Division Of Human Resources - Florida International University: Fill & Download for Free

This is a select list of institutions that receive WES evaluation reports. It should not be construed as an endorsement by any organization.A.T. Still University (ATSU)AACOMASAACPMASAcademy of Art UniversityACOTRO-Assoc of Can. Occupational Therapy Reg OrgsAcsenda School of ManagementAdams State UniversityADEA-AADSASADEA-CAAPIDADEA-DHCASADEA-PASSAdelphi UniversityAdler UniversityAdler University (IL)Adventist University of Health SciencesAHCASAIB College of BusinessAims Community CollegeAlabama A & M UniversityAlbany College of Pharmacy and Health SciencesAlbany State UniversityAlbert Einstein College of MedicineAlberta College of Occupational TherapistsAlberta College of Speech-Language PathologisAlberta Health and WellnessAlberta Institute of AgrologistsAlberta Real Estate AssociationAlcorn State UniversityAlexander CollegeAlgoma UniversityAlgonquin College of Applied Arts and TechnologyAmerican Board For Certification of Teacher ExcellAmerican Board of Medical MicrobiologyAmerican College of EducationAmerican College of Traditional Chinese MedicineAmerican InterContinental University (AIU Online)American Public University SystemAmerican Sentinel UniversityAmerican Training School for Medical ProfessionalsAmerican UniversityAmerican University of AntiguaAnabaptist Mennonite Biblical SeminaryAncilla CollegeAnderson University (SC)Andrews UniversityAnne Arundel Community CollegeAnoka-Ramsey Community CollegeAntioch University (CA)AOMA Graduate School of Integrative MedicineAPPA CASAppalachian State UniversityArab Community Centre of Toronto (ACCT)Arcadia UniversityArchCASArizona CollegeArizona School of Acupuncture & Oriental MedicineArizona State UniversityArkansas State UniversityArkansas Tech UniversityArt Academy of CincinnatiArt Institute of AtlantaArt Institute of California - HollywoodArt Institute of California - Los AngelesArt Institute of California - Orange CountyArt Institute of California - San FranciscoArt Institute of Fort LauderdaleArt Institute of HoustonArt Institute of IndianapolisArt Institute of JacksonvilleArt Institute of Las VegasArt Institute of MichiganArt Institute of MinnesotaArt Institute of PhiladelphiaArt Institute of PhoenixArt Institute of Pittsburgh - Online DivisionArt Institute of PortlandArt Institute of SeattleArt Institute of TucsonArt Institute of VancouverArt Institute of Virginia BeachArt Institute of WashingtonArt Institute of Washington - Northern VirginiaAsbury Theological SeminaryAsbury UniversityAshford University (CA)Asnuntuck Community CollegeAspen UniversityAsso of Professional Eng and Geos of Alberta APEGAAsso of Professional Eng and Geos of Saskat APEGSAssociation of Cert. Forensic Investigators of CanAssociation of Professional Geoscientists OntarioAssociation of Registered Nurses of PEI (ARNPEI)ATCASAthabasca UniversityAthens Technical CollegeAtlanta Technical CollegeAtlantic Cape Community CollegeAuburn UniversityAugsburg UniversityAugusta UniversityAurora UniversityAustin Peay State UniversityAverett UniversityAvila UniversityBabson CollegeBaker CollegeBakersfield CollegeBaldwin Wallace UniversityBall State UniversityBarnes-Jewish CollegeBarry UniversityBarton CollegeBastyr UniversityBaylor College of MedicineBaylor UniversityBecker CollegeBelhaven UniversityBellarmine UniversityBellevue UniversityBelmont Abbey CollegeBelmont UniversityBemidji State UniversityBenedict CollegeBenedictine CollegeBenedictine UniversityBennett CollegeBergen Community CollegeBerklee College of MusicBerkshire Community CollegeBerry CollegeBethany College (KS)Bethany College (WV)Bethel College (IN)Bethel College (KS)Bethel University (MN)Bethune-Cookman UniversityBioMedCASBismarck State CollegeBlack Hawk CollegeBlack Hills State UniversityBloomfield CollegeBlue Mountain CollegeBlue Ridge Community College (NC)Bob Jones UniversityBoise State UniversityBossier Parish Community CollegeBoston Architectural CollegeBoston CollegeBoston UniversityBoston University CASBow Valley CollegeBowie State UniversityBrampton Flight CentreBrandon UniversityBrenau UniversityBrescia UniversityBrewton-Parker CollegeBridgewater State UniversityBrigham Young UniversityBrightwood CollegeBritton Management Profiles Inc.Brock UniversityBrock University - OUACBrookdale Community CollegeBrooks InstituteBroward CollegeBrown Mackie College - Findlay OHBrown UniversityBryan CollegeBryant UniversityBucks County Community CollegeBusinessCASCabrini UniversityCairn UniversityCaldwell UniversityCalgary Catholic Immigration Society (CCIS)Calhoun Community CollegeCalifornia College of the ArtsCalifornia Institute of Integral StudiesCalifornia Institute of the Arts (CalArts)California Intercontinental UniversityCalifornia International Business UniversityCalifornia Lutheran UniversityCalifornia Miramar UniversityCalifornia Polytechnic State UniversityCalifornia Southern UniversityCalifornia State University - Bakersfield CACalifornia State University - Channel Islands CACalifornia State University - Dominguez Hills CACalifornia State University - Fullerton CACalifornia State University - Long Beach CACalifornia State University - Los Angeles CACalifornia State University - Maritime AcademyCalifornia State University - Monterey BayCalifornia State University - Pomona CACalifornia State University - Sacramento CACalifornia State University - San Marcos CACalifornia State University - Stanislaus CACalifornia University of Management and SciencesCalumet College of St. JosephCalvin CollegeCamden County CollegeCameron UniversityCampbell UniversityCampbellsville UniversityCanada CollegeCanada Immigration Partners / CIP ConsultingCanadian Alliance of Physiotherapy RegulatorsCanadian Career College of Innovative TechnologyCanadian College of Naturopathic MedicineCanadian Counselling and Psychotherapy AssociationCanadian Environmental Certification Approvals Bd.Canadian Institute of Dental Hygiene Inc.Canadian Memorial Chiropractic CollegeCanadian Provincial Nominee and Immigration SeviceCanadian Society for Medical Laboratory ScienceCanadim, Renaud Dery Avocat Inc.Canisius CollegeCape Breton UniversityCape Fear Community CollegeCapella UniversityCardinal Stritch UniversityCarle Illinois College of MedicineCarleton UniversityCarnegie Mellon UniversityCarnegie Mellon University - AustraliaCarson-Newman CollegeCarteret Community CollegeCASAACase Western Reserve UniversityCASPACatawba CollegeCatholic Distance UniversityCatholic University of AmericaCC Internet Immigration Services Inc.CDI CollegeCentennial CollegeCenter for International EducationCentral Christian College of KansasCentral CollegeCentral Connecticut State UniversityCentral Michigan University - Mount Pleasant MICentral Washington UniversityCentral Wyoming CollegeCentre for Education and TrainingCentre for Immigrant and Community Services (CICS)Chamberlain College of NursingChaminade UniversityChamplain CollegeCharles R. Drew University of Medicine & ScienceCharleston Southern UniversityCharter Oak State CollegeChartered Professional Accountants of AlbertaChartered Professional Accountants of OntarioChatham UniversityChicago School of Professional PsychologyChicago State UniversityChipola CollegeChristian Brothers UniversityChristian Theological SeminaryChristie's EducationCIPS - Canada's Association of IT ProfessionalsCity Vision CollegeCivis Immigration ConsultantClaflin UniversityClaremont Graduate UniversityClaremont Lincoln UniversityClark Atlanta UniversityClarkson UniversityClayton State UniversityClemson UniversityCleveland State UniversityCleveland University - Kansas CityCoastal Carolina Community CollegeCoastal Carolina UniversityCoe CollegeCoker CollegeCollege for Creative StudiesCollege of Audiologists & Speech-Language CASLPOCollege of Central FloridaCollege of CharlestonCollege of Coastal GeorgiaCollege of Dietitians of AlbertaCollege of Dietitians of British ColumbiaCollege of Dietitians of OntarioCollege of Early Childhood EducatorsCollege of Licensed Practical Nurses of NSCollege of Midwives of AlbertaCollege of Midwives of British ColumbiaCollege of Midwives of ManitobaCollege of Mount Saint VincentCollege of New RochelleCollege of Nurses of OntarioCollege of Occupational Therapists of OntarioCollege of Optometrists of OntarioCollege of Psychologists of New BrunswickCollege of Registered Nurses of British ColumbiaCollege of Registered Nurses of Nova ScotiaCollege of Registered Psychotherapists of OntarioCollege of Respiratory Therapists of OntarioCollege of Saint RoseCollege of San MateoCollege of Southern IdahoCollege of St. ElizabethCollege of St. ScholasticaCollege of Traditional Chinese Medicine (CTCMPAO)College of Western IdahoCollege of William & MaryColorado Christian UniversityColorado Mesa UniversityColorado State UniversityColorado Technical UniversityColumbia College (SC)Columbia College - Chicago ILColumbia International UniversityColumbia Southern UniversityColumbia UniversityColumbia University Teachers CollegeColumbus City SchoolsColumbus State Community CollegeColumbus State UniversityCommunity College of Baltimore CountyCommunity College of PhiladelphiaCommunity College of the Air Force (CCAF/DESS)Community College of VermontCommunity MicroSkills Development Centre EastCommunity MicroSkills Development Centre WestConcord UniversityConcordia College (NY)Concordia University ChicagoConcordia University IrvineConcordia University NebraskaConcordia University of EdmontonConcordia University PortlandConcordia University TexasConcordia University, St. PaulConestoga College ITALConfederation College of Applied Arts & TechnologyConnexion Canada Aide à la MobilitéConverse CollegeCooper UnionCorban UniversityCornell University - Ithaca NYCornell University - Manhattan NYCornerstone UniversityCOSTICOSTI - CITPTCOSTI Employment Services - VaughanCOSTI Employment Services for ITPTCOSTI-Immigrant ServicesCPA Atlantic School of BusinessCPA Examination Service/CPAES/NASBACPA Western School of Business (CPAWSB)CPHR AlbertaCrandall UniversityCreighton UniversityCreighton University Medical CenterCSDCASCTTAMCumberland UniversityCUNY Baruch CollegeCUNY Brooklyn CollegeCUNY LaGuardia Community CollegeCUNY Lehman CollegeCUNY School of Professional StudiesD'Youville CollegeDakota State UniversityDakota Wesleyan UniversityDalhousie UniversityDallas Baptist UniversityDallas Theological SeminaryDalton State CollegeDavidson County Community CollegeDavis & Elkins CollegeDefense Language Institute (DLIFLC)Delaware County Community CollegeDelaware State UniversityDelgado Community CollegeDelta CollegeDelta State UniversityDenturist Association of ManitobaDenver Public SchoolsDenver SeminaryDepartment of the Navy - Region EastDePaul UniversityDesign Institute of San DiegoDeVry UniversityDiscovery Community CollegeDivine Mercy UniversityDixie State UniversityDoane UniversityDodge City Community CollegeDominican CollegeDominican University of CaliforniaDorothea Hopfer School of NursingDorset CollegeDouglas CollegeDragon Rises College of Oriental MedicineDrexel International GatewayDrexel UniversityDrury UniversityDuquesne UniversityDurham College of Applied Arts and TechnologyDurham Region Unemployed Help CentreEast Carolina UniversityEast Georgia State CollegeEast Stroudsburg UniversityEast Tennessee State UniversityEastern Florida State CollegeEastern Kentucky UniversityEastern Mennonite UniversityEastern Michigan UniversityEastern New Mexico University - Portales NMEastern Oregon UniversityEastern School of Acupuncture & Traditional Med.Eastern UniversityEastern Virginia Medical SchoolEastern Washington UniversityEastman Law Office Professional CorporationECPI UniversityEdgewood CollegeEdinboro University of PennsylvaniaEducational Partners International, LLCEducationUSA, USEF-NepalElizabeth City State UniversityElizabethtown CollegeElmcrest College of Applied Health ScienceElmhurst CollegeEmbassy of Spain - MECEmbry-Riddle Aeronautical University (AZ)Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University (FL)Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University - WorldwideEmerson CollegeEmily Griffith Technical CollegeEmmanuel College (MA)Emory UniversityEmperor's College of Traditional Oriental MedicineEngineeringCASEngineers & Geoscientists British ColumbiaEngineers & Geoscientists New BrunswickEngineers CanadaEngineers Geoscientists Manitoba APEGMEngineers Nova ScotiaEngineers PEIErskine CollegeEugene Lang College of Liberal ArtsEverglades UniversityEvergreen CollegeExcelsior CollegeFairfield UniversityFairleigh Dickinson University-VancouverFairmont State UniversityFanshawe CollegeFashion Institute of Design & MerchandisingFayetteville State UniversityFelician UniversityFielding Graduate UniversityFisk UniversityFitchburg State UniversityFlagler CollegeFleming CollegeFlorida Atlantic UniversityFlorida Coastal School of LawFlorida Gulf Coast UniversityFlorida Institute of TechnologyFlorida International UniversityFlorida Keys Community CollegeFlorida Memorial UniversityFlorida Polytechnic UniversityFlorida SouthWestern State CollegeFlorida State College at JacksonvilleFlorida State UniversityFOCUS Community Development CorporationFoothill CollegeFORAC Credentialing ServiceFordham UniversityFort Hays State UniversityFort Lewis CollegeFort Valley State UniversityFrancis Marion UniversityFranklin UniversityFresno Pacific UniversityFrostburg State UniversityFull Sail UniversityFuller Theological SeminaryFurman UniversityGallaudet UniversityGalveston CollegeGarden City Community CollegeGardner-Webb UniversityGarrett CollegeGaston CollegeGateway Community & Technical CollegeGateway Technical CollegeGemological Institute of AmericaGeneva CollegeGeorge Brown CollegeGeorge Mason University - Graduate AdmissionsGeorge Mason University - Office of the ProvostGeorge Mason University - School of LawGeorge Mason University - School of PolicyGeorge Mason University - Undergraduate AdmissionsGeorge Washington UniversityGeorgetown UniversityGeorgia Gwinnett CollegeGeorgia Institute of TechnologyGeorgia Military CollegeGeorgia Piedmont Technical CollegeGeorgia Southern UniversityGeorgia Southwestern State UniversityGeorgia State UniversityGeorgian CollegeGeorgian Court UniversityGillette