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This was one of the interviews of the season where I think the panel tried to know me very well on all aspects. There was considerable cross-questioning in between, which I’ve pruned to keep it relevant because the interview was pretty long. It went on for 30 minutes. It was a good experience overall.Course: M.A. Human Resources and Labour ManagementInterview date: 6th March, 2018Interview venue: TISS, MumbaiInterview panel: Male professor, mid-30s (M1), Male professor, early 40s (M2), Female professor, early 50s (F3)I enter the room, greet them. M1 responds. M2 is scribbling on his notepad. F3 is busy in her PC.M1: Introduce yourself, and why HR. Keep it brief.Me: Gave a prepared answer. Spoke about my educational background, work experience, qualities, and explained why HR.M1: Did you read our syllabus?Me: Yes, sir.M1: Which subject would you want to specialise in?*I realise this could result in me getting questioned on HR subjects. I underplay.*Me: Organisational Behaviour interested me after I read up on it from HR magazines. But I think it’s too early to decide the subject at this stage. I want to take an informed decision after my first year.M1: So, what do you do at work?Me: I function as a Senior Engineer in the Submarine Division at Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited. *At this moment, F3 makes eye contact for the first time. Asks if I work at MDL. I reply in the affirmative. M1 asks me to continue. I explain how I spearhead three functional teams to in the Scorpene submarine project.*M1: How exactly do you impact the project?Me: Sir there are six submarines in the project. Each submarine is built in six parts and joined at a later stage before delivery. I am the Section In-charge of one of the sections of the sixth submarine. So I lead and manage all the teams that are involved in production and outfitting of my section, and am responsible for achieving its monthly targets. My performance directly affects the cycle time of the entire project.M1: Did you interact with your HR executives?Me: I had a chance to interact mostly during the induction process.M1: No, other than the induction process?Me: I’ve been in touch with some of them for clarifications on the HR policies. *Hoping they would ask me about some policies, but they don’t.*M1: You’re in a PSU. What do you think of the HR in your company?Me: They’ve been very effective in resolving labour issues given that the company has no history of major labour unrest. They’ve ensured that the employees are updated with the skills, which I think is one of the reasons why we are the leading shipyard in the country and are able to deliver world-class ships.M1: What could be the areas of improvement?Me: In the PSUs, HR needs to broaden its focus from operations to strategy. That way it ceases to remain just a cost centre.M1: And how does that happen?Me: HR needs to play an active role in business decisions. Their participation in business meetings is important.M1: But don’t HR professionals already attend business meetings?Me: They do. But from what I have observed, HR in the PSU sector is still restricted to being a cost centre. With automation taking over the operations, HR needs to realign itself as a business partner. For example, each project in the shipbuilding industry is novel. So every project calls for certain changes in the product realisation process. Work styles change. Work descriptions change. Roles change. Leadership styles change. How we are able to adapt to changes in a constantly evolving industry is subject to the strategic decisions of the HR. *M1 nods.*M1: What are the areas where you think the HR department of your company can be proactive?Me: Sir, as I said, it needs to realise the importance of this change at the earliest. Only then can the PSU shipyards compete with the privates.M1: Okay, but what else?Me (thinks for a while): They need to reduce the gap between the management and the labour force. For example, one of our private competitors has its HR managers conduct monthly feedback visits at the shop-floor. This is something that my company hasn’t implemented, and I think, should help in reducing the apprehensions of the workmen about the management, and bring their issues to the forefront.M1: Okay, two points. What else?Damn! I realise he is either trying to push further or expecting something I’ve not yet said. I try to steer the discussion towards my strength.Me: Sir, PSUs continue to use the bell curve approach for appraisals. This has major disadvantages as it ends up merely categorising the employees in three performance levels. So the approach annual and is result oriented, rather than process oriented. In fact, many companies have already shifted from this method.M2 jots down something on his notepad.F3: Who is your GM, HR?Me: Told.F3: AGM?Me: Ma’am, I cannot recall at this moment. *She almost moves to the next question, when I blurt out the name- Mr. ‘A’!*F3: But isn’t it Mr. B?Me: *smiles* Ma’am, there are multiple AGMs in the HR department. Mr A is one of them.F3: Okay. So why was there an agitation when the PRP (Performance Related Pay) system was introduced in the PSUs?Me (No idea. Thinks for a while): Ma’am, it was already in place when I joined…F3: Yeah, it was introduced six years back. But what do you think could be the reason behind the agitation?Me: Ma’am, it’s a hard truth that there has always been some employees in PSUs who are not inclined to take a lot of initiatives at work. (Wrong use of words. Should have used “complacent”). So when the PRP was introduced, it might have been a shock in a stagnant system, and that probably got them worrying about their… umm…F3 (nods and helps): Remunerations.Me: Yes.F3: How would you rate the HR department of your company out of 5?Me: I’d give them a 3.5 *I just ended up being honest. I realised later I could have given them a 4 because the panellists might have been checking how I represent my organisation outside.*M2 (finally done with his scribbling): So Soumya, you mentioned the bell curve system and its disadvantages. What are its advantages?Me: Sir, it helps in identifying the top performers, mid-level performers, and the under-performers. That way, it gives the HR department an idea of which employees it should retain (the top performers). Also, the underperformers can be identified and provided with the required training and development. For the mid-level performers, HR can focus on ways to enhance their performance. *M2 nods.*M2: Okay, we know that not many business school students are interested in taking up a job at a PSU. But suppose you are an HR manager of your present company, and you are at an IIM for recruitment. How will you differentiate your company from the other shipyards?Me: Explained how it has been the leading shipyard in the country, and the only Indian shipyard that has the infrastructure, experience, and skills to build warships and submarines in tandem. Mentioned the world-class projects in the order book, and the latest developments which differentiate the company from its competitors and ensures that its employees are skilled to the latest industry standards.M2: Fine, consider a retail company. Its customers have given negative feedback on its social media page. Mr. X is looking forward to applying for a job at this company. He discovers these negative comments about customer service. Will this affect his willingness to join the company?Me: Sir, since Mr X has gone ahead and checked the comments on social media, he would also have looked for the response from the company. If the company has responded, it would have a positive impact on his willingness to join. Otherwise, it would definitely affect his willingness.M2: How do you evaluate yourself at work?F3 cuts in (Looks deep into my eyes as if she can see my soul): What drives you professionally? Fame or money? When would you consider yourself professionally successful?Me: Ma’am, for the first few years, I’d evaluate myself on the impact of my work on project realisation and how I am able to add value to the teams I am working with. But with more experience, after having functioned in leadership positions, I think ultimately it boils down to how many people I have enabled to do what they wanted to do. *All nod. M1 follows my hand gestures.*F3 and M2 ask some more questions related to my industry and my company in particular. They exchange looks. “Any more questions?” “No, that’ll be it.”F3 (starts again): How much work-ex do you have?Me: 18 months. *F3 and M1 respond with soul-piercing stares.*M1: Okay, do you know the political affiliations of the labour unions in your company?Me: Sir, I know the names of the unions, but I’m not sure about their political affiliations.M1: No no, I want the political affiliations (smirks at me)Me: Named the two I was sure of.M1: Okay Soumya, thank you.*I greet them and leave.