties of topological spaces and structures defined on them.Algebraic topology – branch of mathematics which uses tools from abstract algebra to study topological spacesGeometric topology – study of manifolds and maps between them, particularly embedings of one manifold into another.Differential topology – field dealing with differential functions on differentiable manifoldsAlgebraic geometry – branch of mathematics which combines techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometryDifferential geometry – mathematical discipline that uses the techniques of differential calculus and integral calculus, as well as linear algebra and multilinear algebra, to study problems in geometryProjective geometry – study of geometric properties that are invariant under projective transformationsAffine geometry – study of geometric properties which remain unchanged by affine transformationsNon-Euclidean geometry – either of two specific geometries that are, loosely speaking, obtained by negating the Euclidean parallel postulate, namely hyperbolic and elliptic geometry.Convex geometry – branch of geometry studying convex sets, mainly in Euclidean space.Discrete geometry – branch of geometry that studies combinatorial properties and constructive methods of discrete geometric objects.Trigonometry – branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths and angles of trianglesNumber theory – branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integersAnalytic number theory – branch of number theory that uses methods from mathematical analysis to solve problems about the integersAlgebraic number theory – major branch of number theory which studies algebraic structures related to algebraic integersGeometric number theory – studies convex bodies and integer vectors in n-dimensional spaceLogic and Foundations of mathematics – subfield of mathematics with close connections to the foundations of mathematics, theoretical computer science and philosophical logic.Set theory – branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections of objectsProof theory – branch of mathematical logic that represents proofs as formal mathematical objects, facilitating their analysis by mathematical techniquesModel theory – study of (classes of) mathematical structures (e.g. groups, fields, graphs, universes of set theory) using tools from mathematical logic Recursion theory – branch of mathematical logic and computer science that originated in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degreesModal logic – type of formal logic primarily developed in the 1960s that extends classical propositional and predicate logic to include operators expressing modalityIntuitionistic logic – symbolic logic system differing from classical logic in its definition of the meaning of a statement being trueApplied mathematics – branch of mathematics that concerns itself with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry.Mathematical statistics – study of statistics from a mathematical standpoint, using probability theory as well as other branches of mathematics such as linear algebra and analysisProbability – likelihood or chance that something is the case or will happen Econometrics – application of mathematics and statistical methods to economic dataActuarial science – discipline that applies mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance and finance industries.Demography – statistical study of human populations and sub-populations.Approximation theory – study of how functions can best be approximated with simpler functions, and with quantitatively characterizing the errors introduced thereby.Numerical analysis – study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as opposed to general symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics).Optimization (Mathematical programming) – selection of a best element from some set of available alternatives.Operations research – study of the application of advanced analytical methods to help make better decisionsLinear programming – mathematical method for determining a way to achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a given mathematical model for some list of requirements represented as linear relationshipsDynamical systems – concept in mathematics where a fixed rule describes the time dependence of a point in a geometrical spaceChaos theory – study of the behavior of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions, an effect which is popularly referred to as the butterfly effect.Fractal geometry – mathematical set that has a fractal dimension that usually exceeds its topological dimension and may fall between the integers.Mathematical physics – development of mathematical methods for application to problems in physicsQuantum field theory – theoretical framework for constructing quantum mechanical models of systems classically parametrized (represented) by an infinite number of degrees of freedom, that is, fields and (in a condensed matter context) many-body systems.Statistical mechanics – branch of physics that applies probability theory, which contains mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the study of the thermodynamic behavior of systems composed of a large number of particles.Information theory – branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering involving the quantification of information.Cryptography – study of means of obscuring information, such as codes and ciphersCombinatorics – branch of mathematics concerning the study of finite or countable discrete structuresCoding theory – study of the properties of codes and their fitness for a specific applicationGraph theory – study of graphs, mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects from a certain collectionGame theory – study of strategic decision making. More formally, it is "the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers."Statistics – collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. Computational statistics – interface between statistics and computer science.Data mining – process that results in the discovery of new patterns in large data setsRegression – estimates the conditional expectation of the dependent variable given the independent variables – that is, the average value of the dependent variable when the independent variables are held fixed.Simulation – Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. The act of simulating something first requires that a model be developed; this model represents the key characteristics or behaviors of the selected physical or abstract system or process. The model represents the system itself, whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system over time.Bootstrap (statistics) – method for assigning measures of accuracy to sample estimates (Efron and Tibshirani 1993).Design of experiments – design of any information-gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full control of the experimenter or notBlock design – set together with a family of subsets (repeated subsets are allowed at times) whose members are chosen to satisfy some set of properties that are deemed useful for a particular application.Analysis of variance – collection of statistical models, and their associated procedures, in which the observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation.Response surface methodology – explores the relationships between several explanatory variables and one or more response variables.Engineering statistics – Engineering statistics combines engineering and statisticsSpatial statistics – any of the formal techniques which study entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties.Social statistics – use of statistical measurement systems to study human behavior in a social environmentStatistical modelling – formalization of relationships between variables in the form of mathematical equationsBiostatistics – application of statistics to a wide range of topics in biology. Epidemiology – study of the distribution and patterns of health-events, health-characteristics and their causes or influences in well-defined populations.Multivariate analysis – observation and analysis of more than one statistical variable at a time.Structural equation model – statistical technique for testing and estimating causal relations using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions.Time series – sequence of data points, measured typically at successive time instants spaced at uniform time intervals.Reliability theory – describes the probability of a system completing its expected function during an interval of time.Quality control – process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in production.Statistical theory – provides a basis for the whole range of techniques, in both study design and data analysis, that are used within applications of statistics.Decision theory – identifies the values, uncertainties and other issues relevant in a given decision, its rationality, and the resulting optimal decision.Mathematical statistics – study of statistics from a mathematical standpoint, using probability theory as well as other branches of mathematics such as linear algebra and analysis.Probability – likelihood or chance that something is the case or will happen.Sample Survey – process of selecting a sample of elements from a target population in order to conduct a survey.Sampling theory – study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data.Survey methodology – field that studies the sampling of individuals from a population with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population using the sample.Systems science – interdisciplinary field of science that studies the nature of complex systems in nature, society, and science.Chaos theory – field of study in mathematics, with applications in several disciplines including physics, engineering, economics, biology, and philosophy; studies the behavior of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions.Complex systems and Complexity Theory – studies how relationships between parts give rise to the collective behaviors of a system and how the system interacts and forms relationships with its environment.Cybernetics – interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems. Biocybernetics – application of cybernetics to biological science, composed of biological disciplines that benefit from the application of cybernetics: neurology, multicellular systems and others.Engineering cybernetics – field of cybernetics, which deals with the question of control engineering of mechatronic systems as well as chemical or biological systems.Management cybernetics – field of cybernetics concerned with management and organizations.Medical cybernetics – branch of cybernetics which has been heavily affected by the development of the computer, which applies the concepts of cybernetics to medical research and practice.New Cybernetics – study of self-organizing systems according to Peter Harries-Jones (1988), "looking beyond the issues of the "first", "old" or "original" cybernetics and their politics and sciences of control, to the autonomy and self-organization capabilities of complex systems".Second-order cybernetics – investigates the construction of models of cybernetic systems.Control theory – Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and mathematics that deals with the behavior of dynamical systems. The external input of a system is called the reference. When one or more output variables of a system need to follow a certain reference over time, a controller manipulates the inputs to a system to obtain the desired effect on the output of the system.Control engineering – engineering discipline that applies control theory to design systems with desired behaviors.Control systems – device, or set of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate the behavior of other devices or system.Dynamical systems – concept in mathematics where a fixed rule describes the time dependence of a point in a geometrical space.Operations research – study of the use of advanced analytical methods to help make better decisions.Systems dynamics – approach to understanding the behaviour of complex systems over time.Systems analysis – study of sets of interacting entities, including computer systems analysis.Systems theory – interdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems at all nesting levels in all fields of research.Developmental systems theory – overarching theoretical perspective on biological development, heredity, and evolutionGeneral systems theory – interdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems at all nesting levels in all fields of research.Linear time-invariant systems – investigates the response of a linear and time-invariant system to an arbitrary input signal.Mathematical system theory – area of mathematics used to describe the behavior of complex dynamical systems, usually by employing differential equations or difference equations.Systems biology – several related trends in bioscience research, and a movement that draws on those trends.Systems ecology – interdisciplinary field of ecology, taking a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems.Systems engineering – interdisciplinary field of engineering focusing on how complex engineering projects should be designed and managed over their life cycles.Systems neuroscience – subdiscipline of