CollegeGISAC Global Immigration & Study Abroad ConsultantGlendale Community College (CA)Global Avenues Consulting, Inc.Global TalentGolden Gate UniversityGoldey-Beacom CollegeGolf Academy of AmericaGonzaga UniversityGoshen CollegeGovernment of British ColumbiaGovernment of Manitoba (MPNP)Government of New BrunswickGovernment of Newfoundland and LabradorGovernment of Prince Edward IslandGovernment of SaskatchewanGovernment of the Northwest TerritoriesGovernment of YukonGovernors State UniversityGraceland UniversityGradCASGraduate SchoolGrambling State UniversityGrand Canyon UniversityGrand Erie District School BoardGrand View UniversityGrande Prairie Regional CollegeGrantham UniversityGreensboro CollegeGreenville CollegeGreenville Technical CollegeGuilford CollegeGulf Coast State CollegeGwynedd Mercy UniversityHagerstown Community CollegeHalton Multicultural Council (HMC)HAMPCASHarcum CollegeHarris Institute for the ArtsHarrisburg Area Community College - Harrisburg, PAHarrisburg University of Science and TechnologyHarvard Business SchoolHarvard UniversityHastings CollegeHawaii Pacific UniversityHawkeye Community CollegeHealthfirst, Inc.Heidelberg UniversityHenderson State UniversityHenry Ford CollegeHerzing UniversityHigh Point UniversityHillsborough Community CollegeHinds Community CollegeHiram CollegeHodges UniversityHofstra UniversityHollins UniversityHoly Family UniversityHoly Names UniversityHondros CollegeHood CollegeHope International UniversityHorry-Georgetown Technical CollegeHouston Baptist UniversityHoward Community CollegeHoward UniversityHSC, SUNY Stony BrookHudson County Community CollegeHudson Valley Community CollegeHuman Resources Professionals Association (HRPA)Humber College Institute of Tech & Advanced LearnHusson UniversityICAN IncIdaho State UniversityIGlobal UniversityILAC International CollegeIllinois Central CollegeIllinois College of OptometryIllinois Institute of Art - ChicagoIllinois Institute of Art - SchaumburgIllinois Institute of TechnologyImmigrant Services Association of Nova ScotiaImmigration GroundsImmigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada(IRCC)Independence UniversityIndiana Institute of TechnologyIndiana State UniversityIndiana UniversityIndiana University of PennsylvaniaIndiana University-Purdue University Fort WayneIndiana Wesleyan UniversityInstitute of International EducationInterdenominational Theological CenterInternational College of the Cayman IslandsInternational Institute for Restorative PracticesInternational Institute of St. LouisInternational Technological UniversityIona CollegeIPAP-UNMCItawamba Community CollegeIvy Tech Community College - Indianapolis INJ. Richard Lage, Barrister & SolicitorJackson State UniversityJacksonville State UniversityJacksonville UniversityJames Madison UniversityJane Alliance Neighbourhood ServicesJefferson Community College (NY)Jefferson State Community CollegeJewish Family & Career ServicesJohn Brown UniversityJohn Carroll UniversityJohn F. Kennedy UniversityJohn Marshall Law School (IL)Johns Hopkins UniversityJohnson & Wales UniversityJohnson C. Smith UniversityJohnson University (TN)Johnston Community CollegeJoliet Junior CollegeJones County Junior CollegeJudson UniversityJumpstart - Refugee TalentJVS TorontoKalamazoo Valley Community CollegeKansas Christian CollegeKansas State Department of EducationKansas Wesleyan UniversityKaplan UniversityKean UniversityKeiser UniversityKeller Graduate School of ManagementKellogg Community CollegeKendall CollegeKennedy-King CollegeKennesaw State UniversityKentucky State UniversityKentucky Wesleyan CollegeKettering UniversityKing UniversityKing's University CollegeKutztown UniversityL3 CTS Airline AcademyLa Cité CollégialeLa Roche CollegeLa Salle University (PA)Lake Forest Graduate School of ManagementLake Superior State UniversityLake-Sumter State CollegeLakehead UniversityLakeview College of NursingLamar Community CollegeLander UniversityLansing Community CollegeLaurentian University/Universite LaurentienneLaurentian University/Universite Laurentienne-OUACLaw Office of Meleni DavidLaw Offices of Colin R. SingerLawrence Technological UniversityLawson State Community CollegeLDS Business CollegeLebanon Valley CollegeLee UniversityLehigh Carbon Community CollegeLehigh UniversityLenoir-Rhyne UniversityLesley University (MA)Lewis UniversityLiberty UniversityLife Chiropractic College WestLife UniversityLIM CollegeLincoln Memorial UniversityLincoln University (CA)Lincoln University (MO)Lincoln University (PA)Lindenwood UniversityLindsey Wilson CollegeLinfield CollegeLinn-Benton Community CollegeLipscomb UniversityLIU PostLock Haven UniversityLoma Linda UniversityLong Island UniversityLongwood UniversityLos Angeles College of Music (LACM)Louisiana State University at AlexandriaLouisiana State University in ShreveportLourdes UniversityLoyola Law School, Los AngelesLoyola Marymount UniversityLoyola University ChicagoLoyola University MarylandLoyola University New OrleansLynn UniversityLyon CollegeMacEwan UniversityMacomb Community CollegeMacropus Global LtdMadonna UniversityMalone UniversityManchester UniversityManhattan CollegeManhattan School of MusicManitoba Education and Training (PCU)Manitoba Institute of AgrologistsMannes School of MusicMarca CollegeMarian UniversityMarist CollegeMars Hill UniversityMarshall UniversityMaryland Institute College of Art (MICA)Maryland University of Integrative HealthMarymount Manhattan CollegeMarymount UniversityMaryville University of St. LouisMassachusetts College of Pharmacy & Health ScienceMassey UniversityMaxwin Immigration GroupMayville State UniversityMcDaniel CollegeMcMaster UniversityMcMaster University - OUACMcNeese State UniversityMcPherson CollegeMedicine Hat CollegeMeharry Medical CollegeMemorial University of NewfoundlandMenlo CollegeMercer County Community CollegeMercer UniversityMercy CollegeMercyhurst UniversityMeredith CollegeMerrimack CollegeMessiah CollegeMetalworks InstituteMethodist UniversityMetropolitan College of New YorkMFTCASMGH Institute of Health ProfessionsMiami International University of Art and DesignMichigan International Talent Solutions (MITS)Michigan Office of New Americans (MONA)Michigan Technological UniversityMiddle Georgia State UniversityMiddle Tennessee State UniversityMiddlesex County CollegeMidlands Technical CollegeMidstate CollegeMidway UniversityMidwestern State University - Wichita Falls TXMidwives College of UtahMillersville University of PennsylvaniaMilligan CollegeMills CollegeMinistry of Education - SaskatchewanMinnesota State Community and Technical CollegeMinnesota State University - Moorhead MNMinnesota State University, MankatoMinot State UniversityMisericordia UniversityMississippi CollegeMississippi State UniversityMississippi University for WomenMississippi Valley State UniversityMissouri Baptist UniversityMissouri Board of Law ExaminersMissouri Southern State UniversityMissouri State UniversityMissouri University of Science & TechnologyMissouri Valley CollegeMissouri Western State UniversityMohawk CollegeMolloy CollegeMonmouth CollegeMonmouth UniversityMontana State University - Bozeman MTMontana Tech of the University of MontanaMontclair State UniversityMontgomery College - Germantown MDMontgomery College - Rockville MDMontgomery College - Takoma Park MDMontgomery County Community CollegeMontreat CollegeMoody Bible InstituteMorehead State UniversityMorehouse CollegeMorgan State UniversityMOSAIC BCMount Allison UniversityMount Mary UniversityMount Royal UniversityMount Saint Mary CollegeMount Saint Vincent UniversityMount St. Mary's College, Los AngelesMount St. Mary's University, MarylandMount Wachusett Community CollegeMurray State UniversityNAFCASNapa Valley CollegeNational American University (MN)National American University (SD)National College of Natural Medicine (NCNM)National Dental Assisting Examining Board (NDAEB)National Dental Hygiene Certification BoardNational Louis UniversityNational UniversityNational University of Health SciencesNational University of Natural MedicineNazareth CollegeNCCAOMNDCASNebraska Methodist CollegeNEOMEDNeumann UniversityNevada State College at HendersonNew College of FloridaNew England College of OptometryNew Jersey City UniversityNew Jersey Institute of TechnologyNew Mexico Highlands UniversityNew Mexico State UniversityNew Mexico TechNew Orleans Baptist Theological SeminaryNew York College of Health ProfessionsNew York Conservatory for Dramatic ArtsNew York Institute of Technology (NYIT)New York Medical College - ValhallaNew York School of Interior DesignNew York State Education DepartmentNew York UniversityNew York University ShanghaiNewberry CollegeNewcomer Women's Services TorontoNewfoundland and Labrador Psychology BoardNewman UniversityNewSchool of Architecture and DesignNiagara CollegeNiagara Falls Employment Help CentreNiagara UniversityNicholls State UniversityNipissing UniversityNoaisys Immigration, Inc.Nobel UniversityNorfolk State UniversityNormandale Community CollegeNorth American UniversityNorth Carolina A&T State UniversityNorth Carolina Central UniversityNorth Carolina State UniversityNorth Dakota State College of ScienceNorth Dakota State UniversityNorth Greenville UniversityNorth Island CollegeNorth Park UniversityNorthampton Community CollegeNorthcentral UniversityNortheast Wisconsin Technical CollegeNortheastern Illinois UniversityNortheastern State UniversityNortheastern UniversityNorthern Alberta Institute of TechnologyNorthern Arizona University - Flagstaff AZNorthern Kentucky UniversityNorthern Michigan UniversityNorthern Ontario School of MedicineNorthern State UniversityNorthern Virginia Community CollegeNorthwest Christian UniversityNorthwest Florida State CollegeNorthwest Nazarene UniversityNorthwestern Health Sciences UniversityNorthwestern Polytechnic UniversityNorthwestern UniversityNotre Dame de Namur UniversityNova Scotia Board of Examiners in PsychologyNova Scotia Community CollegeNova Scotia Dietetic AssociationNova Scotia Office of ImmigrationNova Scotia Provincial GovernmentNova Southeastern UniversityNurses Association of New BrunswickNursingCASNyack CollegeNYIT College of Osteopathic MedicineOACETTOakland City UniversityOakland UniversityOakwood UniversityOCAD UniversityOcean County CollegeOhio Dominican UniversityOhio State UniversityOhio UniversityOhio Valley UniversityOklahoma Baptist UniversityOklahoma Christian UniversityOklahoma City Community CollegeOklahoma State UniversityOklahoma Wesleyan UniversityOlivet Nazarene UniversityOntario College of Social Workers & Social Serv.Ontario College of TeachersOntario College of TradesOntario Immigrant Nominee ProgramOntario Institute of AgrologistsOntario Tech UniversityThe Application Service for Ontario's Public CollegesOPCASOPRESCASOptomCASOral Roberts UniversityOrangeburg-Calhoun Technical CollegeOrdre des Ingénieurs du QuébecOREA Real Estate CollegeOregon Health & Science University (OHSU)Oregon Health and Science University CASOregon Institute of TechnologyOTCASOttawa Community Immigrant Services OrganizationOUAC - Ontario Law School Application ServiceOUAC - Ontario Medical School Application ServiceOUAC - Ontario Rehab Sciences Programs App SrvcsOur Lady of Lourdes School of NursingOur Lady of the Lake UniversityOwens Community CollegeOxford College of Arts, Business and TechnologyPace UniversityPacific College of Oriental Medicine (CA)Pacific Link CollegePacific Lutheran UniversityPacific Northwest College of ArtPacific Oaks CollegePacific States UniversityPacific UniversityPacifica Graduate InstitutePalm Beach Atlantic UniversityPalm Beach State CollegePalmer College of ChiropracticPark University (MO)Parkland College (SK)Parsons School of DesignPassaic County Community CollegePellissippi State Community CollegePennsylvania College of TechnologyPepperdine UniversityPeralta Community College DistrictPFA Pedorthic Footcare AssociationPharmCASPharmGradPharr-San Juan-Alamo Independent School DistrictPhiladelphia UniversityPhoenix SeminaryPiedmont CollegePiedmont Technical CollegePillar CollegePinchot UniversityPitt Community CollegePittsburg State UniversityPlymouth State UniversityPoint Loma Nazarene UniversityPoint Park UniversityPoint UniversityPolycultural Immigrant and Community ServicesPolytechnic University in Puerto RicoPost UniversityPostBacCASPrairie View A&M UniversityPratt InstitutePresidio Graduate SchoolPrince George's Community CollegeProfessional Science Masters National Off (PSMCAS)Professional Standards BoardPSYCASPTCASPublic Service CommissionPurdue University NorthwestQatar UniversityQueen's UniversityQueen's University - OUACQueens University of CharlotteQuinnipiac UniversityRadford UniversityRadians CollegeRandall UniversityRedeemer University CollegeReformed Theological SeminaryRegent UniversityRensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI)Resurrection UniversityRice UniversityRider UniversityRivier UniversityRoane State Community CollegeRobert Morris UniversityRoberts Wesleyan CollegeRochester Institute of TechnologyRockford UniversityRocky Mountain CollegeRoger Williams UniversityRogers CommunicationsRogers State UniversityRollins CollegeRoosevelt UniversityRosalind Franklin University of Med and Sci CASRosalind Franklin University of Medicine & ScienceRosemont CollegeRoss University - EastRowan University GlassboroRoyal Roads UniversityRush UniversityRutgers Business School-Newark and New BrunswickRutgers University - CamdenRutgers University - NewarkRutgers University-Grad Admissions New BrunswickRyerson UniversitySacred Heart University - Fairfield CTSaint Francis Hospital (OK)Saint Joseph's UniversitySaint Leo University - St. Leo FLSaint Louis UniversitySaint Martin's UniversitySaint Mary's University of MinnesotaSaint Mary-of-the-Woods CollegeSaint Paul UniversitySaint Peter's UniversitySalem State UniversitySalisbury UniversitySalt Lake City Community CollegeSalve Regina UniversitySam Houston State UniversitySamford UniversitySamford University CASSamuel Merritt UniversitySan Bernardino Valley CollegeSan Diego Christian CollegeSan Francisco Art InstituteSan Francisco Conservatory of MusicSan Jose State UniversitySan Juan CollegeSANS Technology InstituteSanta Clara UniversitySanta Fe College (FL)Santa Monica CollegeSanta Rosa Junior CollegeSarah