*Verdict: Rejected.Edit (20/05/2019): I still remember being devastated after the final result, last year. I received a PIT/PI call for the HRM & LR Programme at TISS this year too, for the 2019–2021 session. Here is my interview experience:Course: M.A. Human Resources and Labour ManagementDate: 11th March 2019Venue: TISS, MumbaiPIT: We had to choose one of the two given topics for GD and WAT. The group unanimously agreed to one topic- Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Future Work.We were given 15 mins to write on the topic in 200 words. The GD began immediately after that. It was a very healthy discussion. I made 4–5 entries with distinct points in each.Interview Panel: Lady professor (LP), Very senior professor- labour law expert (OP), Young male professor (YP)I enter, greet the panel, and settle down. YP puts on an indifferent expression.YP: Introduce yourself. Take us through your education, work experience, and why you decided to pursue HR.Me: Gave a prepared answer.OP (visibly frustrated already): What did you do as a part of the bargaining council?Me: Sir, I am not a part of the bargaining council, but as I said, as a production manager, I have seen the impact of bargaining council negotiations on the shop-floor operatives.OP: What negotiations?Me: After the implementation of pay revision for executives, the ...OP (cuts me...): Pay revision... You are from a PSU? (OP was a very senior professor and I could hardly understand a third of his sentences)Me: Yes sir. (LP reminds him the name of my company)OP: Okay, go on.Me: So the pay revision for operatives was delayed due to some administrative procedures, and the bargaining council was involved in a prolonged negotiation with the HR. The impact of this was tangible on the production floor in terms of motivation and...OP (cuts me again...): Suppose you are the only officer in the shift and a worker indulges in some misconduct. What will you do if there are no witnesses?Me: Sir I am sure if I have the information of misconduct there has to be a witness. In case I myself would have witnessed it, I would have reported it to the HR Operatives department, and there is a procedure of disciplinary enquiry to be followed. However, our premises are completely CCTV enabled so any misconduct would be in the record.OP: Full premises?Me: Sir we have two divisions. Shipbuilding and submarine. The submarine division has been enabled with CCTV, the shipbuilding division is implementing it currently.OP: Okay, what disciplinary rocedure were you talking about?Me: It involves a preliminary enquiry followed by suspension and a show cause notice. During the enquiry, the witnesses are verified...OP (cuts me again...): You are returning from office, in a local train. One of your operatives is sitting beside you. You haven't given him overtime today, and he complains and slaps you during the argument. What disciplinary action will you take?Me: Sir, this incident would have occurred outside the premises of the organisation. I am not sure of the provisions of the law, as in if any misconduct outside the company premises is under the purview of the organisation. But then, a lot of abuse also happens outside the workplace, which is a concern. (The last line was a desperate attempt to drive the conversation away from this topic to harassment at the workplace)OP (shocked): You were in production and you never handled industrial relations?!Me: No sir. It is handled by the HR Operatives department. I am responsible for achieving production targets.OP: It.....purview of the organisation... (unclear)Me (From what I understand, he's been asking for a yes or no about the given case being under the company's purview): Sir, I have not read the law and I am not aw...YP (helps me understand what OP means to say): No no, he is saying it comes under the purview of the company.Me (smiles at OP): Okay, thank you for letting me know, sir.OP: How many employees are there in your company?Me: Told.OP: Did you read anything on HR?Me: I am a regular reader of Peoplematters. Currently, I am reading the book HR Here and Now.OP: Who is the author?Me: Mr Ganesh Chella, ... Sorry sir, I am not able to recall the other two names.YP: Do you know anything about them?Me: They are HR consultants. One of them is an alumnus of TISS Mumbai, and the others are alumni of XLRI Jamshedpur (YP nods)OP: Which topic do you want to speak about, from the book, or from HR in general?Me (finally something that I can speak on): Performance Management System.OP: Good. What do you... (unclear words)...by... performance?Me: I'm sorry sir, do you want to explain what I understand by performance?OP (even more frustrated by now): No! What is Performance pay?Me: It is a pay package that is related to the performance of an employee, based on the extent to which he has achieved his targets.OP: What is the standard percentage of Performance Pay?Me: Sir, I am not aware of the standard numbers, but I know how it is calculated in my organisation.YP: Okay, tell me about the entire PMS in your company.Me: We have shifted from a yearly rating to a quarterly rating recently. The quarterly KRAs are updated and rated, and the final yearly rating is done in the month of March. The scores are then fitted into a bell curve to determine the performance-related payments. But...YP (about to cut me short...then stops): Okay continue, but?Me: I think a better way to do it would be to include a robust feedback mechanism in the PMS. This is where our HR could make a better impact. I also think that the bell curve system is not always suitable.YP: Why?Me: It force fits the entire organisation into a curve, whereas the work requirements and constraints of different projects and teams are unique. Multiple projects deal with different supply chain constraints...YP (cuts me…): No, but there must be bell curves for different levels, right?Me: Yes sir, each designation has its own bell curve, but each project has employees from multiple designations. That way, one bell curve for each designation still doesn't solve...YP (cuts me again...): I have a counter question. What if you had a bell curve for each project? Then you can deal with, no?Me: It would be better than the existing system, but after all the yearly rating system still gives room for a lot of bias. And if the bell curves are based on these ratings, there is a high possibility that the performance in the recent months will dominate over the rest of the year. To avoid this, regular performance check-ins from managers should be implemented. (YP displays no reaction at all.)YP: What business news are of aware of?Me: I have read about the impact of the new e-commerce policy clarifications on the industry.YP: Tell me about it.Me: I speak about the clarifications on inventory holding, about Amazon reducing its equity in Couldtail to 24%, and Flipkart's way of dealing with it by introducing alpha and beta retailers.YP: What is the impact on their suppliers?Me: The registrations costs have increased, but it has also created better opportunities for Indian suppliers.YP: How?Me: FDI in the retail marketplace through automatic route was 100%, but the marketplaces held inventory from firms they invested in. This reduced consumer prices and reduced the visibility of other Indian suppliers. The new regulations ensure that marketplace entities don’t hold control over the inventory. That is likely to create better opportunities for the Indian suppliers. (YP nods)LP: What do you think is unique about HR in a PSU?Me: To speak about the positives, the HR policies are driven by employee welfare and security. Equal opportunity for growth is given to women employees...OP (cuts me): How?Me: There is a certain percentage of reservation for women employees. It has also resulted in an increase in the number of female leaders in PSUs.LP: What else?Me: A major contribution by the HR of PSUs is in CSR initiatives...YP: What does HR do in CSR?Me: Apart from enabling business goals through people, HR also has the responsibility to ensure that the organisation contributes to society through CSR. (At this moment I just realise the blunder I made a while back. I recalled that PSUs do not have reservations for women. This is when the stress starts to build up.)OP: You are building defence ships. What has CSR got to do with that?Me (Reeling under the pressure): Sir, as a labour intensive public company, we employ a large portion of the labour market. It is our responsibility to give back to the communities.OP (impatiently): But what does HR do?YP: Yeah, any role for HR in CSR?Me: HR has a strategic role in selecting communities where CSR can be implemented. (I was completely blank by now, in spite of having known of excellent examples to back this vague statement.)YP: Did you yourself see HR doing anything in CSR? (raising his hand to stop me as soon as I answer)Me (smiles): Yes sir, when I volunteered for a CSR project I had to communicate my willingness to the HR department. So...YP (nods): Okay, that's it. You may leave.Me: Thank you. Have a nice day.YP: You too.I left the room, shattered. This interview was surely worse than that of the last year, especially towards the end. It might feel like a long one to a reader, but it was done in 15 minutes, which is too short for a typical TISS HRM & LR interview.Edit (20/05/2019)Verdict: Converted!