neuroscience and systems biology that studies the function of neural circuits and systems.Systems psychology – branch of applied psychology that studies human behaviour and experience in complex systems.Anthropology - study of humans, past and present, that draws and builds upon knowledge from the social sciences and biological sciences, as well as the humanities and the natural sciences.Applied anthropology – application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems.Archaeology – study of cultures via material remains and environmental dataCultural anthropology – branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans, collecting data about the effect of global economic and political processes on local cultural realities.Ethnobiology – scientific study of dynamic relationships between peoples, biota, and environments, from the distant past to the immediate present.Ethnography – systematic study of people and cultures.Ethnology – branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the origins, distribution, technology, religion, language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national divisions of humanity.Ethnopoetics – method of recording text versions of oral poetry or narrative performances (i.e., verbal lore) that uses poetic lines, verses, and stanzas (instead of prose paragraphs) to capture the formal, poetic performance elements which would otherwise be lost in the written texts.Evolutionary anthropology – interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominids and non-hominid primates.Experimental archaeology – Experimental archaeology employs a number of different methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches in order to generate and test hypotheses, based upon archaeological source material, like ancient structures or artifacts.Historical archaeology – form of archaeology dealing with topics that are already attested in written records.Linguistic anthropology – is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life.Medical anthropology – interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation".Physical anthropology – study of the physical development of the human species. Psychological anthropology – interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes.Zooarchaeology – study of faunal remains.Anthrozoology – study of human-animal interaction.Business studies – academic subject combining elements of accountancy, finance, marketing, organizational studies and economicsCivics – study of the theoretical and practical aspects of citizenship, its rights and duties; the duties of citizens to each other as members of a political body and to the government.Cognitive Science – interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works.Criminology – study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the individual and in society.Cultural studies – academic field grounded in critical theory and literary criticism.Demography – statistical study of human populations and sub-populations.Development studies – multidisciplinary branch of social science which addresses issues of concern to developing countries.Economics – analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. It aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact.Macroeconomics – branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economyMicroeconomics – branch of economics that studies the behavior of individual households and firms in making decisions on the allocation of limited resourcesBehavioural economics – Behavioral economics and the related field, behavioral finance, study the effects of social, cognitive and emotional factors on the economic decisions of individuals and institutions and the consequences for market prices, returns and the resource allocation.Bioeconomics – applies the laws of thermodynamics to economic theory Comparative economics – comparative study of different systems of economic organization, such as capitalism, socialism, feudalism and the mixed economy.Socialist economics – economic theories and practices of hypothetical and existing socialist economic systems.Development economics – branch of economics which deals with economic aspects of the development process in low-income countries.Economic geography – study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities across the world.Economic history – study of economies or economic phenomena in the past.Economic sociology – studies both the social effects and the social causes of various economic phenomena.Energy economics – broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to supply and use of energy in societiesEntrepreneurial Economics – study of the entrepreneur and entrepreneurship within the economy.Environmental economics – subfield of economics concerned with environmental issues.Evolutionary economics – part of mainstream economics as well as heterodox school of economic thought that is inspired by evolutionary biology.Financial economics – branch of economics concerned with "the allocation and deployment of economic resources, both spatially and across time, in an uncertain environment".Heterodox economics – approaches or to schools of economic thought that are considered outside of "mainstream economics" and sometimes contrasted by expositors with neoclassical economics.Green economics – one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risksFeminist economics – diverse area of economic inquiry that highlights the androcentric biases of traditional economics through critical examinations of economic methodology, epistemology, history and empirical study.Industrial organization – field of economics that builds on the theory of the firm in examining the structure of, and boundaries between, firms and markets.International economics – study of the effects upon economic activity of international differences in productive resources and consumer preferences and the institutions that affect them.Institutional economics – study of the role of the evolutionary process and the role of institutions in shaping economic behaviour.Labor economics – seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for labour.Law and Economics – application of economic methods to analysis of law. Managerial economics – "application of economic concepts and economic analysis to the problems of formulating rational managerial decisions"Monetary economics – branch of economics that historically prefigured and remains integrally linked to macroeconomics.Neuroeconomics – interdisciplinary field that seeks to explain human decision making, the ability to process multiple alternatives and to choose an optimal course of action.Public finance – study of the role of the government