Lawrence CollegeSaskatchewan College of MidwivesSaskatchewan Institute of AgrologistsSaskatchewan Professional Teacher Regulatory BoardSaskEnergy IncorporatedSauk Valley Community CollegeSavannah State UniversitySavannah Technical CollegeSchiller International UniversitySchool of Visual ArtsScott Community CollegeSeattle Pacific UniversitySeminole State College of FloridaSeneca CollegeSeton Hall UniversitySeward County Community CollegeShelton State Community CollegeShenandoah UniversityShepherd UniversitySheridan College (ON)Sheridan College (WY)Shiloh UniversityShippensburg University of PennsylvaniaShorter UniversitySiena Heights UniversitySimmons UniversitySkills for ChangeSkills International LLCSocialWorkCASSofia UniversitySomerset Community CollegeSomjen Law OfficeSonoma State UniversitySOPHAS - Schools of Public Health Application SrvcSotheby's Institute of Arts-New YorkSouth Baylo UniversitySouth Carolina State UniversitySouth CollegeSouth Dakota School of Mines and TechnologySouth Dakota State UniversitySouth University at Novi, MISouth University at Tampa, FLSouth University OnlineSoutheastern Louisiana UniversitySoutheastern Technical CollegeSouthern Adventist UniversitySouthern Alberta Institute of Technology (SAIT)Southern Arkansas UniversitySouthern California Institute of ArchitectureSouthern California University of Health SciencesSouthern Connecticut State UniversitySouthern Methodist UniversitySouthern Oregon UniversitySouthern University and A&M CollegeSouthern Utah UniversitySouthern Wesleyan UniversitySouthwest Baptist UniversitySouthwestern Assemblies of God UniversitySouthwestern Baptist Theological SeminarySouthwestern Christian UniversitySouthwestern Illinois CollegeSouthwestern Michigan CollegeSouthwestern Oklahoma State UniversitySouthwestern Oregon Community CollegeSP Law OfficeSpring Arbor UniversitySt. Ambrose UniversitySt. Andrews Presbyterian CollegeSt. Catherine UniversitySt. Cloud State UniversitySt. Edward's UniversitySt. Francis Medical CenterSt. Francis University (PA)St. George's UniversitySt. John Fisher CollegeSt. John's UniversitySt. Joseph's CollegeSt. Joseph's College (IN)St. Louis College of PharmacySt. Luke's CollegeSt. Mary's College of MarylandSt. Mary's University of TexasSt. Matthew's UniversitySt. Petersburg CollegeSt. Thomas Aquinas CollegeSt. Thomas University (FL)Stenberg CollegeSterling CollegeStetson UniversityStevens-Henager CollegeStockton UniversityStrayer UniversitySuffolk County Community CollegeSuffolk UniversitySullivan UniversitySUNY Alfred State CollegeSUNY Binghamton UniversitySUNY Broome Community CollegeSUNY Buffalo StateSUNY CantonSUNY Clinton Community CollegeSUNY College of Environmental Science & ForestrySUNY Columbia-Greene Community CollegeSUNY DelhiSUNY Empire State CollegeSUNY Farmingdale State CollegeSUNY Fashion Institute of TechnologySUNY Maritime CollegeSUNY Nassau Community CollegeSUNY New PaltzSUNY Old WestburySUNY OswegoSUNY PlattsburghSUNY Purchase CollegeSUNY Rockland Community CollegeSUNY Stony BrookSUNY Ulster County Community CollegeSUNY University at AlbanySUNY University at BuffaloSUNY Westchester Community CollegeSweet Briar CollegeSyracuse UniversityTalent Beyond BoundariesTallahassee Community CollegeTarleton State UniversityTarrant County College DistrictTaylor University - UplandTeacher Qualification, Northwest TerritoriesTeachers Council, Inc.Technical Career Institutes (TCI)Technical College of the LowcountryTechNovaTemple UniversityTennessee Board of Law ExaminersTennessee State Department of EducationTennessee State UniversityTennessee Technological UniversityTennessee Wesleyan UniversityTexas A&M Health Science CenterTexas A&M University at Central TexasTexas A&M University at College StationTexas A&M University at CommerceTexas A&M University at Corpus ChristiTexas A&M University at TexarkanaTexas Health and Science UniversityTexas Tech UniversityTexas Woman's UniversityThe College of Psychologists of OntarioThe Georgia School of OrthodonticsThe King's UniversityThe Law Firm of Campbell, CohenThe Master's SeminaryThe Michener Institute for Applied Health SciencesThe New England Institute of ArtThe New School - School of DramaThe New School - Schools of Public EngagementThe New School for Social ResearchThe New School-School of Jazz & Contemporary MusicThe Qualifications Evaluation Council of OntarioThomas Edison State UniversityThomas Jefferson School of LawThomas Jefferson UniversityThomas Jefferson University TJAPPThomas More CollegeThomas UniversityThompson Rivers UniversityTiffin UniversityToronto Academy of Acting for Film & TelevisionToronto School of TheologyTouro CollegeTouro College - Graduate School of BusinessTouro UniversityTowson UniversityTransylvania UniversityTrenholm State Technical CollegeTrent UniversityTrevecca Nazarene UniversityTri-County Technical CollegeTrident Technical CollegeTrident University InternationalTrillium CollegeTrinity International UniversityTrinity Washington UniversityTrinity Western UniversitytriOS CollegeTruckee Meadows Community CollegeTufts UniversityTulane UniversityTulsa Community CollegeTuskegee UniversityTyndale University College & SeminaryUCF - College of Arts and HumanitiesUCF - College of Engineering and Computer ScienceUCF - College of MedicineUCF - Faculty RelationsUnemployed Help Centre of WindsorUnion College (KY)Union College (NE)Union College (NY)Union UniversityUnited Lutheran SeminaryUnited States UniversityUnited Theological SeminaryUniversidad Central del CaribeUniversidad de MonterreyUniversité LavalUniversity College of the NorthUniversity of Alabama at BirminghamUniversity of Alabama at HuntsvilleUniversity of Alabama at TuscaloosaUniversity of Alaska AnchorageUniversity of Alaska FairbanksUniversity of ArizonaUniversity of ArkansasUniversity of AtlantaUniversity of BaltimoreUniversity of BridgeportUniversity of British ColumbiaUniversity of CalgaryUniversity of California at Los Angeles (UCLA)University of California at San DiegoUniversity of California at San FranciscoUniversity of Central ArkansasUniversity of Central FloridaUniversity of Central Florida - BusinessUniversity of Central Florida - GradUniversity of Central Florida - Nanoscience TechUniversity of Central Florida - UndergradUniversity of Central MissouriUniversity of CharlestonUniversity of ChicagoUniversity of CincinnatiUniversity of Colorado at DenverUniversity of Colorado Colorado SpringsUniversity of Colorado Health Sciences CenterUniversity of Connecticut at StorrsUniversity of DallasUniversity of DelawareUniversity of DenverUniversity of Detroit MercyUniversity of EvansvilleUniversity of FloridaUniversity of GeorgiaUniversity of GuelphUniversity of HartfordUniversity of Hawaii - ManoaUniversity of HoustonUniversity of Houston - DowntownUniversity of Houston - VictoriaUniversity of IdahoUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoUniversity of Illinois at SpringfieldUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUniversity of IndianapolisUniversity of KentuckyUniversity of La VerneUniversity of LethbridgeUniversity of Louisiana at LafayetteUniversity of Louisiana at MonroeUniversity of LouisvilleUniversity of Maine SystemUniversity of ManitobaUniversity of Mary (ND)University of Mary Hardin-BaylorUniversity of Maryland - Baltimore CountyUniversity of Maryland - Baltimore MDUniversity of Maryland - College Park MDUniversity of Maryland - Eastern ShoreUniversity of Maryland - School of NursingUniversity of Maryland Global CampusUniversity of Massachusetts at Amherst - GraduateUniversity of Massachusetts at BostonUniversity of Medicine and Health Sciences CASUniversity of MemphisUniversity of Memphis CASUniversity of MiamiUniversity of MichiganUniversity of Michigan, Ann ArborUniversity of MinnesotaUniversity of MississippiUniversity of Mississippi Medical CenterUniversity of Missouri - St. Louis MOUniversity of MobileUniversity of MontanaUniversity of Montana WesternUniversity of MontevalloUniversity of Mount OliveUniversity of Nebraska at KearneyUniversity of Nebraska at LincolnUniversity of Nebraska at OmahaUniversity of Nebraska Medical Center CASUniversity of Nevada at Las VegasUniversity of New Brunswick FrederictonUniversity of New Brunswick St. JohnUniversity of New EnglandUniversity of New HampshireUniversity of New HavenUniversity of New MexicoUniversity of North AlabamaUniversity of North Carolina - Graduate AdmissionsUniversity of North Carolina - Undergrad & IntlUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillUniversity of North Carolina at GreensboroUniversity of North Carolina at PembrokeUniversity of North Carolina at WilmingtonUniversity of North DakotaUniversity of North FloridaUniversity of North GeorgiaUniversity of North Texas - Fort Worth TXUniversity of Northern ColoradoUniversity of Northwestern OhioUniversity of Notre DameUniversity of Oklahoma Health Sciences CenterUniversity of OttawaUniversity of PennsylvaniaUniversity of PhoenixUniversity of PikevilleUniversity of PittsburghUniversity of PortlandUniversity of Puerto RicoUniversity of ReginaUniversity of RochesterUniversity of Rochester Medical CenterUniversity of Saint Joseph (CT)University of San DiegoUniversity of San FranciscoUniversity of SaskatchewanUniversity of Science and Arts of OklahomaUniversity of ScrantonUniversity of Sioux FallsUniversity of South AlabamaUniversity of South Alabama CASUniversity of South Carolina AikenUniversity of South Carolina at BeaufortUniversity of South Carolina at ColumbiaUniversity of South Carolina UpstateUniversity of South DakotaUniversity of South Florida at St. PetersburgUniversity of South Florida at TampaUniversity of Southern IndianaUniversity of Southern MississippiUniversity of St. Augustine for Health SciencesUniversity of St. Francis (IN)University of St. Thomas (MN)University of St. Thomas - Houston TXUniversity of TampaUniversity of Tennessee at ChattanoogaUniversity of Tennessee at KnoxvilleUniversity of Tennessee Health Science CenterUniversity of Tennessee Health Science Center CASUniversity of Texas at ArlingtonUniversity of Texas at DallasUniversity of Texas at GalvestonUniversity of Texas at TylerUniversity of Texas Health Science at HoustonUniversity of Texas Health Science at San AntonioUniversity of Texas Rio Grande ValleyUniversity of the ArtsUniversity of the CumberlandsUniversity of the District of ColumbiaUniversity of the Incarnate WordUniversity of the PacificUniversity of the PotomacUniversity of the Sciences in PhiladelphiaUniversity of the SouthwestUniversity of the Virgin IslandsUniversity of TorontoUniversity of VirginiaUniversity of Washington - TacomaUniversity of WaterlooUniversity of West AlabamaUniversity of West FloridaUniversity of West GeorgiaUniversity of Western StatesUniversity of WindsorUniversity of Wisconsin - La CrosseUniversity of Wisconsin - MadisonUniversity of Wisconsin - OshkoshUniversity of Wisconsin - ParksideUniversity of Wisconsin - PlattevilleUniversity of Wisconsin - River FallsUniversity of Wisconsin - StoutUniversity of Wisconsin - SuperiorUniversity of WyomingUpfront Immigration ConsultancyUpper Iowa University (IA)Upwardly Global - Santa ClaraUrsuline CollegeUtah State UniversityUtah Valley UniversityUtica CollegeValdosta State UniversityValencia CollegeValencia College - Human ResourcesValley City State UniversityValparaiso UniversityVancouver Island University (VIU)Vanderbilt UniversityVaughn College of Aeronautics and TechnologyVermont Board of Bar ExaminersVermont Technical CollegeVillanova Preparatory SchoolVillanova UniversityVirginia Board of AccountancyVirginia CollegeVirginia Commonwealth UniversityVirginia International UniversityVirginia Polytechnic Institute & State UniversityVirginia State UniversityVirginia University of Integrative MedicineVirginia Wesleyan UniversityVMCAS - Veterinary Medical College Applicatn SrvcVolunteer State Community CollegeWagner CollegeWake Forest UniversityWake Technical Community CollegeWalden University (MD)Walsh CollegeWarner Pacific CollegeWarner UniversityWashington Adventist UniversityWashington State Board of AccountancyWashington State UniversityWashington University in St. LouisWayland Baptist UniversityWayne County Community CollegeWayne State UniversityWebber International UniversityWeber State UniversityWelcoming CityWES Gateway CanadaWES Gateway USAWES Refugee ProjectWesley CollegeWesleyan College (GA)West Chester University of PennsylvaniaWest Liberty UniversityWest Texas A&M UniversityWest Virginia State UniversityWest Virginia UniversityWest Virginia University - Institute of TechnologyWestern Carolina UniversityWestern Governors UniversityWestern Illinois UniversityWestern International UniversityWestern Kentucky University - UndergraduateWestern Michigan UniversityWestern Nevada CollegeWestern UniversityWestern University of Health SciencesWestern Washington UniversityWestminster CollegeWestmont CollegeWheaton CollegeWheeling Jesuit UniversityWidener University - Chester PAWildy ImmigrationWiley CollegeWilfrid Laurier UniversityWilfrid Laurier University - OUACWilkes UniversityWilliam Alanson White InstituteWilliam Carey UniversityWilliam Paterson UniversityWilliam Rainey Harper CollegeWilliams Baptist CollegeWilliston State CollegeWilmington UniversityWingate UniversityWinston-Salem State UniversityWinthrop UniversityWisconsin Indianhead Technical CollegeWon Institute of Graduate StudiesWoodGreen Youth Job CentreWorldwide Immigration Consultancy Services (WWICS)Xavier University (OH)Yale UniversityYeshiva UniversityYMCA NiagaraYMCA Rexdale Youth Resource CentreYork College of Industry and TechnologyYork College of PennsylvaniaYork UniversityYork University - 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They actually did indeed try that very thing! But you might not have heard much about that particular conflict. Well, at least that aspect of it.Their effort is called the War of American Independence or “The American War” as it was known in Europe back in the day.The sentiment supporting that war:“The idea… prevails at large through Europe, that we are proud, full of our own importance, and that it will not be amiss if we are brought a little more upon a level with our neighbours” — Sir Joseph Yorke, British Ambassador to The Hague (Netherlands), July 13, 1779.That full war to bring Great Britain down a level, including its global theaters & side-conflicts, lasted from 1775 to 1784.The war had two main stages:Stage 1 - 1775–1777: Continental Congress/USA rebels officially alone versus Great Britain.Stage 2 -1778–1784: USA + several European powers + Mysore in India versus Great Britain.