In the wisdom of fools, if it is not written, it did not happen.Many Westerners fail to understand that you can write or inscribe meaning without letters. Many of our scripts do not use letters but geometric forms like Mandombe, an alphasyllabary. In addition, many of our writing systems have not yet been studied by Westerners like wodden storied pots or proverbs covers.The Kongos had a complex graphic writing system in many forms, the oldest of which are:The "pictographic" form, which transcribes directly through the signs the sounds (verbal forms) of the language.The phonographic form: The signs have kept the same phonetic value or a value very close to the graphic form hat inspired them. Used for historical archives some of which are maintained between the museums of Tervuren, Rotterdam and the Vatican.The "logographic" / figurative form: signs are here associated with proverbs and understandable only in the context of the culture that produced them. This is the form that produces for example "proverb pot covers/lids", "initiatory vases and masks" etc.In the DRC, our ancestors produced well known epics: Lianja, Mwindo, Nkongolo, Lofokefoke, Kudukese, Mubila etc. and they tell a lot about our past history. They are all in print now. Lianja is the most famous because it was crowned during an indigenous literacy context in London in 1937.https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ahis/hd_ahis.htmSocieties throughout sub-Saharan Africa have preserved knowledge about the past through verbal, visual, and written art forms. Often, the responsibility of recording historical information was consigned to professional historians, trusted individuals whose superior wisdom and training equipped them to remember and interpret vast stores of information for the benefit of the community. In centralized states and chiefdoms, historians were often religious or political advisors who regulated royal power, supporting or checking it as necessary.Records and narratives kept by African historians are among the most informative sources for the reconstruction of precolonial history on the continent. Epics about heroic warriors and kings performed by jeliw (sing. jeli), a hereditary class of singers in the western Sudan, provide a detailed political history of this region that has been corroborated by contemporaneous Arabic texts. In Central Africa, Kuba historians have maintained royal chronologies that include references to the solar eclipse of 1680 and the 1835 sighting of Halley’s comet. These events have enabled researchers to assign approximate dates to key moments in the development of the Kuba kingdom.History as Spoken WordHistories were transmitted orally, in performance and from one generation of specialists to the next. While some narratives, such as those detailing the origins of a nation or royal lineage, were mythic in scope, others were much more prosaic and might have concerned legal codes or accounts of village or clan history. Some historical texts, especially epics, were components of greater performance traditions in which the verbal artistry of the narrator was as significant as the story itself. Performers were encouraged to manipulate their medium for the most pleasing results, although the basic story remained the same. In contrast, texts that concerned legal matters or dynastic lists, in which verbal accuracy was of paramount importance, were learned by rote so that even the original words were preserved. This practice often conserved archaic or formalized language that required interpretation by specialists, and the cryptic qualities of the texts added to their aura of importance.African historians frequently used aids to help them recall and organize the extensive amounts of information with which they were entrusted. Musical accompaniment, for instance, not only enhanced a performance but also helped to pace and structure the narrative. The kora (1975.59) and ngoni are two stringed instruments played by the Mande jeliw during their presentations of great heroic epics. Lamellophones (“thumb pianos”) also provided a musical component to historical recitations. An important work by a Chokwe master from what is today Angola or Democratic Republic of the Congo neatly demonstrates this intersection of music and historical narrative. It portrays the legendary culture hero Chibinda Ilunga playing a lamellophone (1988.157), the very instrument whose notes would have accompanied the numerous historical sagas of which he was the subject.A memory aid could also be visual, its composition evoking the structure and content of the narrative it represented. One of the most intricate of these visual memory devices was the lukasa used by the mbudye association of the Luba peoples from what is now Democratic Republic of the Congo. The mbudye association was responsible for protecting and sustaining Luba political and historical principles, which they conveyed to the rest of Luba society through performances and artworks. As its members graduated from one level of the association to the next, their knowledge became ever more profound. At its apex, members learned to read the lukasa and utilize the information it held. To the uninitiated, a lukasa appeared to be nothing more than a flat piece of wood covered with pins and brightly colored beads or, as in the example (1977.467.3) from the Museum’s collection, intricately carved human heads and incised geometric patterns. However, each board contained a wealth of information about the history of the chiefdom, genealogical records of the ruler and titleholders, medicinal practices, and information about geographic landmarks of social, political, and religious importance.Images of the PastImportant individuals were immortalized in sculptural traditions that venerated the memory of past rulers and court officials. Such portraits might have been produced during the life of the subject and preserved over time or sculpted posthumously, and were often central to the political workings of the kingdom. An eighteenth-century portrait of King Shyaam aMbul aNgoong, the great Kuba leader who a century earlier had overseen the efflorescence of Kuba courtly culture, is part of a series of royal figures called ndop meant to represent and memorialize the lineage of Kuba kings (figure of King Shyaam aMbul aNgoong, British Museum, London). Each ruler claimed this set of sculptures as part of his royal treasury and supervised the creation of his own portrait to be added to the series. The possession and display of these treasures invoked Kuba history and indicated legitimate descent from this long line of revered kings.Depictions of past events and ceremonies, or scenes from courtly life, are much less common in traditional African art. The cast-brass sculpture of Benin in present-day Nigeria is one of the few genres in which these subjects can be found, and the great volume of cast objects produced by Edo artists offer an unparalleled visual record of this African kingdom prior to the colonial encounter. Particularly informative are the brass plaques produced until the mid-eighteenth century that originally hung from the columns and rafters of the royal palace (1990.332). Although their positions of display might suggest a decorative purpose, these plaques were ultimately historical documents. Indeed, sometime in the nineteenth century they were taken down and utilized as an archive that was consulted on matters concerning courtly ritual and regalia.Written HistoryThroughout sub-Saharan Africa, dedication to traditions of scholarship and literary production has ensured that knowledge of the past has survived for hundreds of years. During the Middle Ages, major centers of religious learning arose in both East and West Africa, hastening the spread of literacy and promoting reverence for the power of the written word. Monasteries throughout Christian Ethiopia produced illuminated manuscripts of great refinement and beauty written in Ge’ez, the indigenous written language of the royal court. Literate individuals also produced autobiographical accounts and other writings of a secular nature. In the western Sudan, centers of trade such as Jenne and Timbuktu were early outposts for the spread of Islam in the region. Cities with venerable and deeply felt ties to the Muslim world, they were homes to imposing mosques and the oldest universities and libraries in sub-Saharan Africa. The library at Timbuktu has survived to the present day and counts 400-year-old volumes of poetry, manuscripts on the sciences and history, and Qur’anic texts among its holdings. Thousands of students traveled to Timbuktu to study at the university at Sankore Mosque, where they learned astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Throughout West Africa, Qur’anic schools associated with mosques still educate younger generations of scholars in Muslim philosophy and the art of calligraphy. Wood writing boards (Brooklyn Museum of Art) are used for this purpose: characters written in ink or charcoal are easily washed off, providing a fresh surface for additional exercises.Muslim scholars were also prominent recorders of history along the Swahili Coast of East Africa and on the island of Madagascar. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, scribes at the courts of both indigenous and Arab-Malagasy rulers produced royal records written in an Arabic script called sora-bé. The earliest of these documents contained mostly religious formulae, but in later decades political accounts and clan genealogies were also recorded.What lack of historical evidence are you talking about? There is historical evidence.1: Historiography and Historical Skills1: Historiography and Historical SkillsTHE WRITING OF HISTORYThe historian’s goal is not to collect the “facts” about the past but rather to acquire insights into the ideas and realities that shaped the past of lives of men and women of earlier societies. Some of the beliefs and institutions of the past may seem alien to us, others may also seem too familiar. But in either case, when we study the people of the past, what we are really learning about is the rich diversity of human experience. The study of history, however, is the study of the beliefs and desires, practices and institutions of human beings.African history is the study of the past institutions and cultures of the people who live in Africa. The economic, political and social activities of the people who had once lived in Africa are studied under African history. The following is the importance of studying African history.i. The study of history like other disciplines help some individuals to earn a living (career aspect). It serves as a source of employment for