in the economy.Public economics – study of government policy through the lens of economic efficiency and equity.Real estate economics – application of economic techniques to real estate markets.Resource economics – study of supply, demand, and allocation of the Earth's natural resources.Welfare economics – branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to evaluate economic well-being, especially relative to competitive general equilibrium within an economy as to economic efficiency and the resulting income distribution associated with it.Political economy – study of the production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process.Socioeconomics – considers behavioral interactions of individuals and groups through social capital and social "markets" (not excluding for example, sorting by marriage) and the formation of social norms.Transport economics – branch of economics that deals with the allocation of resources within the transport sector and has strong linkages with civil engineering.Economic methodology – study of methods, especially the scientific method, in relation to economics, including principles underlying economic reasoning.Computational economics – research discipline at the interface between computer science and economic and management science.Econometrics – application of mathematics and statistical methods to economic dataMathematical economics – application of mathematical methods to represent economic theories and analyze problems posed in economics.Economic statistics – topic in applied statistics that concerns the collection, processing, compilation, dissemination, and analysis of economic data.Time series – sequence of data points, measured typically at successive time instants spaced at uniform time intervals.Experimental economics – application of experimental methods to study economic questions.Education – in the general sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one generation to another.Environmental studies – interdisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment.Gender and sexuality studies – field of interdisciplinary study and academic field devoted to gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis.Geography – study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth.Cartography – study and practice of making maps or globes.Human geography – branch of the social sciences that studies the world, its people, communities, and cultures with an emphasis on relations of and across space and place.Critical geography – takes a critical theory (Frankfurt School) approach to the study and analysis of geography.Cultural geography – study of cultural products and norms and their variations across and relations to spaces and places.Feminist geography – approach in human geography which applies the theories, methods and critiques of feminism to the study of the human environment, society and geographical space.Economic geography – study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities across the world.Development geography – branch of geography with reference to the standard of living and quality of life of its human inhabitants.Historical geography – study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real" geographies of the past.Time geography – Political geography & geopolitics – field of human geography that is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures.Strategic geography – concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas that affect the security and prosperity of nations.Population geography – study of the ways in which spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to the nature of places.Social geography – branch of human geography that is most closely related to social theory in general and sociology in particular, dealing with the relation of social phenomena and its spatial components.Behavioral geography – approach to human geography that examines human behavior using a disaggregate approach.Children's geographies – area of study within human geography and Childhood Studies which involves researching the places and spaces of children's lives.Health geography – application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care.Tourism geography – study of travel and tourism, as an industry and as a social and cultural activity.Urban geography – study of areas which have a high concentration of buildings and infrastructure.Environmental geography – branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world.Physical geography – branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere, biosphere and geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography.Biogeography – study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.Climatology – Atmospheric physics Atmospheric dynamics (category) Palaeoclimatology – study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth.Coastal geography – study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast.Geomorphology – scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them.Geodesy – scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space.Hydrology – study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.Hydrography – mapping (charting) of water topographic features through the measurement of the depths, the tides and currents of a body of water and establishment of the sea, river or lake bed topography and morphology. Glaciology – study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.Limnology – study of inland waters.Oceanography – branch of Earth science that studies the ocean.Pedology – study of soils in their natural environment.Landscape ecology – science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems.Palaeogeography – study of what the geography was in times past.Regional geography – study of world regions.Gerontology – study of the social, psychological and biological aspects of aging.History – discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented.Industrial relations – multidisciplinary field that studies the employment relationship.Information science – interdisciplinary field primarily concerned with the analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.International studies – study of the major political, economic, social, cultural and sacral issues that dominate the international agendaLaw – set of rules and principles (laws) by which a society is governed, through enforcement by governmental authorities.Legal management – social sciences discipline that is designed for students interested in the study of State and its elements, Law, Law Practice, Legal Research and Jurisprudence, legal Philosophy, Criminal Justice, Governance, Government structure, Political history