…. which second period included:1780–83: The League of Armed Neutrality (a formally neutral, but de facto anti-British, coalition of most leading European powers)The League’s Members: Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Ottoman Turkey, Portugal, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Basically all the remaining main powers of Europe.While not every European country, or even most, waged active warfare in the conflict to humble Great Britain, the countries of Europe (and elsewhere) presented a nearly united European and global front against what was widely seen as British arrogance and excess domination. A broad consensus emerged among the powers of the day that felt London’s position in the world needed to be rebalanced and brought down one or more degrees of magnitude.The American rebellion, beginning in 1775, proved a particularly opportune moment to try to achieve that very thing.Three of Europe’s major nations would engage in full-on official direct open warfare against Great Britain and its possessions as part of the War of American Independence.“Because England wants war against the whole world, they will have it!” — Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia in early 1781 (describing the expanding conflict & universal anti-British sentiment — though neither himself nor Prussia became direct belligerents in the conflict).—————————————————————1763 & Forward:The Gathering Storm: British Arrogance and World Reaction—————————————————————An unwelcome attitude of haughty supremacy was widely seen as emanating from London, especially after about 1763, more than a decade preceding the rebellion in British America’s 13 colonies.That perceived haughtiness had grown intolerable for a great many around the world — including former allies and current subjects of Great Britain. This appearance of excess superiority followed the latter’s victory in the Seven Years War (1756–1763).That conflict is also known in the USA as the “French & Indian War”, but it was more descriptively called, among the British at the time:“The Great War for Empire”.Great Britain had secured a position of “unipolar” global supremacy.Indeed, by that war’s end, King George’s army and navy sat as conquerors in Manila, Havana, Pondicherry, Quebec, and Senegal — among other places — especially after his and Parliament’s top-notch and enormous Royal Navy had bottled the French navy, its best opponent, inside France’s ports.Historians, probably inaccurately technically, often call the Seven Years War “the first world war. Given its scope and consequences, we can allow it.So the “second world war” after that is The American War under discussion here: Round-Two to the Seven Years War.—-The Seven Years War of 1756–1763 was arguably the defining war of modernity, until the conventionally known Second World War (1939–1945).That role arises from the fact that the Seven Years War established the British-dominated geopolitical world that defined modern history from the late 18th to the mid-20th centuries.And British attitudes and posture at the end of, and immediately following, the Seven Years War were soaring to their most aggressive and (over)confident to date.“Gunboat diplomacy” is a standard description of one British Ministry’s typical imperial foreign policy soon after the Seven Years War was finished (a Ministry whose colonial and fiscal policy also ticked off Britain’s American colonists).See: The Gunboat Diplomacy of the Government of George Grenville, 1764-1765: The Honduras, Turks Island and Gambian IncidentsA crisis over the Falklands Islands in 1770 saw a further intimidated and publicly humiliated France and Spain back off claims there. The American colonists meanwhile grew increasingly reactive to more intrusive measures by London into their finances, commerce, boundaries, and government. Those measures were typically responses to new post-Seven Years War conditions, especially Britain’s overhanging war debt and capture of much of North America.And those steps were working towards nurturing a stronger London-managed empire.——————————————-Opportunity Arises: France and Spain Wade In——————————————-In the subsequent American rebellion and independence conflict starting in the mid-1770s, the French, and later the Spanish, struck back hard, and with increasing directness, at British supremacy.First, they provided behind-the-scenes assistance to the Americans, then afterward waged open official war on Great Britain, bolstered particularly by a renewed preparatory naval buildup by the French aimed at rebalancing military power on the high seas.The geopolitical strategy of reducing the supremacy of Great Britain using American unrest was actually underway well before the Declaration of Independence of the American rebels in 1776.It was being readied even as news of the rebellion started to cross the Atlantic.“…The degree of exhaustion of the two parties [Britain & the American rebels] shall determine the [timing] of [our] striking the decisive blow which shall reduce England to a second-rate power....It is certain that if His Majesty [King Louis XVI] seizes [this] unique opportunity, which centuries may probably never reproduce, to contain…the dominating schemes of Great Britain, France would command peace [in Europe] for many a year.…Ambitious, covetous, unjust, and faithless … [Great Britain] respects only those who are able to make her fear.”— Charles Gravier [Comte] de Vergennes, Foreign Minister, Kingdom of France (from various memos to court & king 1775–76).The French in early 1778 formally allied themselves directly with the American rebels and committed France, publicly, to the Americans’ cause of independence. In the next year, the Spanish took on Great Britain by allying themselves directly with the French (via a dynastic agreement (“the Family Compact”) among the Bourbon family monarchs reigning in both Paris and Madrid).Spain, however, did not recognize or ally with the 13-colony North Americans formally during the war as the French had done. Their sole official target was not American Independence but the overreach of Great Britain.———————————————Europe United in Refusal: The Neutrals Resist Britain’s Interception of Trade & Try to Isolate It———————————————Portugal, normally a near permanent ally of the British, went shockingly neutral, suggesting how widespread resentment of Great Britain had become.The “neutrals” also included Prussia, a former British fighting ally in the previous war which now showed its hostility to that former ally by prohibiting transport of America-bound German (imprecisely called “Hessian”) contracted and allied troops through Prussia and on to Britain or America.Russia, under Empress Catherine, set up a League of Armed Neutrality during the American war to protest and hopefully block recurrent and aggressive British seizures of neutral vessels, even though Russia, like Prussia, had been a British ally at the end of the previous war. (“My children” was how Catherine described her nation’s maritime military and merchant vessels.)Additionally as early as 1775, Catherine had flatly turned down a direct request by King George for mercenary Russian troops to help suppress the rebellion in America. (Her initial delay in saying no may have had the effect of buying time for the American rebels in Boston and elsewhere to consolidate their positions and permit the rebellion to gain necessary traction.)The Baltic nations also joined in her later-established Neutrality League.So off-putting were British heavy-handed naval interception practices and attitudes that even Russia’s arch-rival Ottoman Turkey ultimately joined Catherine’s League!The League threatened armed resistance to British naval seizures during the American war and promised unified retaliation to armed captures of merchant vessels. (The League had started as more generally neutral, but France’s Foreign Minister Vergennes rather smartly persuaded Spain to back off seizing Russian and other neutral ships, realizing correctly that the main sentiment of the more powerful neutrals would then turn anti-British.)Austria and Prussia meanwhile aborted a major European war of their own, the War of the Bavarian Succession, partly because their patrons in the previous war, France and Britain respectively, couldn’t or wouldn’t support them. Those patrons were instead spending their all duking it out full throttle for European supremacy (with America as the immediate pretext and occasion of that conflict.)But both Austria and Prussia, despite their mutual enmity, were pretty much genuinely rooting against or positioned against the British, the latter nation especially so. As noted earlier, Prussia from the very beginning phases typically wouldn’t let German mercenaries pass through its territory to Britain. Prussian monarch Frederick the Great felt that the British Tory government had sold him out at the conclusion of the Seven Years War despite his alliance with them.Austria, in turn, was formally a standing French ally (though it undertook no direct belligerence in the American war). Emperor Joseph in Austria was also the brother of French King Louis’s wife Marie-Antoinette. Joseph additionally sought an anti-Turkish alliance with Russia’s Empress Catherine who was interested, but accordingly cracked her whip on him to stop the central European Bavarian war from being a distraction and a waste, even as Austria’s patron France refused to endorse it.So both Prussia and Austria joined Catherine’s de facto anti-British League of Armed Neutrality which, as noted, threatened combined retaliation for British seizures of ships and was a vehicle for isolating Great Britain as the broader war raged. (Also joining the League was the smaller but central Mediterranean state the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.)In actual practice, though, the League’s threat of armed neutrality was more bark than bite. The relative impotence of even armed merchant vessels against Royal Navy warships and armed British privateers was clear.But the League served to isolate Great Britain politically and was taken quite seriously by the British both in general and in particular cases, particularly as the claim of neutrality was a shield and conduit behind and through which Britain’s enemies — the Americans and French especially — traded or received supplies.Great Britain’s constant heavy-handed and unilateral interruption of global commerce in the hopes of cutting off rebel and other enemy supplies and trade fueled the pervasive resentment against Great Britain’s world-straddling supremacy among a great many of those who had been ordinarily or previously friendly. Or otherwise non-hostile.“We have no one friend or ally to assist us, on the contrary all those who ought to be our allies. . . act against us in supplying our enemies with the means of equipping their fleets.”— John Montagu, Earl of Sandwich, First Lord of the Admiralty, to King George III, early 1779.A world power all alone, and deserted.—————————————-——-An Isolated Britain Keeps Fighting & Turns Viciously on one Neutral____________________________________Still, Britain stuck to its guns despite the neutrals’ resistance and trade with the enemies. The pressure by the Royal Navy on neutral merchant shipping fell heavily especially in places (like the Baltic and the Netherlands) that served as starting and transit points for key military stores going to the enemy Allies.In fact, when Holland decided to join the Neutrality League at the end of 1780, it found itself and its possessions pounced upon in full fury by an angry Britain which declared an official and total war against the Netherlands.London was already furious over Dutch West Indian colonies (especially the ports and warehouses on St. Eustatius) serving as sympathetic and vital military supply transit points to the Americans, and Holland also serving as a military stores route to France from the Baltic. All this happened while the city of Amsterdam’s local government was discovered to have flirted directly with the rebels with plans for possibly recognizing American independence.Meanwhile, the Dutch in general very confrontationally defied repeated British imperious demands on Holland’s trade and diplomacy. Britain felt also that older treaty commitments by the Netherlands to aid Britain had been breached.Prussian ruler Frederick the Great had now turned so much against his former patron that he took the time to escalate the hostilities between Holland and Britain, writing a scolding rebuke to his niece in the Netherlands, before Holland was at war with Great Britain. (Frederick did not take up direct war himself, however.)“You have done too much for the English,” Frederick chided the Princess, who was married to the Dutch head of state, the Prince of Orange.“You permit them to pillage your vessels at their pleasure!”Friedrich Edler, the classic historian of the Dutch at this period argued that “Frederick the Great sought to influence the United Provinces [of Holland] against England, and there is no doubt that he…was responsible for their final attitude towards their former ally [Great Britain].”