people who study the subject at a higher level.ii. The study of African history has helped in the discovery of the activities of man in far off times. Africa has been proved by researchers like Dr. Louis Leakey to be the original home of man (Homo sapiens). The study of African history would lead to more discoveries of hidden facts. It will highlight Africa’s contribution to world civilization.iii. The study of African history gives the individual the opportunity to relate his past with the present in a better way. Thus, the various stages of society’s development that has to be evaluated to understand the present situation. One will best understand the social, economic and political state of affairs of the society if they knows how things were done in the past. This gives them the key to find solutions to today’s problems.iv. African history has addressed the notion and misconception that Africa has contributed insignificantly to history and to dispel the idea of white superiority, e.g., the Hamitic hypothesis assumed that the African ‘Hamites’ were ‘whites’ akin to the European as they and their culture were inherently superior to the Black Africans and their culture, so that wherever Black Africans had apparently made a striking advance, the explanation must be sought in ‘Hamitic’ influence. Early Arab and European travelers met Africans in different cultural setting. The African has distinctive names, music and dances, political and religious settings as well as rites of passage. Because these practices did not conform to the cultural practices of the Europeans and the Arab writers, they classified Africans as primitive, backward or culturally stagnant.v. African history enables the student to develop a critical mind and appreciate the variety of human behavior and motives and understand politics, economics and society. In this respect, history in the African context can increase human tolerance and respect for differences in opinion. Knowledge of other cultures through the appreciation of history encourages students of history to engage in critical analysis of their own culture and society and to understand and criticize their own assumptions.vi. The study of African history is beneficial since it helps to acquire knowledge about African traditions, culture, norms, and values and to take pride in them and present them. One is able to perceive and recognize the meaning of events from a perspective other than our own to appreciate the diversity of human beliefs and cultures.vii. African history enables the history student to acquire knowledge of their own country and the African continent.viii. African history has a practical use in international relations and diplomacy. Its study promotes international understanding and sympathy.ix. Studying African history will enable the history student to acquire the skills and values that our past can give. African history students can be inspired by events and deeds of great people that will instill in them a sense of pride.x. A proper examination of the past can tell us a great deal about how we came to be who we are.xi. One studies African history to be able to appreciate the use of other sources in the writing and reconstruction of African history apart from written sources.xii. It enables the student to develop an accurate sense of African historical chronology.SOURCES OF AFRICAN HISTORYMost rural communities in countries such as Liberia, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, The Gambia and Ghana obtain their drinking water from streams or hand dug wells. One may describe such streams and wells as a community’s source of water supply. Similarly, historians use the term historical sources to refer to the means by which historical information is gotten. Again, by historical sources, the historian means traces that the past has left of itself in the present, in the form of document, artifacts, buildings, castles and forts, coins, institution, traditions, festivals, customs and so forth.TYPES OR SOURCES OF AFRICAN HISTORYThere are two sources for the writing of history. They are the primary and the secondary sourcesPrimary sourcesPrimary sources are materials produced by the people or groups directly involved in the event or topic under discussion, ether as participants or as witnesses. Some primary sources are written documents such as letters, diaries, newspaper and magazine articles, speeches, autobiographies, treatise, census data and marriage, birth and death registers. In addition, historians often examine primary sources that are not written. Examples are works of art, films, recordings, items of clothing, household objects, tools and archeological remains.Oral sources (interviews) and eyewitness accounts can be used as primary sources.DOCUMENTARY OR WRITTEN SOURCES OF AFRICAN HISTORYThis refers to documents or written accounts which give information about past events concerning people. Examples of documentary sources are:i. Newspapersii. Diariesiii. Travelers’ accountiv. Journalsv. Reports of commissions of enquiryvi. Manifesto partiesvii. Government official recordsviii. Minutes of meetingsix. Private lettersx. Official reports of officersxi. Court recordsxii. Booksxiii. Anniversary brochuresxiv. Tributesxv. Magazines etcIMPORTANCE OR ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN SOURCES OF AFRICAN HISTORYi. Easy To UseIt is easier to use written sources in the reconstruction of African history. This is because books or documents can often be carried from one place to another where the reader or the writer wants to use it. This cannot be done in the non-documentary sources.ii. Accurate and Reliable FactsWritten records of contemporary issues give first-hand information which is naturally more accurate and reliable. This is because dates and events are chronologically well recorded. For example minutes of meetings give exact and accurate date, and the time the meeting was held. Similarly, records written in diaries are recorded on the spot as events occur or soon after. This helped historians to know the exact dates for instance the Asante fought with the British because the wars were documented. Written sources help reduce any tendency of the historian to use guesswork in his work.iii. Effective Means of Keeping RecordsKeeping accurate records of events is very difficult especially where written sources are lacking and people rely solely on oral tradition. One can say therefore that written sources are more effective means or method of keeping records of past events.iv. Promotion of ResearchWritten sources of African history promote research work. For instance, when readers feel that there is a deficiency in a written account, they are encouraged to dig further in order to contribute to greater and more accurate knowledge about the issue.v. Help Cross-Checking InformationWritten sources help in cross-checking data or information collected from oral and other sources of historical knowledge. This help to reach reliable conclusions.vi. Provision of Detailed InformationDocuments provide more detailed information than oral sources, e.g. dates, illustrative pictures, names of participants in events etc..WEAKNESSES/DISADVANTAGES/LIMITATIONS OF WRITTEN SOURCES OF AFRICAN HISTORYi. Easily DestroyedWritten sources can easily be destroyed by termites, rodents, fire, flood, earthquakes, humidity, etc. Written records destroyed by any of these disasters cannot be retrieved unlike oral sources which can be retold. Termites and rodents may also eat away vital information in written forms.ii. Condition Biases and DistortionsAnother major limitation of written sources of history is that they may contain biases and distortions. The writer may intentionally write to suit his opinions or leave out some aspects of the events which are not to his liking. For example some books written by European writers state that slave trading is a blessing to the people of West Africa. Others have written in their books that until the coming of Europeans in West Africa, the history of West Africa was only wars and misery.iii. False InformationAgain, one of the strongest demerit of written source is, once certain materials or information have been written down, people take them to be as fact even when they are not crosschecked. Not all the information found in writing or books should be taken to be historical truth; there could be a little bit of exaggeration, bias or prejudice.iv. ExpensiveWritten materials are expensive. The writer needs materials like paper, pen, book, diary, etc to put down events. Also, before one gets written materials, they may have to make use of the other sources like archeology, linguistics etc.v. Difficult to getOnce again, written materials are hard to come by, especially in Africa where the art of writing started late. Even in Africa where they are available, they are fragmentary and far between. Since writing began very late in Africa apart from ancient Egypt, written records are generally scanty and scarce. This means that the historian has to rely more on the non-documentary sources, making the work more difficult.vi. Getting LostWritten materials can get lost, thus depriving the people the historical information if they are the only sources of information.vii. IlliteracyDocumentary sources are written materials that have been put into writing and to be able to read one needs to be literate (able to read and write). Many Africans cannot read nor write, hence rendering written sources of African history deficient in the reconstruction of African history.viii. Consult ExpertsFinally, to come out with authentic written materials, the services of experts in the other