and theories, Business Organization and Management, Entrepreneurship, Public Administration and Human Resource Development.Paralegal studies – social sciences discipline that is designed for students interested in the study of State and its elements, Law, Law Practice, Legal Research and Jurisprudence, legal Philosophy, Criminal Justice, Governance, Government structure, Political history and theories, Business Organization and Management, Entrepreneurship, Public Administration and Human Resource Development.Library science – study of issues related to libraries and the information fields.Linguistics – scientific study of natural language.Anthropological linguistics – study of the relations between language and culture and the relations between human biology, cognition and language.Applied linguistics – interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems.Biolinguistics – study of the biology and evolution of language.Clinical linguistics and speech and language pathology – sub-discipline of linguistics which involves the application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language Pathology.Cognitive linguistics – branch of linguistics that interprets language in terms of the concepts, sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue, which underlie its forms.Comparative linguistics – branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness.Computational linguistics – interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective.Developmental linguistics – study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood.language acquisition – the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words to communicate.Dialectology – scientific study of linguistic dialect, a sub-field of sociolinguistics.dialectometry – the study of high levels of structure in geographical dialect networks.Discourse analysis – general term for a number of approaches to analyzing use of written, oral or sign language or any significant semiotic event. Etymology – study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.Evolutionary linguistics – the scientific study of both the origins and development of language as well as the cultural evolution of languages.Forensic linguistics – application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure.Geolinguistics – branch of human geography that studies the geographic distribution of language or its constituent elements.Historical linguistics – study of language change.Lexis – total vocabulary or lexicon having items of lexical, rather than grammatical, meaning.Linguistic typology – subfield of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features.Morphology – identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context (words in a lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology).Neurolinguistics – study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.Philology – study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary studies, history and linguistics.Phonetics – branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or the equivalent aspects of sign.Phonology – branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages.Phraseology – study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to as phrasemes), in which the component parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than or otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings when used independently.Pragmatics – subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning.Psycholinguistics – study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language.Sociolinguistics – descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society.Speech science – Speech science refers to the study of production, transmission and perception of speech. Speech science involves anatomy, in particular the anatomy of the oro-facial region and neuroanatomy, physiology, and acoustics.Stylistics – study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective.Syntax – "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages."Semantics – study of meaning.Writing systems and orthography – representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols (known as a writing system).Management – act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively.Media studies – academic discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history and effects of various media; in particular, the 'mass media'.Communication studies – academic field that deals with processes of human communication, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create meaning.Philosophy – study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Academic philosophy is considered a science by some. The role of philosophy is also a philosophical question.Philosophy of language – is concerned with four central problems: the nature of meaning, language use, language cognition, and the relationship between language and reality.Philosophy of information – (PI) is the area of research that studies conceptual issues arising at the intersection of computer science, information science, information technology, and philosophy.Political philosophy – is the study of topics such as politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority.Epistemology – study of how we know what we know; study of the nature and scope of knowledge.Ethics – major branch of philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life. It is significantly broader than the common conception of analyzing right and wrong.Logic – formal science of using reasonPhilosophy of mind – branch of philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness and their relationship to the physical body, particularly the brain.Philosophy of science – questions the assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science; questions the use and merit of science; sometimes overlapsmetaphysics and epistemology by questioning whether scientific results are actually a study of truth.Social philosophy – is the study of questions about social behavior and interpretations of society and social institutions in terms of ethical values rather than empirical relations.Aesthetics – is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty.Philosophy of mathematics – is the branch of philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics. The aim of the philosophy of mathematics is to provide an account of the nature and methodology of mathematics and to understand the place of mathematics in people's lives.Philosophy of education – Philosophy of education can refer to either the academic field of applied philosophy or to one of any educational philosophies that promote a specific type or vision of