————————————————————————————-The Worldwide War of Everyone Against Great Britain——————————————————————The War of American Independence was thus a broader struggle involving Everyone Against Great Britain — in sentiment, orientation, posture, and diplomatic practice, if not in actual open warfare.Three European major powers came to engage in overt official direct war against Britain during the course of the American war, as others ignored traditional enmities to combine in a cold neutrality hostile to British naval activity and superiority.And in India, the British East India company was fighting on two fronts. In one direction, they fought against the French-aligned and assisted Mysoreans of the south. Mysore’s dynamic leader Hyder Ali — later to be honored by having the de facto allied American rebels name a ship for him— declared war in response to British East India Company movements against American-allied French possessions in India.Those areas were lying within Mysore’s declared sphere of influence.Separately but simultaneously, the British East India Company also fought the Marathas in the center of India, while the British naval forces’ might was additionally engaged against Dutch bases throughout both India and the Indian Ocean area after war between Britain and Holland opened up over 1780–81.In this conflict and in that theater of operations, European control over Sri Lanka went back and forth among different countries during the early 1780s.And so around the world, an anti-British warring coalition along wit armed neutrals all aimed towards their common effect:Bringing Britain Down a Notch, or Several Notches ……And that seemed to work……Initially, and for a period, at least.French/European Alliances and Participation Radically Reverse the American Rebellion’s Sagging Momentum,Combined French naval and land forces — joined by the main rebel American army at the Siege of Yorktown/Battle of the Capes in late 1781 — climaxed a series of coordinated land and sea operations in America that effectively dealt the death blow to Great Britain’s political and military efforts to defeat and recover its insurgent 13 colonies.A while earlier in 1778, the mere active threat of a French naval strike in the western Atlantic had caused the British to mass-evacuate Philadelphia and the Chesapeake region in semi-panic, as well as to redeploy very large numbers of troops away from North America to the newly arising Caribbean theater of war.The initial threat engendered by French North Atlantic naval operations turned the ground war momentum in America back over to the rebels who were famously thawing out and undergoing Prussian-officered basic training at Valley Forge.Britain now faced a rival strong adversary in warfare across a global hemisphere. The threat was much much bigger than an overseas rebellion.The object of the war being now changed and the contest in America being secondary consideration, our principal object must be distressing France and defending … His Majesty's [other] possessions." [Emphasis added]—John Montagu, Earl of Sandwich, First Lord of the Admiralty of Great Britain, to Admiral Lord Richard Howe, Cmdr-in-Chief, North American Station, 22 March 1778The Spanish joined in. Energetically led locally by governor Bernardo de Galvez in New Orleans, they encircled the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, with Spanish troops taking southern North America up through West Florida and eventually the Bahamas as well, while the French took important British-held Antilles islands positions like St. Kitts, and Spanish forces in America menaced the British lumber operations around what is now Belize (British Honduras).Galvez also drove the British out of the Mississippi river basin, clearing a path to more directly supply to the American rebels through the back door, something he had already been long doing unofficially prior to formal Spanish entrance into the war in 1779.The island of Jamaica, the sugar-rich money-maker of the British Caribbean empire, was effectively isolated, surrounded, and seemingly doomed, a primary target of Spanish imperial and French military operations.A young Horatio Nelson, stationed there, began to study French in expectation of the island’s upcoming capture by a French fleet. Nelson had also led a disastrous expedition designed to defeat the Spanish in Central America.The British units there (in what is modern Nicaragua) suffered the worst casualty rate — largely from disease —- than from any other operation or engagement of the War of American Independence, including the dramatic defeats and hard-won victories in places like Boston, Saratoga, Minorca, Gibraltar, and Yorktown.The Europeans Take the War to the English Channel and Rattle Britain Internally———————————-During the war’s pendency, the British also nervously and realistically anticipated a Franco-Spanish invasion of England itself, thereby holding naval and other resources back from America, the Caribbean and other operational areas.What was feared almost came to pass early on in 1779.A combined fleet of the Bourbon allies — described by one historian as one of the largest fleets ever assembled in history — carrying thousands upon thousands of ground troops nearly landed on England’s southern coast that year in sort of a reverse D-Day.It was stopped only by internal Franco-Spanish operational factors — delay-induced and delay-inducing heavy shipboard disease, vessel erosion, and very poor operational coordination among the anti-British allies. (The British home island of Jersey was also twice invaded and nearly captured by the French during the war.)It was in conjunction with that grand intended invasion of the island of Great Britain itself that the famed American (and French supplied) seaman John Paul Jones performed his reputation-establishing attack on the Serapis.His celebrated operations were actually a small preliminary decoy effort in support of a Franco-Spanish combined fleet’s grand operation to invade the British homeland.Somewhat related public panic from the French-Spanish invasion fleet of 1779 may have helped tear the city of London apart in the next year, with levels of rioting and anarchy rarely seen in the capital city, before or since. The so-called Gordon riots in the next year 1780 were anti-Catholic in nature but possibly amplified in sentiment because it was the religion of the two main enemy belligerents, France and Spain. The riots were only ended when King George, on his personal authority, sent out security forces which gunned down citizens in the street in large numbers to clear the city of rioters.The more specific occasion of those 1780 riots, however, was a step directly engendered by the American war.The provocation to anti-Catholic sentiment arose from Parliamentary legislation reducing restrictions on Catholics, a move partly but explicitly inspired by a desire to recruit more British and Irish into fighting in the now-expanded American war, a war which came dangerously close to landing a huge number of enemy forces directly onto England’s shores.The Kingdom of Great Britain was additionally stressed internally as agitation against London for self-government in Ireland became dramatically accelerated by the American war, leading to a profound change of governance.France and Spain went so far as to dispatch agents to investigate the possibility of fomenting rebellion in Ireland. That failed in part due to successful British counter-intelligence, but nonetheless, the call-out of the volunteer militia in Ireland because of the invasion threat helped directly drive successful activism for a form of home rule (Grattan’s Parliament).____________________________________________________Erosion of & Threats to the Larger British Empire____________________________________________________The British strategic position in the Mediterranean was also battered badly by a successful Spanish-French amphibious assault on the British base on the west Mediterranean island Minorca about the same time as the 1781 Yorktown campaign in America, and involving a smaller but still large number of fighters on all sides.Soon after that, it became time for the climax in the Eastern Atlantic/West Mediterranean theaters: a final French and Spanish crushing attack to seize British-held Gibraltar!Gibraltar’s hoped-for capture, if successful, would mean the complete restoration of Bourbon control of the western Mediterranean and the end of the British presence on Spanish soil at the strategic western entry-chokepoint of the Mediterranean.A French fleet meanwhile intercepted and stopped a British attack force aimed at capturing Dutch South Africa, while French forces retook a key base in West Africa, reintroducing their presence in the region and restarting the rule there they would advance over the next centuries.————————————————————The Slow But Late Royal Navy’s Return: The Reassertion of British Global Power————————————————————But the winds of war started to shift………This thing called the British Royal Navy showed up more and more where it was supposed to, with its traditional ferocity and skill reasserting itself, and with faster more seaworthy ships. Factionalism in command-level decision-making, logistical problems in ship construction began to be fixed, while a new and useful ship-construction technology was being rapidly introduced in England.Boldly, the Royal Navy kept breaking through to Gibraltar keeping that strategic city’s small British garrison supplied as it held out heroically against a Spanish-French three year siege by land and sea. Finally, in September 1782, about a year after the Yorktown defeat across the waves, a massive combined land and sea attack on the town by the French and Spanish using specially-designed floating batteries not only failed to break the defense, but the Royal Navy-sustained British defenders destroyed each of the Spanish vaunted “hi-tech” (as we’d say today) attack vessels without the British defenders even sailing out from their land position on Gibraltar.So effective was the British defense there, centered on the use of “hot-shot” to set the attacking vessels on fire, that the trapped and heavily bombarded garrison on Gibraltar ended up sending out rescuers to save the burning and drowning attacking Spanish crewmembers!British Gibraltar held firm throughout the American war to its end in one of history’s most epic and successful siege resistances.Meanwhile, in April 1782, the very same French fleet that had won the day at Yorktown several months previously and was thereafter slated to join the Spanish in an attack on British-held Jamaica was intercepted by British Admiral George Rodney at a place called the Saintes in the West Indies near the island of Dominica.Rodney’s ships “broke the line [of battle]”, slicing through and across the procession of French vessels, inflicting a devastating & historic defeat on the French, perhaps one of the most important British naval victories of all time.They scattered the French fleet, capturing several ships including the French commander’s, thereby restoring Great Britain to supremacy in the strategically and economically vital Caribbean, if not, ultimately, the entire world.Suddenly the British Empire didn’t appear quite so much on the ropes any more.Britain’s naval strength had remained robust and formidable, and ultimately effectively supreme, though somewhat initially caught in literal or figurative drydock when the demand for the navy first soared when the American war went international.The Navy was the key to Britain’s strength, the sinews of its global muscle.The British Royal Navy had nearly as many usable line-of-battle warships as its three actively fighting European adversaries combined. (In fact, The War of American Independence may have contained the most fleet-to-fleet naval direct engagements in all of human history through to today. And certainly in Caribbean history).On board the ships were strong, experienced, and generally more meritocratically selected commanders and crews. (Swarms of authorized free-agent nautical “privateers” from Britain’s enormous merchant fleet —perhaps one-third of which were originally American built! — also supplemented the effort by seizing enemy trading and supply ships.)And new technology, ever more rapidly assimilated, played a key part.Increasingly, as the American war progressed, the British vessels were more and more incorporating a technique called copper-bottoming or copper-sheathing which enabled better and faster movement during longer periods at sea.An important primary result of the superior naval power was that the international trade of Great Britain, being protected by that Royal Navy, assured the existence of a superior economic base to pay directly for fighting sustained long wars, and for obtaining affordable financial credit towards that extended warfare.The failure of the nations and rebels arrayed against them to decisively destroy British trade, combined with that country’s relatively efficient and open tax collection and public budgeting system — fortified by a creditworthy debt-rollover practice using debt consolidation instruments called “consols” — meant that Great Britain could keep on waging war despite heavy setbacks.And the damage done by the Royal Navy and its supportive privateers to the trading of enemy belligerents, much less the angry neutrals, was enormous.A quick illustration:Over the year 1780, when still formally neutral, the Netherlands sent 2,050 commercial trading ships into the North Sea and the Baltic.In 1781, however, after Great Britain declared war on the Dutch, the total annual number of Dutch-Baltic trading ships was. . . . 11 !At one point also, it was noted that maybe only about 10–20% of French commercial ships returned home uncaptured.The widespread combined resistance to Great Britain thus began to take serious hits and run low on steam and fuel.It further unraveled as 1782 moved along.——————————————————————Britain’s Government Collapses While Division Hits The Enemy Allies——————————————————————In early 1782 as a response to fall of Yorktown near the end of the previous year, and also perhaps in response to the very early 1782 losses of Minorca and St. Kitts, control of the British Parliament changed parties.It fell to the dominance of a more pro-American party, the Whigs.Parliament voted to prohibit the further waging of offensive ground war in America against the rebels.This act of giving up was not a surrender, but more importantly, it did not mean Great Britain was in worse shape, when it came to its global enemies.Rather, the increasing compartmentalization of American continent objectives from the war with the European enemies, meant that Great Britain now had more — and increasingly better — resources to spare against its European enemies: the actively warring coalition of France, Spain and Holland. And the American rebels had less active need to continue the war.