disciplines like archeology, linguistics, etc. are needed in order to interpret correctly historical events.NON DOCUMENTARY OR UNWRITTEN SOURCES OF AFRICAN HISTORYThis refers to pieces of information about past events collected from sources of history other than books and other written materials. This explains why this section refers to unwritten sources. Examples of non-documentary sources are Archaeology, Oral Tradition, Linguistic, Ethnography, Art forms/History, Ethnobotany, Ethnozoology, Ethnomusicology, Numismatics, and Serology.ORAL TRADITION AS A SOURCE OF AFRICAN HISTORYOral tradition refers to accounts of the traditions about the past passed from generation to generation by word of mouth or other methods. It is usually passed on in the form of a story, legend, song, myth, folk tales, customs or other forms of music. There are two forms of oral traditions:1. The Fixed Text Type2. Free Text TypeThe fixed text type of oral traditions have an unchanging format and content and have to be memorized and passed on from generation to generation. Example of ‘fixed text’ type are words of folk music, praise songs, drum music and horn music.An example of drum music is the Mpintin drums of Denkyira which recall the past hegemony and wealth of that state in two terse lines: ‘kotoko som amponsem’ (the porcupine i.e. Asante serves Amponsem-the king of Denkyira) and ‘Boa Amponsem a odi sika atomprada’ (King Boa Amponsem who uses fresh gold all the time).Similarly, Abuakwa horn music immortalize the valour of Abuakwa’s Queen Dokuaa at the Akatamanso (1826) they sing ‘Dokua obaa basia a oko oprem ano’ (Dokua the valiant woman who fought before canon).The free-text type consists of accounts of events usually stool (dynastic) histories and family or village traditions. For example some court officials can memorize some aspects of the state history and can tell others when necessary. Some court officials include the linguist (okyeame), court heralds (esen) and executioners (abrafo) in the Akan states. Also, in Mali the (griot) and Togo (evne) played similar roles.MERITS/ADVANTAGES/BENEFITS OF ORAL TRADITION AS A SOURCE OF AFRICAN HISTORYi. Easily AccessibleOral tradition is easily accessible in the sense that, gathering information by the historian does not involve much work. In every community, town or village in Africa, one can get some elders who are ready to give the traditions and historical events in the area. The historian in one way or the other, only need to contact knowledgeable informants and respondents for the necessary information needed.ii. Main Source of HistoryIn the absence of other sources, oral tradition becomes one of the sole sources of writing history. In a situation where there are no written records or other pieces of information like personal diaries, minutes of meetings, journals etc. the historian often relies to a large extent on the information provided by oral tradition to compile his findings.iii. Helps Other SourcesOral tradition as a source of African history has helped to confirm historical facts from other sources. For example, it helps the archeologist to confirm their findings thus throwing more light on the findings of the history of a place. Again, the archaeologist would have to be directed by a story from the local people before he goes to excavate the site. Therefore, without oral tradition, the archaeologist’s work become difficult.iv. Historical Trends and EventsOral tradition helps the historian to determine historical trends and events. Through the comparison of several oral traditions, the historian can eliminate biases, inconsistencies or inaccuracies in the written records they are using, to come out with an accurate historical account of the past.v. Interpretation of Archeological FindingsOral tradition has also helped in the interpretation of archeological data dug from the soil. This is necessary because the artefacts found are both anonymous and fragmentary. For instance, if an archaeologist unearthed human skeletons with lost limbs apparently severed by sharp-edged materials, they may deduce that the excavated site was a mass grave where people who died after an armed conflict were buried. They may not conclude with that, but rather validate their evidence by embarking upon personal enquiry, interviewing target groups in the area. If they are lucky, they would have pieces of information about events similar to what they have speculated.vi. Preservation of HistoryOral tradition has done a lot to assist with the reconstruction of African history, this is because Africans have relied on oral traditions to preserve their history for centuries. It is again, the only living source of historical reconstruction because it gives room for further questioning and analysis of the information given to ensure its validity or truthfulness.DEMERITS/DISADVANTAGES/LIMITATIONS/WEAKNESSES/DEFECTS OF ORAL TRADITION AS A SOURCE OF AFRICAN HISTORYi. Not Precise in DetailIn the first instance, oral tradition is not precise in detail. The narrator may give information in a long clumsy way without any specific point. Important aspect of events and their sequences are forgotten as the informants advance in age. As these stories are retold to subsequent generations, they are filled with misrepresentation of facts.ii. ExaggerationsOral tradition is full of exaggeration, biases and prejudices. The narrator might add irrelevant information or might leave out information which does not suit his interest. Narrators normally leave out these aspects of the story consciously or unconsciously leading to one-sided information that cannot serve as a sound basis for historical writing.iii. Inaccurate FiguresMoreover, oral tradition cannot be dated with certainty. The narrator might forget part of the events or important dates. People tend to lose track of events through no fault of theirs and therefore forget the actual date and time that a particular event took place. For instance, situations where an event occurs frequently, it brings confusion in terms of specifics since the narrator does a lot of guesswork.iv. Death of InformantsAnother shortfall of oral tradition is that, death or calamity affecting people can result in the loss of important aspect of oral tradition since only the living can tell it and not the dead. To top it up, if people were afflicted by a calamity leading to the loss of lives including the key informants, then the information of the affected area would be lost forever.v. Mixing Up FactsFurthermore in using oral tradition as the main source of reconstruction of African history, details and sequences of events might be forgotten with the passage of time since the human mind keeps the history, one might forget some important points as years pass by.vi. Difficult to Cross-CheckIndeed cross-checking becomes difficult in oral tradition if the narrator is the only source of information. It is a fact that oral tradition is most likely to contain inaccuracies and failures to collaborate the information gathered from other source might produce shoddy work hence the need to cross-check and test events.vii. Emphasis On Personalities And EventsOral tradition tends to lay more emphasis on personalities like kings, rulers and leaders as well as events like wars and migration to the neglect of social and economic aspects of people’s history, thus making the historical approach somewhat narrow, to the disadvantages of scholarship and posterity.viii. Oral traditionists are men, and thus there is a gendered bias in what is recalled, and the way it is recalled, which may diminish the role women have played in the African past.ARCHAEOLOGY AS A SOURCE OF AFRICAN HISTORYArchaeology is the study of a people’s culture of years past through excavation and examination of material remains that are found. It is the understanding of human actions in the past through a study of what they did rather than what they said of themselves. Again, archaeology provides information about how societies adapted their ways of life to suit their natural environment or how they modified their environment to suit their way of life. Archaeological information is obtained through the excavation or digging of specially chosen sites.In Europe, archaeology has been a useful source of historical evidence since the 19th century AD whereas in Africa, it has been helpful in the reconstruction of the past since the second half of the 20th century.The archaeologist uses radio-carbon dating (carbon-14 dating) to determine the age of artefacts. The use of this technique to examine running of houses tools and weapons etc. has contributed immensely towards the reconstruction of African history. Among the evidences are the famous Ife works of art in bronze and pottery, which came to the notice of the world through archeological excavations in 1910. Secondly, excavated sites at Igbo Ukwu in the south of Enugu-Nigeria has shown that a highly advanced society existed in that part of Nigeria in the 10th century AD. Thirdly, in the Brong-Ahafo region of modern Ghana, excavation conducted at Begho provided evidence of copper and iron industries. However there are many important sites in West Africa such as Kantora on the Upper Gambia river and Kansala – capital of the Kaabu empire in north-eastern Guinea-Bissau – which still require excavation.BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES/MERITS/STRENGTHS OF ARCHAEOLOGYi. Existence of Civilization Long AgoArchaeological information shows that African societies attained high levels of civilization and development in pre European time. Example is the site excavated at Igbo Ukwu and Ife in Nigeria which have revealed