education, and/or which examine the definition, goals and meaning of education.Political science – social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government, and politics.Comparative politics – field and a method used in political science, characterized by an empirical approach based on the comparative method.Game theory – study of strategic decision making.Geopolitics – theory that describes the relation between politics and territory whether on local or international scale.political geography – field of human geography that is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. Ideology – set of ideas that constitute one's goals, expectations, and actions.Political economy – Political economy originally was the term for studying production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process. Political economy originated in moral philosophy. It developed in the 18th century as the study of the economies of states, polities, hence political economy.Political psychology, bureaucratic, administrative and judicial behaviour – Psephology – branch of political science which deals with the study and scientific analysis of elections.Voting systems – methods by which voters make a choice between options, often in an election or on a policy referendum.Public administration – houses the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work.Public policy – generally the principled guide to action taken by the administrative or executive branches of the state with regard to a class of issues in a manner consistent with law and institutional customs. Local government studies – form of public administration which in a majority of contexts, exists as the lowest tier of administration within the a given state.International politics – study of relationships between countries, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and multinational corporations (MNCs).International relations theory – study of international relations from a theoretical perspective; it attempts to provide a conceptual framework upon which international relations can be analyzed.Psychology – science of behavior and mental processesApplied psychology – use of psychological principles and theories to overcome problems in other areas, such as mental health, business management, education, health, product design, ergonomics, and law.Psychological testing – field characterized by the use of samples of behavior in order to assess psychological construct(s), such as cognitive and emotional functioning, about a given individual.Clinical psychology – integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.Community psychology – Sense of community Social capitalConsumer behaviour – study of when, why, how, and where people do or do not buy a product.Counseling psychology – psychological specialty that encompasses research and applied work in several broad domains: counseling process and outcome; supervision and training; career development and counseling; and prevention and health.Educational psychology – study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.Forensic psychology – intersection between psychology and the courtroom—criminal, civil, family and Federal.Health psychology – concerned with understanding how biological, psychological, environmental, and cultural factors are involved in physical health and illness.Industrial and organizational psychology – scientific study of employees, workplaces, and organizations.Legal psychology – involves empirical, psychological research of the law, legal institutions, and people who come into contact with the law.Media psychology – seeks an understanding of how people perceive, interpret, use, and respond to a media-rich world.Occupational health psychology – concerned with the psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that contribute to the development of health-related problems in people who work.Pastoral psychology – application of psychological methods and interpretive frameworks to religious traditions, as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals.Political psychology – interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to understanding political science, politicians and political behavior through the use of psychological theories.Psychometrics – field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational measurement.School psychology – field that applies principles of clinical psychology and educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' behavioral and learning problems.systems psychology – branch of applied psychology that studies human behaviour and experience in complex systems.Traffic psychology – study of the behavior of road users and the psychological processes underlying that behavior as well as to the relationship between behavior and accidentsBehavior analysis – philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms do can and should be regarded as behaviors, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns or modifying the environment.Biopsychology – application of the principles of biology (in particular neurobiology), to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in human and non-human animals.Cognitive psychology – subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental processes.Clinical psychology – integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.Cultural psychology – field of psychology which assumes the idea that culture and mind are inseparable, and that psychological theories grounded in one culture are likely to be limited in applicability when applied to a different culture.Developmental psychology – scientific study of systematic psychological changes, emotional changes, and perception changes that occur in human beings over the course of their life span.Educational psychology – study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.Evolutionary psychology – approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective.Experimental psychology – application of experimental methods to the study of behavior and the processes that underlie it.Forensic psychology – intersection between psychology and the courtroom—criminal, civil, family and Federal.Health psychology – concerned with understanding how biological, psychological, environmental, and cultural factors are involved in physical health and illness.Humanistic psychology – psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in the context of the tertiary sector beginning to produce in the most developed countries in the world more than the secondary sector was producing, for the first time in human history demanding creativity and new understanding of human capital.Industrial and organizational psychology – scientific study of employees, workplaces, and organizations.Music therapy – allied health profession and one of the expressive therapies, consisting of an interpersonal process in which a trained music therapist uses music to help clients to improve or maintain their health.Neuropsychology – studies the structure and function of the brain as they relate to specific psychological processes and behaviors.Personality psychology – branch of psychology that studies personality and individual differences.Psychometrics – field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational measurement.Psychology of religion – application of psychological methods and interpretive frameworks to religious traditions, as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals.Psychophysics – quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect.Public administration – houses the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work.Social work – professional and academic discipline that seeks to improve the quality of life and well being of an individual, group, or community by intervening through research, policy, community organizing, direct practice, and teaching on behalf of those afflicted with poverty or any real or perceived social injustices and violations of their human rights.Sociology – studies society using various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to understand human social activity, from the micro level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and social structure.Criminology – study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the individual and in society.Demography – statistical study of human populations and sub-populations.Urban and rural sociology - the analysis of social life in metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas.

Yes Bioinformatics have a bright future !Here are some of the great Challenge in the Bioinformatics .Bioinformatics is not only combination of Bio and Informatics but it also includes various fields like Drug Designing, Genomics, Proteomics, System Biology, Machine Learning , Advanced Algorithm for Bioinformatics, Structural Biology, Computational Biology and many more.There are number of problems in each field of bioinformatics and it is very difficult to resolve such problems.Protein structure prediction, Homology Search, Multiple Alignment, Phylogeny construction, Genomic Sequence Analysis, Gene finding are the challenges in computational biology.We are enable to develop some tools and software to resolve these problems but the accuracy of programs are not more than 60-70%. When we have to discuss such typical problems then accuracy must be more than 95%.Photogenic analysis, structure prediction software doesn’t always give significant result because these software's work on some parameters and it is not necessary that every sequence or structure follow these parameters.Study protein-protein and protein-nucleic acid recognition and assembly, Investigate integral functional units (dynamic form and function of large macro molecular and supra molecular complexes), Bridge the gap between computationally feasible and functionally relevant time scales, Improve multi resolution structure prediction, Combine classical molecular dynamics simulations with quantum chemical forces, Sample larger sets of dynamical events and chemical species, Realize interactive modeling, Foster the development of bio molecular modeling and bioinformatics, Train computational biologists in teraflop technologies, numerical algorithms, and physical concepts, Bring experimental and computational groups in molecular bio medicine closer together are major problems in molecular bio medicine in the era of teraflop computing.Full genome-genome comparisons, Rapid assessment of polymorphic genetic variations, Complete construction of orthologous and paralogous groups of genes, Structure determination of large macro molecular assemblies/complexes, Dynamical simulation of realistic oligomeric systems, Rapid structural/topological clustering of proteins,Prediction of unknown molecular structures; protein folding, Computer simulation of membrane structure and dynamic function, Simulation of genetic networks and the sensitivity of these pathways to component stoichiometry and kinetics, Integration of observations across scales of vastly different dimensions and organization to yield realistic environmental models for basic biology and societal needs,Enzyme engineering: to refine enzymes and to analyze kinetic parameters in vitro,Metabolic engineering: to analyze flux rates in vivo,Analytical chemistry: to determine and analyze the quantity of metabolites efficiently,Genetic engineering: to cut and paste genes on demand, for modifying metabolic pathways,Simulation science: to efficiently and accurately simulate a large number of reactions,Knowledge engineering: to construct, edit and maintain large metabolic knowledge bases,Mathematical engineering: to estimate and tune unknown parameters are the major challenges in bioinformatics are the challenges in field of computer aided drug designing and computational biology.Precise, predictive model of transcription initiation and termination: ability to predict where and when transcription will occur in a genome, predictive model of RNA splicing/alternative splicing: ability to predict the splicing pattern of any primary transcript, Precise, quantitative models of signal transduction pathways:ability to predict cellular response to external stimuli, Determining effective protein-DNA, protein-RNA and protein-protein recognition codes, Accurate ab initio structure prediction, Rational design of small molecule inhibitors of proteins, Mechanistic understanding of protein evolution: understanding exactly how new protein functions evolve, Mechanistic understanding of speciation: molecular details of how speciation occurs, Continued development of effective gene ontologies-systematic ways to describe the functions of any gene or protein(Infrastructure and education challenge), Education: development of appropriate bioinformatics curricula for secondary, undergraduate, and graduate education are major challenges of bioinformatics.The origin, structure, and fate of the universe, The fundamental structure of matter, Earth's physical systems, The diversity of life on Earth, The tree of life, The language of life, The web of life, Human ecology, The brain and artificial thinking machines, Integrating Earth and human systems, A knowledge server for planetary management are the top ten challenges in front of bioinformatics.These are the various questions which are unanswered till today. We need to work on these problems and try to find answers.