(The war in America itself didn’t fully end before a peace was signed in early 1783. Perimeter skirmishes around British-held cities in America continued, pro-British Native American conflicts with the rebels settlers continued, and the Royal Navy and British privateers continued to intercept ships trading with and supplying the Americans, as well as vice-versa. But major fighting was over.)Soon after Britain had thrown in the towel in America, to France’s chagrin and in violation of the spirit and likely the letter of the Franco-American alliance, the Americans began to separately negotiate behind the backs of their European ally with a much less unfriendly London (due, as noted above, to the relatively pro-American Whig faction’s takeover of Parliament after that body lost confidence in the ruling Tories’ abilities to wage war following Yorktown and other defeats).The interests of the allies were growing apart.France and Spain and Holland also began to pursue their own separate interests in negotiations as Catherine of Russia ramped up mediation services to the European belligerents. Mutually adverse horse-trading and peace proposals between and among same-side belligerents regarding strategic and wealth-producing possessions were floated behind the scenes, and would follow through into more formal negotiations.The anti-British coalition was unravelling.Britain’s still relatively strong global position was notable in the later stages of the war.Beginning in 1781, Holland was being rapidly and thoroughly emasculated as a European great power by the British Navy. Dutch possessions worldwide — in Sumatra, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Suriname, and key Caribbean islands — fell one after another to British assaults, as a helpless and blockaded Netherlands looked on. (And as noted earlier above, it required a French fleet, not a Dutch one, to intercept and stop a planned British conquest of Dutch South Africa while Dutch international trade fell over 99%.)In addition to the historic victory at the Saintes, the British navy also dueled a well-commanded French fleet to a tough but creditable draw in the Indian Ocean and around India itself. (Most historians agree that the French fleet under the very able commander Suffren were out-performing the British around India, but it remained more of a draw since no decisive victory on land or sea took place.)And the East India Company, with British government naval supply and assistance, came out about the same, a draw, with their local Indian enemies on land. (More wars with the same belligerents would happen over the next decades to decide who would rule where in India.)A proposal in late 1782 from within the Bourbon allies to revive the Franco-Spanish plan to take Jamaica in the Caribbean sputtered from lack of enthusiasm at the highest levels of an increasingly budget-pressed and trade-harassed France, which was also growing far more concerned about something else:Ominous developments were stirring in Eastern Europe, more disturbing than the American war.A new crisis was unfolding as Tsaritsa Catherine II decided to have Russia invade Crimea to pressure a Turkish-aligned government there experiencing a succession crisis.Alarmed, the French nervously pivoted eastward over 1782-83, deciding to finalize (without waiting for news from India or elsewhere) and close down the expensive and now frustrating American war, the aim of which — for the European enemies of Britain — had been to affordably cut Britain down to size: i.e., from superpower to merely one of several European great powers.But they had not really achieved that goal despite years of expensive hard-fought war and the defeat of Britain on the American continent.The mastermind of the whole global conflict, French Foreign Minister Charles Gravier de Vergennes, now thought his country might work best with the relatively friendly new British Whig PM Lord Shelburne in hopes of bringing him and Britain around to supporting Turkey against a greater fear than the French had of British power: the threat of a growing Russian expansion into Europe completely destroying a French-led balance of power on land.Vergennes envisioned a sort of Anglo-French entente to support the balance of power on the continent. The French viewed their traditional — but increasingly militarily impotent — ally, Turkey, as an important presence blocking Russian expansion into Europe and the Mediterranean. (A foreshadowing of the Crimean war of about 70 years later.)This attention was consistent with the French Royalist regime viewing itself as the rightful grand arbiter of continental Europe’s international order. And that overall vision of France as the proper arbiter of Europe’s order was the same driving vision of France’s status that had drawn them towards, and into, the anti-British American war in the first place.Contrary to what is often glibly stated, it was not just a desire for revenge for earlier losses in the Seven Years War that motivated France in the American War. It was more. It arose from a sense of national destiny, purpose, and self-image which held that a more just, honorable, and peaceful Europe, led properly by France, had been undermined and threatened by Britain’s arrogance and position after the Seven Years War (i.e., 1763 and forward).———————————————————————————Outcome: Britain Loses America But Remains Global Leader———————————————————————————At the end of the American war, with the Peace of Paris of 1783, the British had lost the 13 colonies (plus Florida and Minorca to Spain) but held on to or recovered most of their other key global bases and to their superior position on the seas and throughout most of the world.This occurred despite the near-uniform active and passive hostility in Europe and much of the world to London’s dominance during the previous years of war.The War of American Independence had expanded from a civil insurrection of rebellious colonies into a multi-Great-Power, multi-continent, and multi-ocean World War-to-Cut-Britain-Down-to-Size.But that war failed to achieve the larger international geopolitical aims of the Great Powers that intervened in it or cheered it on from a position of anti-British neutrality, even as the war very successfully secured the smaller more immediate one of rebel American independence.Only the Americans obtained a major unambiguous historic gain from the grand and world-wide investment and destruction of lives, bodies, and resources in the War of American Independence.Their rebellion, more by coincidence than design, was perfectly timed with an across-the-board European and global common desire to see Great Britain taken on . . . and taken down.France got hugely expanded debt on a very shaky Treasury and regime, though it did rebuild its Navy aggressively, which would be seen again in the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars. France also kept access to valuable fisheries off Canada which it had retained in the Seven Years War.Spain got Florida and Minorca but not its ideal prizes of Jamaica or Gibraltar.Holland, despite keeping overseas imperial possessions in the final agreement, got itself reduced by a decisive and brutally thorough British pummeling into a permanent second-rate, vulnerable, and temporarily internally unstable state inside Europe.Great Britain lost America’s 13 colonies (plus Florida) but broke even in Europe and the world (minus small Caribbean areas traded for others, and non-essential places like Minorca and one Senegalese port).But its beneficial economic and trading relationship with America did not fundamentally change in the long run, while a hoped-for (by France) better trade relationship between France and America did not takeoff afterwards.Rather soon after, as well, from both the American war and other later critical financial woes, France’s economy and finances drifted downwards towards a different revolution with destiny.Meanwhile, Great Britain still held most of North America’s raw land, with a strong continuing influence over Ohio valley Native Americans, while only conceding full defeat to another group of (now former) Englishmen.Because Great Britain had already been at the highest rank of European and world powers at the beginning of the war, “breaking even” simply means it remained a singular superpower after the American war, as it had been before, and despite the combined active and passive opposition of most other major European and more than one Indian subcontinent nation.This globally dominant a status was one that that nation would maintain — despite another extended close call in the next decades with a differently-governed France — through the next centuries.

Third World nations are not permitted to nationalize their own natural resources and use them for the benefit of their own people. This will lead you to getting sanctions that will destroy your economy, followed by an outright invasion or a CIA led coup.1. AfghanistanIn the 1980s, the U.S. worked with Pakistan and Saudi Arabia to overthrow Afghanistan's socialist government. It funded, trained and armed forces led by conservative tribal leaders whose power was threatened by their country's progress on education, women's rights and land reform. After Mikhail Gorbachev withdrew Soviet forces in 1989, these U.S.-backed warlords tore the country apart and boosted opium production to an unprecedented level of 2,000 to 3,400 tons per year. The Taliban government cut opium production by 95% in two years between 1999 and 2001, but the U.S. invasion in 2001 restored the warlords and drug lords to power. Afghanistan now ranks 175th out of 177countries in the world for corruption, 175th out of 186 in human development, and since 2004, it has produced an unprecedented 5,300 tons of opium per year. President Karzai's brother, Ahmed Wali Karzai, was well known as a CIA-backed drug lord. After a major U.S. offensive in Kandahar province in 2011, Colonel Abdul Razziq was appointed provincial police chief, boosting a heroin smuggling operation that already earned him $60 million per year in one of the poorest countries in the world.2. AlbaniaBetween 1949 and 1953, the U.S. and U.K. set out to overthrow the government of Albania, the smallest and most vulnerable communist country in Eastern Europe. Exiles were recruited and trained to return to Albania to stir up dissent and plan an armed uprising. Many of the exiles involved in the plan were former collaborators with the Italian and German occupation during World War II. They included former Interior Minister Xhafer Deva, who oversaw the deportations of "Jews, Communists, partisans and suspicious persons" (as described in a Nazi document) to Auschwitz. Declassified U.S. documents have since revealed that Deva was one of 743 fascist war criminals recruited by the U.S. after the war.3. ArgentinaU.S. documents declassified in 2003 detail conversations between U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and Argentinian Foreign Minister Admiral Guzzetti in October 1976, soon after the military junta seized power in Argentina. Kissinger explicitly approved the junta's "dirty war," in which it eventually killed up to 30,000, most of them young people, and stole 400 children from the families of their murdered parents. Kissinger told Guzzetti, "Look, our basic attitude is that we would like you to succeed... the quicker you succeed the better." The U.S. Ambassador in Buenos Aires reported that Guzzetti "returned in a state of jubilation, convinced that there is no real problem with the US government over that issue." ("Daniel Gandolfo," "Presente!")4. BrazilIn 1964, General Castelo Branco led a coup that sparked 20 years of brutal military dictatorship. U.S. military attache Vernon Walters, later Deputy CIA Director and UN Ambassador, knew Castelo Branco well from World War II in Italy. As a clandestine CIA officer, Walters' records from Brazil have never been declassified, but the CIA provided all the support needed to ensure the success of the coup, including funding for opposition labor and student groups in street protests, as in Ukraine and Venezuela today. A U.S. Marine amphibious force on standby to land in Sao Paolo was not needed. Like other victims of U.S.