highly advanced societies where bronze and pottery technology were practiced.ii. Trade ContactsArcheology helps to reveal the kind of trade contacts that existed among people in the past. A good example is that of the excavations carried out at Begho in the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana, which showed that long before the arrival of the Europeans, Africans were in contact with China, Indonesia, Arabia and Phoenicia, since porcelain, coins, pipes and bottles from these areas were found.iii. Revelation of CultureThrough the studies of archaeology we get an idea about the political organization of people, their religious/traditional beliefs and economic activities etc. These come to light when archaeologists excavate materials which experts examine and relate them. For instance, if a chief’s linguist staff is found after excavations one may relate it to religious/traditional belief or authority.iv. Ancient ToolsArcheology also provides information about the way different people have adapted to their environment e.g. by revealing the tools they made for various purposes.v. Make Other Sources ClearArcheologists help to confirm what can be known from other sources e.g. Oral Traditionvi. Main sources of Pre-HistoryArchaeology has helped historians to write history of pre-historic times. Since writing began late in most parts of the continent, archeology has become the main source of information for the reconstruction of African history of the distant past.vii. How Ancient people livedArcheologists have revealed in their studies what our ancestors did and so help to provide useful evidence for writing about. Through archeology, the material culture of people in the past becomes known. It is only to excavations that we go to know the kind of building people built and the occupation they engaged in. For example, the ruins in Zimbabwe, Kumbi-Saleh (empire of Ghāna) and the pyramids in Egypt.viii. Origin of HumanityArcheological studies have shown that human beings originated from Africa. From this source, it has been proved that Africa was the first home of man (Homo sapiens). This has been proved by the fossils discovered by Dr. and Mrs. Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in the Northern Tanzania.ix. Dates of EventsArcheological studies help us to date event e.g. the use of carbon-14 dating or radio carbon dating.x. Reliable SourceIt has been a reliable source of history since artifacts could be seen and felt.DEMERITS/DISADVANTAGES/LIMITATIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGYi. Guess workIn archaeology, one is bound to use much guess work in the reconstruction of the past, thus leading to inaccurate information. Also, the use of radio-carbon dating always approximate dates. Artifacts found are anonymous and lack the sequence of daily life. Makers and users of such artifacts are usually not known. This makes the archeologist do guesswork.ii. Very ExpensiveThe use of archaeology as a source of writing African history is expensive. It is expensive considering high cost of labour excavating machines, finding the selected site, getting permit, laboratory expenses, and special tools among others. The use of the radio carbon dating (carbon 14) in determining the age of an archaeological find is very complex and expensive.iii. Nature of the Climate/Climate ConditionThe nature of the tropical climate in Africa makes it difficult for archeological findings (material remains) to be preserved in the soil. The tropical rainforest has high temperature and rainfall which promotes decay of fossil remains as well as chemical weathering. These conditions facilitate fossil decay and weathering of rocks leaving little or no traces of rock paintings or carvings which are very useful sources of information to historians in their attempt to reconstruct the African past.iv. Accidental preservationOne major limitation of archeology is that the means by which information is preserved is not deliberate, so most of the findings discovered through excavations are accidental. With this we have the intuition of acquiring some knowledge, but would first at the same time be ‘gambling’.v. View not comprehensiveArchaeological finding is unable to provide a comprehensive view and analysis of the past because it does not tell about the ideological and sociological aspects of life. All these factors limit the scope of information available to the historian.vi. Spotty informationThe information derived from archeology is often spotty because the information is usually got depending on materials found.vii. Difficult to interpretArcheology unfortunately needs knowledge of many disciplines to interpret information. For example, chemistry, botany, geology, art, history etc. That is, it is not easy to get one person with knowledge on such disciplines thus making interpretation a difficult task.viii. Depend on other sourcesArcheology rely on information given by oral tradition and written sources. The archeologists in most cases have to receive information about a site or read from a book about a site before excavations can take place. Without receiving information from the local people about a site of ruins, writing African history becomes difficult since the archeologist may be handicapped.LINGUSITICS AS A SOURCE OF WRITING AFRICAN HISTORYLinguistics is the scientific study of the origin, structure and changes of a language that occur in the languages over a period of time. Languages do change in vocabulary and grammar over periods of time. Such changes can tell the historian about the adoption of new ideas by people. Some languages, when studied closely relate to the other (Ga and Adangbe; Wali and Dagari; Ewe and Fon; Fante and Bono; and Dagomba and Mossi etc.). One could project that those languages may have developed from one single parent language. The comparative study of such related languages can provide useful information.MERITS/ADVANTAGES OF LINGUISTICSLinguistics study has several advantages and importance in the reconstruction of African history.i. Origin of ethnic groupLinguistics helps us to trace the origin of people and peopling of places e.g. Ewe, Akan, Bantu etc. Studies conducted by one linguist J.H.Greenberg into the origin of the Bantu and other West African languages have helped to arrive at the conclusion that the then Bantu speakers dispersed throughout the eastern and southern Africa originate from the Nigerian-Cameroon border region.ii. Confirmation of OriginLinguistic studies can help confirm or question stories of origin e.g. Ewe as against Ga stories of origin from east of Ghana. In reconstructing Africa’s history, linguistics has confirmed the established facts that Ewes once stayed with the Yoruba at Ketu, Benin and Togo before settling in Ghana. This can be found in the language of Ewe speakers in the West African countries.iii. Identification of ethnic groupsLinguistics helps in identifying people into ethnic groups e.g. Ewe, Akan, Ga-Adange etc. indeed language plays very key role in identifying a group of people. For instance, it is the Ewe people that speak the Ewe language; also Twi is spoken by the Asantes.iv. Borrowing of wordsLinguistics again helps to throw light on the relationships that have existed between peoples e.g. existence of common words would point to exchanges between people otherwise not related. Also, a good example is the Akan words for political and other affairs in the Ga language, and words of Mande origin in Twi and other West African languages. Foreign influenceFurthermore, linguistics enlightens us on the influences that have come to people from outside, e.g. the existence of Portuguese words in Ghanaian languages like paano (bread), bokiti (bucket), asopatre (slippers), krataa (paper) and prete (plate).vi. New ideasLinguistics helps us to show the adoption of new ideas by people with changes in vocabulary and grammar. The changes that occur in languages can be studied to tell whether there has been an adoption of new ideas and general historical developments. Example, Akan words in Ga language like ‘anokwaley’, ‘abotaley’ etc.vii. Emergence from the same sourceLinguistic studies of the Bantu and West African languages have established that the ancestors of modern Bantu speakers originated from the Nigeria-Cameroon border area. The study of related languages may show that they emerged from the same source, probably a proto-language called ‘Kwa’.viii. Related languagesThrough the study of linguistics, historians can establish whether speakers of closely-related languages have a common root e.g. Ga and Adangbe,Wali and Dagari; Ewe and Fon; Fante and Bono; and Dagomba and Mossi. Professor Abena Dolphyne of the University of Ghana has studied Akan languages of the Asante, Fante and Bono. She concluded that the Bono language is more related to the Fante language than any of the two of the Asante language. This is confirmed by the oral tradition of the Fante that they stayed aTakyiman before moving to their present home.DEMERTIS/LIMITATIONS OF LINGUISTICSi. Difficult to studyIt is difficult to study and analyze a particular language if the researcher does not have fore knowledge about it. Linguistics is such a complex study that there is very little unanimity or agreement among even the linguists themselves on their conclusions.ii. Changes may not helpLinguistics cannot clearly point out changes in language over a period of time. This can lead to misrepresentation, loss or distortion of reality in history, thus making it very difficult to know the true origins or events needed by the writer.iii. Less developed in AfricaLinguistics fell short in reconstruction of African history, because as a discipline it is less developed in Africa. Hence, it does not contribute very much like other sources in the writing of African history.That notwithstanding, in recent times, linguists in USA and elsewhere are researching on African history.iv. Rely on other sourcesLinguistics in most cases, the historian has to largely rely on the other sources for validation and collaboration of information obtained.v. Coincidence in word usageSome conclusions drawn by linguists based on words similarities may be sheer coincidence. In such cases, finding conclusive evidence remains difficult.ETHNOGRAPHY/ETHNOLOGY AS A SOURCE OF AFRICAN HISTORYEthnography is the study of present-day social institutions as well as the crafts and artistic skills of people. Example is the collaboration of festivals, the process of making pottery, beads, weaving, construction etc.ADVANTAGES/IMPORTANCE OF ETHNOGRAPHYi. Understand the Present Day TechnologyThe conclusions drawn from the study and examination of these institutions and artefacts in examination of these institutions and artefacts in their present form help towards fully understanding and explain the past’s influence on the formation of present skills/techniques.ii. Understand the PastThe conclusions drawn from the study and examination of these institutions and artefacts in examination of these institutions and artefacts in their present form help to fully understand and explain the past.iii. Study FestivalsEthnography provides a useful opportunity to study Africa rituals and festivals which are mainly re-enactment of historical event (for example, the performance of the warriors during the Egungun festival of the Yoruba). Also, if the performance by the Alaketu (ruler of Ketu) during his installation demonstrate a play-back of the experiences of the first Alaketu in establishing Ketu state. Similarly, among the Ewes the Hogbetsotso festival is celebrated annually to commemorate their exodus and liberation from the tyrannical rule of Togbui Agorkoli I of Notsie.DEMERITS OF ETHNOGRAPHYi. Not easy to get meaningsOne of the defects of ethnography is the study of present day social institution does not give the exact meanings to some traditional practices. The fast modernization and westernization of our traditional values may have swept away some important aspect of our cultural heritage.ii. Tracing ancestryAfricans are able through ethnography to trace their ancestry or record some important events like Homowo, Hogbetsotso, Egungun festival.iii. Influence of religionsIntroduction of Christianity and Islam into African traditional society have slighted concentration in the celebration of traditional festivals and rites. Instead, there is more celebration of Christmas, Easter, Eid-il-fitr among othersNUMISMATICS AS A SOURCE OF AFRICAN HISTORYNumismatics is the study of coins. This study helps us to know where the coins were minted and found.i. Advanced economyNumismatics studies has proved that Africans had an advanced economy in minting of coins. Numismatics throws light on trade contacts between people. For an example the discovery of 240 coins at Kilwa on the East African Coast show that from the 13th century AD, the sultans of Kilwa had their own mint.ii. Accurate dateNumismatic gives accurate dates, names, places and events. For example the king list of Kilwa came to light when the 240 coins were discovered. It showed the sultans of the Swahili Coast.iii. ReliableDiscovered coins can be seen, felt or touched, makes history live, or more interesting or reliable.iv. High level of civilizationNumismatics shows the level of civilization to the people using coins. For instance, by the 13th century AD, the Sultans of the East African Coast had their own mint of coins for producing their coins for trade and other purposes. Also, gold weights represented the means of determining quantities of gold in Akan society where gold dust was the normal currency. The value of gold to be used in a money transaction was assessed by weights.v. Political dominanceNumismatics shows the political dominance in societies using coins. During the colonial rule, Ghana’s currency had the figure and name of the British crown.vi. Preservation for longer periods.Numismatics unlike the other artifacts, a coin can be preserved for a relatively longer period.vii. Trade linksThrough the activities of numismatics, it is known that as far back as the 9th and 10th centuries AD, the people of East Africa and China had established trading links.DEMERITS OF NUMISMATICSi. Gives limited informationNumismatics gives limited information in the story it tells. It may only identify a ruling class in the society engaged in trading activity who used the coin. This makes numismatics handicapped in tracing the other aspects of cultural lives of the user societies.ii. Rely on other sourcesWithout the consultation of other sources like archeology and oral tradition, numismatics may somehow be impotent in revealing the entire cultural history of a society. This is also because not all pre-historic societies minted and used coins.ETHNOBOTANY AND ETHNOZOOLOGY AS A SOURCE OF AFRICAN HISTORYEthnobotany is the scientific study of ancient remains of plants which are termed flora. Ethnozoology is the scientific study of animal remains from the past which are called fauna. These studies help to trace the origins of plants and the animals our ancestors fed on and exploited in the past. It is through such studies that crops are classified as indigenous and non-indigenous.ADVANTAGES OF ETHNOBOTANY AND ETHNOZOOLOGYi. Advance in AgricultureThrough the study of ethnobotany, it has been established that, Africans were advanced in agriculture. For example ethnobotany has revealed that, the (Dahomey Gap) in modern Benin in West African coastal forest belt is the cradle of yam cultivation. Also animals like West African dwarf goat, pigs, cattle, dogs, cats and guinea fowl are all indigenous to Africa.ii. Contacts of peopleEthnobotany shows the interrelationships or contacts among peoples and the presence of some crops and fruits like guava, tangerine, mango, avocado pear and pineapple are known to have European origins. It has been observed that, the Bantu had for a long time relied on banana as a food source and therefore it has been suggested that the spread of banana to other parts of Africa had depended to a large extent on the migration of the Bantu.iii. Determines settlement of peopleEthnobotany and ethnozoology help to locate settlement of people. Certain plants and animals determine settlement of people since generation after generation has used them as staple foods and diets.iv. Dating eventsThe study of ethnobotany and ethnozoology has helped in dating events in the society.v. Tree-ring datingEthnobotany has helped historians through the use of tree-ring dating method. It is the method used to date pieces of wood that are found in excavations to determine the ages of their use.DEMERITS OF ETHNOBOTANY AND ETHNOZOOLOGYi. Inaccuracy in predictionThe information about crop and animals being indigenous or non-indigenous may not be accurate. This is because weather and climatic conditions as well as the duration of the crop in a particular area might be so long that there is the likelihood of inaccurate prediction.ii. GeneralizationsA remarkable problem associated with ethnobotany is generalization. For instance it is established that Tetteh Quarshie brought cocoa to Ghana from Fernando Po but another source have it that the Basel missionaries brought cocoa from Surinam before Tetteh Quarshie. It will be incorrect to generalize that cocoa came to Ghana from Fernando Po or Surinam because the climatic condition in these places are the same.iii. Depend on the Other SourcesEthnobotanist must work in conjunction with other sources of writing African history before they can establish the validity or otherwise of their find. Without this inter-disciplinary approach, ethnobotany will be impotent.ETHNOMUSICOLOGY AS A SOURCE OF AFRICAN HISTORYEthnomusicology is the scientific study of music (musicology) which focuses on the study of music forms in their cultural perspective. It deals with the role of music in the cultural history of a group of people, and how the formal structures of music evolve in different historical contexts.i. Confirmation of EventsEthnomusicology confirms and supports events of history. Most folk songs and ancient musical forms usually make reference to important socio-economic events and political events in the life of the people who composed and sang them. E.g. the Asafo songs of the Fante make references to the exploits of their three warlords which included, Obunumakoma, Odapagyan and Oson. Also, the Akyem Abuakwa’s warrior Queenmother Dokuah’s role in the courageous woman who fights with the gun. This describes Dokuah’s contribution to the Akyem Abuakwa state. Similarly, in Mande peoples, the epic of Sunjata Keita recounts the formation of the empire of Mali.ii. Storehouse of InformationIt is also a storehouse of historical information in the form of drums, horn, music, dirges and praise songs. For instance, during the Damba festival of the Dagombas, they play drums that give messages about Toharjie-the great warrior who led them to their present settlements. Drums are one of the Africa’s great living books.iii. Changes Occur In MusicThe study of the changes that occur in people’s musical forms over a period of time is also another source of history, for example, a study of the religious songs of the Ga has revealed that the music as well as the song belongs to an older and different ethnic group. This supports the claim of Guan oral tradition