-backed coups in Latin America, the elected President Joao Goulart was a wealthy landowner, not a communist, but his efforts to remain neutral in the Cold War were as unacceptable to Washington as President Yanukovich's refusal to hand the Ukraine over to the west 50 years later.5. CambodiaWhen President Nixon ordered the secret and illegal bombing of Cambodia in 1969, American pilots were ordered to falsify their logs to conceal their crimes. They killed at least half a million Cambodians, dropping more bombs than on Germany and Japan combined in World War II. As the Khmer Rouge gained strength in 1973, the CIA reported that its "propaganda has been most effective among refugees subjected to B-52 strikes." After the Khmer Rouge killed at least 2 million of its own people and was finally driven out by the Vietnamese army in 1979, theU.S. Kampuchea Emergency Group, based in the U.S. Embassy in Bangkok, set out to feed and supply them as the "resistance" to the new Vietnamese-backed Cambodian government. Under U.S. pressure, the World Food Program provided $12 million to feed 20,000 to 40,000 Khmer Rouge soldiers. For at least another decade, the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency provided the Khmer Rouge with satellite intelligence, while U.S. and British special forces trained them to lay millions of land mines across Western Cambodia which still kill or maim hundreds of people every year.6. ChileWhen Salvador Allende became President in 1970, President Nixon promised to"make the economy scream" in Chile. The U.S., Chile's largest trading partner, cut off trade to cause shortages and economic chaos. The CIA and State Department had conducted sophisticated propaganda operations in Chile for a decade, funding conservative politicians, parties, unions, student groups and all forms of media, while expanding ties with the military. After General Pinochet seized power, the CIA kept Chilean officials on its payroll and worked closely with Chile's DINA intelligence agency as the military government killed thousands of people and jailed and tortured tens of thousands more. Meanwhile, the "Chicago Boys," over 100 Chilean students sent by a State Department program to study under Milton Friedman at the University of Chicago, launched a radical program of privatization, deregulation and neoliberal policies that kept the economy screaming for most Chileans throughout Pinochet's 16-year military dictatorship.7. ChinaBy the end of 1945, 100,000 U.S. troops were fighting alongside Chinese Kuomintang (and Japanese) forces in Communist-held areas of northern China. Chiang Kai-Shek and the Kuomintang may have been the most corrupt of all U.S. allies. A steady stream of U.S. advisers in China warned that U.S. aid was being stolen by Chiang and his cronies, some of it even sold to the Japanese, but the U.S. commitment to Chiang continued throughout the war, his defeat by the Communists and his rule of Taiwan. Secretary of State Dulles' brinksmanship on behalf of Chiang twice led the U.S. to the brink of nuclear war with China on his behalf in 1955 and 1958 over Matsu and Qemoy, two small islands off the coast of China.8. ColombiaWhen U.S. special forces and the Drug Enforcement Administration aided Colombian forces to track down and kill drug lord Pablo Escobar, they worked with a vigilante group called Los Pepes. In 1997, Diego Murillo-Bejarano and other Los Pepes' leaders co-founded the AUC (United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia) which was responsible for 75% of violent civilian deaths in Colombia over the next 10 years.9. CubaThe United States supported the Batista dictatorship as it created the repressive conditions that led to the Cuban Revolution, killing up to 20,000 of its own people. Former U.S. Ambassador Earl Smith testified to Congress that, "the U.S. was so overwhelmingly influential in Cuba that the American Ambassador was the second most important man, sometimes even more important than the Cuban president." After the revolution, the CIA launched a long campaign of terrorism against Cuba, training Cuban exiles in Florida, Central America and the Dominican Republic to commit assassinations and sabotage in Cuba. CIA-backed operations against Cuba included the attempted invasion at the Bay of Pigs, in which 100 Cuban exiles and four Americans were killed; several attempted assassinations of Fidel Castro and successful assassinations of other officials; several bombing raids in 1960 (three Americans killed and two captured) and terrorist bombings targeting tourists as recently as 1997; the apparent bombing of a French ship in Havana harbor (at least 75 killed); a biological swine flu attack that killed half a million pigs; and the terrorist bombing of a Cuban airliner (78 killed) planned by Luis Posada Carriles and Orlando Bosch, who remain free in America despite the U.S. pretense of waging a war against terrorism. Bosch was granted a presidential pardon by the first President Bush.10. El SalvadorThe civil war that swept El Salvador in the 1980s was a popular uprising against a government that ruled with the utmost brutality. At least 70,000 people were killed and thousands more were disappeared. The UN Truth Commission set up after the war found that 95% of the dead were killed by government forces and death squads, and only 5% by FLMN guerrillas. The government forces responsible for this one-sided slaughter were almost entirely established, trained, armed and supervised by the CIA, U.S. special forces and the U.S. School of the Americas. The UN Truth Commission found that the units guilty of the worst atrocities, like theAtlacatl Battalion which conducted the infamous El Mozote massacre, were precisely the ones most closely supervised by American advisers. The American role in this campaign of state terrorism is now hailed by senior U.S. military officers as a model for "counter-insurgency" in Colombia and elsewhere as the U.S. war on terror spreads its violence and chaos across the world.11. FranceIn France, Italy, Greece, Indochina, Indonesia, Korea and the Philippines at the end of World War II, advancing allied forces found that communist resistance forces had gained effective control of large areas or even entire countries as German and Japanese forces withdrew or surrendered. In Marseille, the CGT communist trade union controlled the docks that were critical to trade with the U.S. and the Marshall plan. The OSS had worked with the U.S.-Sicilian mafia and Corsican gangsters during the war. So after the OSS merged into the new CIA after the war, it used its contacts to restore Corsican gangsters to power in Marseille, to break dock strikes and CGT control of the docks. It protected the Corsicans as they set up heroin labs and began shipping heroin to New York, where the American-Sicilian mafia also flourished under CIA protection. Ironically, supply disruptions due to the war and the Chinese Revolution had reduced the number of heroin addicts in the U.S. to 20,000 by 1945 and heroin addiction could have been virtually eliminated, but the CIA's infamous French Connection instead brought a new wave of heroin addiction, organized crime and drug-related violence to New York and other American cities.12. GhanaThere seem to be no inspiring national leaders in Africa these days. But that may be America's fault. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a rising star in Ghana: Kwame Nkrumah. He was Prime Minister under British rule from 1952 to 1960, when Ghana became independent and he became president. He was a socialist, a pan-African and an anti-imperialist, and, in 1965, he wrote a book called Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism. Nkrumah was overthrown in a CIA coup in 1966. The CIA denied involvement at the time, but the British press later reported that 40 CIA officers operated out of the U.S. Embassy "distributing largesse among President Nkrumah's secret adversaries," and that their work "was fully rewarded." Former CIA officer John Stockwell revealed more about the CIA's decisive role in the coup in his book In Search of Enemies.13. GreeceWhen British forces landed in Greece in October 1944, they found the country under the effective control of ELAS-EAM, the leftist partisan group formed by the Greek Communist Party in 1941 after the Italian and German invasion. ELAS-EAM welcomed the British forces, but the British refused any accommodation with them and installed a government that included royalists and Nazi collaborators. When ELAS-EAM held a huge demonstration in Athens,police opened fire and killed 28 people. The British recruited members of the Nazi-trained Security Battalions to hunt down and arrest ELAS members, who once again took up arms as a resistance movement. In 1947, with a civil war raging, the bankrupt British asked the U.S. to take over their role in occupied Greece. The U.S. role in supporting an incompetent fascist government in Greece was enshrined in the "Truman Doctrine," seen by many historians as the beginning of the Cold War. ELAS-EAM fighters laid down their arms in 1949 after Yugoslavia withdrew its support, and 100,000 were either executed, exiled or jailed. The liberal Prime Minister Georgios Papandreou was overthrown in a CIA-backed coup in 1967, leading to seven more years of military rule. His son Andreas was elected as Greece's first "socialist" president in 1981, but many ELAS-EAM members jailed in the 1940s were never freed and died in prison.14. GuatemalaAfter its first operation to overthrow a foreign government in Iran in 1953, the CIA launched a more elaborate operation to remove the elected liberal government of Jacobo Arbenz in Guatemala in 1954. The CIA recruited and trained a small army of mercenaries under Guatemalan exile Castillo Armas to invade Guatemala, with 30 unmarked U.S. planes providing air support. U.S. Ambassador Peurifoy prepared a list of Guatemalans to be executed, and Armas was installed as president. The reign of terror that followed led to 40 years of civil war, in which at least 200,000 were killed, most of them indigenous people. The climax of the war was the campaign of genocide in Ixil by President Rios Montt, for which he was sentenced to life in prison in 2013, until Guatemala's Supreme Court rescued him on a technicality. A new trial is scheduled for 2015. Declassified CIA documents reveal that the Reagan administration was well aware of the indiscriminate and genocidal nature of Guatemalan military operations when it approved new military aid in 1981, including military vehicles, spare parts for helicopters and U.S. military advisers. The CIA documents detail the massacre and destruction of entire villages, and conclude, "The well documented belief by the army that the entire Ixil Indian population is pro-EGP (Guerrilla Army of the Poor) has created a situation in which the army can be expected to give no quarter to combatants and non-combatants alike."15. HaitiAlmost 200 years after the slave rebellion that created the nation of Haiti and defeated Napoleon's armies, the long-suffering people of Haiti finally elected a truly democratic government led by Father Jean-Bertrand Aristide in 1991. But President Aristide was overthrown in a U.S.-backed military coup after eight months in office, and the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) recruited a paramilitary force called FRAPH to target and destroy Aristide's Lavalas movement in Haiti. The CIA put FRAPH's leader Emmanuel "Toto" Constant on its payroll and shipped in weapons from Florida. When President Clinton sent a U.S. occupation force to restore Aristide to office in 1994, FRAPH members detained by U.S. forces were freed on orders from Washington, and the CIA maintained FRAPH as a criminal gang to undermine Aristide and Lavalas. After Aristide was elected president a second time in 2000, a force of 200 U.S. special forces trained 600 former FRAPH members and others in the Dominican Republic to prepare for a second coup. In 2004, they launched a campaign of violence to destabilize Haiti, which provided the pretext for U.S. forces to land in Haiti and remove Aristide from office.16. HondurasThe 2009 coup in Honduras has led to severe repression and death squad murders of political opponents, union organizers and journalists. At the time of the coup, U.S. officials denied any role in the coup and used semantics to avoid cutting off U.S. military aid as required under U.S. law. But two Wikileaks cables revealed that the U.S. Embassy was the main power brokerin managing the aftermath of the coup and forming a government that is now repressing and murdering its people.17. IndonesiaIn 1965, General Suharto seized effective power from President Sukarno on the pretext of combatting a failed coup and unleashed an orgy of mass murderthat killed at least half a million people. U.S. diplomats later admitted providing lists of 5,000 Communist Party members to be killed. Political officer Robert Martens said, "It really was a big help to the army. They probably killed a lot of people, and I probably have a lot of blood on my hands, but that's not all bad. There's a time when you have to strike hard at a decisive moment."18. IranIran may be the most instructive case of a CIA coup that caused endless long-term problems for the United States. In 1953, the CIA and the U.K.'s MI6 overthrew the popular, elected government of Mohammed Mossadegh. Iran had nationalized its oil industry by a unanimous vote of parliament, ending a BP monopoly that only paid Iran a 16% royalty on its oil. For two years, Iran resisted a British naval blockade and international economic sanctions. After President Eisenhower took office in 1953, the CIA agreed to a British request to intervene. After the initial coup failed and the Shah and his family fled to Italy, the CIA payed millions of dollars to bribe military officers and pay gangsters to unleash violence in the streets of Tehran. Mossadegh was finally removed and the Shah returned to rule as a brutal Western puppet until the Iranian Revolution in 1979.19. IsraelJust as the U.S. uses its economic and military power, its sophisticated propaganda system and its position as a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council to violate international law with impunity, it also uses the same tools to shield its ally Israel from accountability for international crimes. Since 1966, the U.S. has used its Security Council veto 83 times, more than the other four Permanent Members combined, and 42 of those vetoes have been on resolutions related to Israel and/or Palestine. Just last week, Amnesty International published a report that, "Israeli forces have displayed a callous disregard for human life by killing dozens of Palestinian civilians, including children, in the occupied West Bank over the past three years with near total impunity." Richard Falk, the UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in the Occupied Territories condemned the 2008 assault on Gaza as a "massive violation of international law," adding that nations like the U.S. "that have supplied weapons and supported the siege are complicit in the crimes." The Leahy Lawrequires the U.S. to cut off military aid to forces that violate human rights, but it has never been enforced against Israel. Israel continues to build settlements in occupied territory in violation of the 4th Geneva Convention, making it harder to comply with Security Council resolutions that require it to withdraw from occupied territory. But Israel remains beyond the rule of law, shielded from accountability by its powerful patron, the United States.20. IraqIn 1958, after the British-backed monarchy was overthrown by General Abdul Qasim, the CIA hired a 22-year-old Iraqi named Saddam Hussein to assassinate the new president. Hussein and his gang botched the job and he fled to Lebanon, wounded in the leg by one of his companions. The CIA rented him an apartment in Beirut and then moved him to Cairo, where he was paid as an agent of Egyptian intelligence and was a frequent visitor at the U.S. Embassy. Qasim was killed in a CIA-backed Baathist coup in 1963, and as in Guatemala and Indonesia, the CIA gave the new government a list of at least 4,000 communists to be killed. But, once in power, the Baathist revolutionary government was no Western puppet, and it nationalized Iraq's oil industry, adopted an Arab nationalist foreign policy and built the best education and health systems in the Arab world. In 1979, Saddam Hussein became president, conducted purges of political opponents and launched a disastrous war against Iran. The U.S. DIA provided satellite intelligence to target chemical weapons that the West helped him to produce, and Donald Rumsfeld and other U.S. officials welcomed him as an ally against Iran. Only after Iraq invaded Kuwait and Hussein became more useful as an enemy did U.S. propaganda brand him as "a new Hitler." After the U.S. invaded Iraq on false pretenses in 2003, the CIA recruited 27 brigades of "Special Police," merging the most brutal of Saddam Hussein's security forces with the Iranian-trained Badr militia to form death squads that murdered tens of thousands of mostly Sunni Arab men and boys in Baghdad and elsewhere in a reign of terror that continues to this day.21. KoreaWhen U.S. forces arrived in Korea in 1945, they were greeted by officials of the Korean People's Republic (KPR), formed by resistance groups which had disarmed surrendering Japanese forces and begun to establish law and order throughout Korea. General Hodge had them thrown out of his office and placed the southern half of Korea under U.S. military occupation. By contrast, Russian forces in the North recognized the KPR, leading to the long-term division of Korea. The U.S. flew in Syngman Rhee,a conservative Korean exile, and installed him as President of South Korea in 1948. Rhee became a dictator on an anti-communist crusade, arresting and torturing suspected communists, brutally putting down rebellions, killing 100,000 people and vowing to take over North Korea. He was at least partly responsible for the outbreak of the Korean War and for the allied decision to invade North Korea once South Korea had been recaptured. He was finally forced to resign by mass student protests in 1960.22. LaosThe CIA began providing air support to French forces in Laos in 1950, and remained involved there for 25 years. The CIA engineered at least three coups between 1958 and 1960 to keep the growing leftist Pathet Lao out of government. It worked with right-wing Laotian drug lordslike General Phoumi Nosavan, transporting opium between Burma, Laos and Vietnam and protecting his monopoly on the opium trade in Laos. In 1962, the CIA recruited a clandestine mercenary army of 30,000 veterans of previous guerrilla wars from Thailand, Korea, Vietnam and the Philippines to fight the Pathet Lao. As large numbers of American GIs in Vietnam got hooked on heroin, the CIA's Air America transported opium from Hmong territory in the Plain of Jars to General Vang Pao's heroin labs in Long Tieng and Vientiane for shipment to Vietnam. When the CIA failed to defeat the Pathet Lao, the U.S. bombed Laos almost as heavily as Cambodia, with 2 million tons of bombs.23. LibyaNATO's war on Libya epitomized President Obama's "disguised, quiet, media-free" approach to war. NATO's bombing campaign was fraudulently justified to the UN Security Council as an effort to protect civilians, and the instrumental role of Western and other foreign special forces on the ground was well-disguised, even when Qatari special forces (including ex-ISI Pakistani mercenaries) led the final assault on the Bab Al-Aziziya HQ in Tripoli. NATO conducted 7,700 air strikes, 30,000 -100,000 people were killed, loyalist towns were bombed to rubble and ethnically cleansed, and the country is in chaos as Western-trained and -armed Islamist militias seize territory and oil facilities and vie for power. The Misrata militia, trained and armed by Western special forces, is one of the most violent and powerful. As I write this, protesters have just stormed the Congress building in Tripoli for the fourth or fifth time in recent months, and two elected Representatives have been shot and wounded as they fled.24. MexicoThe death toll in Mexico's drug wars recently passed 100,000. The most violent of the drug cartels is Los Zetas. U.S. officials call the Zetas "the most technologically advanced, sophisticated and dangerous drug cartel operating in Mexico." The Zetas cartel was formed by Mexican security forces trained by U.S. special forces at the School of the Americas in Fort Benning, Georgia, and at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.25. MyanmarAfter the Chinese Revolution, Kuomintang generals moved into northern Burma and became powerful drug lords, with Thai military protection, financing from Taiwan and air transport and logistical support from the CIA. Burma's opium production grew from 18 tons in 1958 to 600 tons in 1970. The CIA maintained these forces as a bulwark against communist China but they transformed the "golden triangle" into the world's largest opium producer. Most of the opium was shipped by mule trains into Thailand where other CIA allies shipped it to heroin labs in Hong Kong and Malaysia. The trade shifted around 1970 as CIA partner General Vang Pao set up new labs in Laos to provide heroin to GIs in Vietnam.26. NicaraguaAnastasio Somosa ruled Nicaragua as his personal fiefdom for 43 years with unconditional U.S. support, as his National Guard committed every crime imaginable from massacres and torture to extortion and rape with complete impunity. After he was finally overthrown by theSandinista Revolution in 1979, the CIA recruited, trained and supported "contra" mercenariesto invade Nicaragua and conduct terrorism to destabilize the country. In 1986, the International Court of Justice found the United States guilty of aggression against Nicaragua for deploying the contras and mining Nicaraguan ports. The court ordered the U.S. to cease its aggression and pay war reparations to Nicaragua, but they have never been paid. The U.S. response was to declare that it would no longer recognize the binding jurisdiction of the ICJ, effectively setting itself beyond the rule of international law.27. Pakistan; 28. Saudi Arabia; 29. TurkeyAfter reading my last AlterNet piece on the failed war on terror, former CIA and State Department terrorism expert Larry Johnson told me, "The main problem with respect to assessing the terrorist threat is to accurately define the state sponsorship. The biggest culprits today, in contrast to 20 years ago, are Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Turkey. Iran, despite the right-wing/neocon ravings, is not that active in encouraging and/or facilitating terrorism." In the past 12 years, U.S. military aid to Pakistan has totaled $18.6 billion. The U.S. has just negotiated the largest arms deal in history with Saudi Arabia. And Turkey is a long-standing member of NATO. All three major state sponsors of terrorism in the world today are U.S. allies.30. PanamaU.S. drug enforcement officials wanted to arrest Manuel Noriega in 1971, when he was the chief of military intelligence in Panama. They had enough evidence to convict him of drug trafficking, but he was also a long-time agent and informer for the CIA, so like other drug-dealing CIA agents from Marseille to Macao, he was untouchable. He was temporarily cut loose during the Carter administration but otherwise kept collecting at least $100,000 per year from the U.S. Treasury. As he rose to be the de facto ruler of Panama, he became even more valuable to the CIA, reporting on meetings with Fidel Castro and Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua and supporting U.S. covert wars in Central America. Noriega probably quit drug trafficking in about 1985, well before the U.S. indicted him for it in 1988. The indictment was a pretext for the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989, whose main purpose was to give the U.S. greater control over Panama, at the expense of at least 2,000 lives.31. The PhilippinesSince the U.S. launched its so-called war on terror in 2001, a task force of 500 US JSOC forces has conducted covert operations in the southern Philippines. Now, under Obama's "pivot to Asia," U.S. military aid to the Philippines is increasing, from $12 million in 2011 to $50 million this year. But Filippino human rights activists report that the increased aid coincides with increased military death squad operations against civilians. The past three years have seen at least 158 people killed by death squads.32. SyriaWhen President Obama approved flying weapons and militiamen from Libya to the "Free Syrian Army" base in Turkey in unmarked NATO planes in late 2011, he was calculating that the U.S. and its allies could replicate the "successful" overthrow of the Libyan government. Everyone involved understood that Syria would be a longer and bloodier conflict, but they gambled that the end result would be the same, even though 55% of Syrians told pollsters they still supported Assad. A few months later, Western leaders undermined Kofi Annan's peace plan with their "Plan B," "Friends of Syria." This was not an alternative peace plan, but a commitment to escalation, offering guaranteed support, money and weapons to the jihadis in Syria to make sure they ignored the Annan peace plan and kept fighting. That move sealed the fate of millions of Syrians. Over the past two years Qatar has spent $3 billion and flown inplaneloads of weapons, Saudi Arabia has shipped weapons from Croatia, and Western and Arab royalist special forces have trained thousands of increasingly radicalized fundamentalist jihadis, now allied with al-Qaeda. The Geneva II talks were a half-hearted effort to revive the 2012 Annan peace plan, but Western insistence that a "political transition" means the immediate resignation of Assad reveals that Western leaders still value regime change more than peace. To paraphrase Phyllis Bennis, the U.S. and its allies are still willing to fight to the last Syrian.33. UruguayThe foreign officials the U.S. has worked with include many who have benefited from their cooperation in American crimes around the world. But in Uruguay in 1970, when Police Chief Alejandro Otero objected to Americans training his officers in the art of torture, he was demoted. The U.S. official he complained to was Dan Mitrione, who worked for the U.S. Office of Public Safety, a division of the US Agency for International Development. Mitrione's training sessions reportedly included torturing homeless people to death with electric shocks to teach his students how far they could go.34. YugoslaviaThe NATO aerial bombardment of Yugoslavia in 1999 was a flagrant crime of aggression in violation of Article 2.4 of the UN Charter. When British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook told Secretary of State Albright that the U.K. was having "difficulties with its lawyers" over the planned attack, she told him the U.K. should "get new lawyers," according to her deputy James Rubin. NATO's proxy ground force in its aggression against Yugoslavia was the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), led by Hashim Thaci. A 2010 report by the Council of Europe and a book by Carla Del Ponte, the former prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia, support long-standing allegations that at the time of the NATO invasion, Thaci ran a criminal organization called the Drenica group which sent more than 400 captured Serbs to Albania to be killed so that their organs could be extracted and sold for transplant. Hashim Thaci is now the Prime Minister of the NATO protectorate of Kosovo.35. ZairePatrice Lumumba, the president of the pan-Africanist Mouvement National Congolais, took part in the Congo's struggle for independence and became the Congo's first elected Prime Minister in 1960. He was deposed in a CIA-backed coup led by Joseph-Desire Mobutu, his Army Chief of Staff. Mobutu handed Lumumba over to the Belgian-backed separatists and Belgian mercenaries he had been fighting in Katanga province, and he was shot by a firing squad led by a Belgian mercenary. Mobutu abolished elections and appointed himself president in 1965, and ruled as a dictator for 30 years. He killed political opponents in public hangings, had others tortured to death, and eventually embezzled at least $5 billion while Zaire, as he renamed it, remained one of the poorest countries in the world. But U.S. support for Mobutu continued. Even as President Carter publicly distanced himself, Zaire continued to receive 50% of all U.S. military aid to sub-Saharan Africa. When Congress voted to cut off military aid, Carter and U.S. business interests worked to restore it. Only in the 1990s did U.S. support start to waver, until Mobutu was deposed by Laurent Kabila in 1997 and died soon afterward.***Major Joe Blair was the director of instruction at the U.S. School of the Americas (SOA) from 1986 to 1989. He described the training he oversaw at SOA as the following: "The doctrine that was taught was that if you want information you use physical abuse, false imprisonment, threats to family members, and killing. If you can't get the information you want, if you can't get that person to shut up or stop what they're doing, you assassinate them—and you assassinate them with one of your death squads."The stock response of U.S. officials to the exposure of the systematic crimes I've described is that such things may have occurred at certain times in the past but that they in no way reflect long-term or ongoing U.S. policy. The School of the Americas was moved from the Panama Canal Zone to Fort Benning, Georgia, and replaced by the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation (WHINSEC) in 2001. But Joe Blair has something to say about that too. Testifying at a trial of SOA Watch protesters in 2002, he said, "There are no substantive changes besides the name. They teach the identical courses that I taught, and changed the course names and use the same manuals."A huge amount of human suffering could be alleviated and global problems solved if the United States would make a genuine commitment to human rights and the rule of law, as opposed to one it only applies cynically and opportunistically to its enemies, but never to itself or its allies.