that they occupied the highlands of the Ga state prior to the arrival of the Ga. Moreover the change in African musical instruments in the New World has given much information about diaspora history.DEMERITS OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGYi. Lyrics authenticityOne major defects of ethnomusicology is the authenticity of the text or lyrics the song conveyed.ii. Difficult to trace the origins of songsAnother shortfall of ethnomusicology is that there is no African culture ever developed a notational system for its organization of culturally defined musical sound. This implies there is little hope in hearing African music with any accuracy of tracing the actual sound of music to any substantial time-depth.ARTS FORMS/ARTS HISTORY AS A FORM OF AFRICAN HISTORY.Art history is the study of art forms such as engravings, paintings, carvings and sculpture on stone surface, tombs, slabs or walls of caves, palaces and shrines.ADVANTAGES OF ART HISTORYi. Activities of human beingsArts forms or history helps to discover the economic activities, religious beliefs, culture and political power a group of people had in the past. For instance, the art works found in the Tassili Caves suggest that the dry areas of North Africa might not have been as dry in the past as they are today.ii. Eating HabitsPaintings of food crops found in the tombs in the Sahara give impressions that the early inhabitants of these region might have relied on grains as food source. This helps historians to know and determine the eating habits and occupations of the early inhabitants of the Saharan regions.iii. Life in the SaharaAnother painting found in the rocks of the Sahara might have shown that the Sahara had at a point in time harbored aquatic animals. This has given the impression that the Sahara has always not being as dry as it is today.DEMERITS OF ARTS HISTORYi. Difficult to getRock paintings which are peculiar to art forms are not common on the African continent especially in sub-Saharan Africa. This is due to the fact that painting was restricted to perishable surfaces such as textiles, wood, house walls among other therefore could not survive the high humid climatic conditions of the environment.ii. Depend on other sourcesThe art historian encounters the problem of dating their artistic find. For that matter they resorts to the archeologist in dating things such pre-historic art.SEROLOGY AS A SOURCE OF AFRICAN HISTORYSerology is the branch of medicine concerned with the study of blood types. It deals with the blood serum components that protect the blood against diseases.ADVANTAGES OF SEROLOGYi. Human blood varies in composition from one person to another in the sense that some genes present in some people in some people are absent in others. For that matter people can be categorized according to their blood groups. It is therefore possible that adequate knowledge of a predominant blood type in another area or region should be able to establish some kind of hypothesis that the people of region A must have formed part of region B.ii. Belonging to a sourceStudies in the frequency of the sickle cell should be able to give the clue that, people belong to a particular source. A very good example of how the studies in the frequency in sickle cell can help historical research could be found in Windward Coast in Liberia. In this region, the Kru people are almost devoid of the sickle cell trait. Yet it is very common among the neighboring people. This confirms the fact that the Kru has been a close community who did not intermarry with their neighbors.METHODS USED IN GATHERING/COLLECTING INFORMATION FOR THE WRITING OF AFRICAN HISTORYTo collect data for the reconstruction of African history, the historian must not rely solely on written sources or non-documentary sources but rather the following methods must be employed to check biases, prejudices and exaggerations.i. Personal enquiry and interviewOne method of gathering information from non-documentary sources of African history is interviewing of knowledgeable persons about the culture of a particular community. This is to say that the historian must interview people about the information of the past such as eye-witnesses or traditional historians like court linguists, older court officials and the elderly. The historian can record these interviews and later play, write out and analyze the information given.ii. Inter-disciplinary approachAnother method of gathering information about African history is the interdisciplinary approach. Cooperation with scholars in other fields of knowledge gives information for African history. The historian has to cooperate with specialists like the linguists, archeologists, botanists, ethnographers among others to obtain materials that can be used to reconstruct African history. The researcher works together with these scholars to gather important information to draw valid conclusions.ReviewingIn writing African history, one can use the review method to get information by reviewing the written sources such as books, newspapers, journals, broadcasts, diaries, manifestoes, and private letters among others, by reviewing the research through written sources both primary and secondary for information which they examine and cross-check. Even though these written records have shortcomings and inadequacies, they can be reviewed by the historian to ensure an accurate reflection of the past. This helps to produce unbiased history which is backed by evidence.QuestionnaireTo get the best results of collecting data for writing African history, a carefully composed questionnaire should be used which must cover the political, economic, social, religious and technological aspects. In this situation, a series of well-structured questions are given out to persons who know about the past to solicit for information. The responses to these questions are gathered and analyzed by the historian in order to draw a reasonable conclusion.Personal Observation and RecordsThrough personal observation by visiting places of historical importance like slave sites, castles, forts etc. and personally recording events like festivals, funerals and the like, important findings can result in the collection of data for writing African history. Such details are necessary since they constitute first-hand information as the events happened before their own eyes i.e. eye witness account. Such accounts can be compared and questions are asked on them to get a reliable view of what actually happened in the past.Reliability of the sources for the study of African historyDespite the fact that written and unwritten sources of African history have shortfalls, we can still describe them as adequately reliable, since the work of a historian is based on historical methods where they use scientific methods in drawing conclusions. Written records of history have a high level of precision and very reliable. All the documentary sources e.g. newspapers, personal letters, diaries, journals, manifestoes etc. can be reviewed and cross checked for a fair assessment of the past. This process helps to get rid of prejudices, biases to ensure truthfulness. By putting written records side by side with other forms of evidence, the historian can establish an objective conclusion.The reliability of unwritten sources of history cannot be underestimated since they all involve scientific methods in carrying out researches. For instance, the Ghanaian linguist, Professor Abena Dolphyne undertook a research on the Bono, Asante and Fante people and arrived at an important conclusion. She found out that the Asante language is less related to the Fante. Also, archeology which is our main source of information on African history uses scientific methods like reconnaissance, stratification, radiocarbon and potassium argon dating methods and data analysis. These methods help archeologists to come to accurate and reliable conclusions significant for historical writing. Reconnaissance involves the process of discovering sites and plotting them for digging.However, archeology as a non-documentary source of African history has some flaws. It is an unfortunate fact that there is no conscious system of preserving archeological knowledge. For that matter what archaeologists come across may be an accidental preservation. In this case, one goes into archeological excavation with the idea of acquiring some knowledge but relying on chance if not luck. Again, archaeological remains are subjected to wear and tear, weathering, and disfigurement and therefore are likely to present difficulty in the historians’ attempt to derive very reliable information from them. The process of radio-carbon dating is very expensive and that constitutes a hindrance to effective research.Moreover, oral tradition is full of exaggeration on establishment of information to suit the narrator’s interest. Many a time, they tend to present history in a way that would not only exclude portions that do not meet their interest but worse of all, it might not be able to give specific details due to genuine loss in memory. Again, oral tradition tends to put so much emphasis on personalities and events like wars, whilst playing down on social and economic aspects of the past With this, information becomes very scanty to the disadvantage of scholarship and posterity.In conclusion, we can deduce that both documentary and non-documentary evidence must be used to complement each other in the writing of African history. Since both are the work of human beings, one cannot be more reliable than the other since people tend to be subjective, biased and impressionistic.Samuel Adu-Gyamfi And Benjamin Kye Ampadu