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In September 1774 a meeting was held in Philadelphia that was attended tended by representatives of every colony save Georgia, which was dealing with a serious Indian uprising at the time. This First Continental Congress adopted a formal agreement known as the Continental Association. Its chief provisions revolved about a renewed boycott of British goods, but it also promoted the expansion of local militia units and quickly evolved into a structure for armed resistance that would provide a nucleus for the Continental Army.Throughout the Revolutionary War, the armed forces of the United States “Army” would retain components from among the militia, the provincial (state) forces, and the Continental regulars.Most of the colonies had formal provincial units, recruited into regiments, paid by the colony, and established to replace the less formal militia units in major operations. By 1775, provincial forces had become permanent organizations with their own cadre of officers and a fixed chain of command. During the Revolution these provincial forces slowly evolved into state troops and the officers were numbered prominently among those given authority by Congress. However, the changing, patchwork organization of the patriot army, with its overlapping chains of command, competing systems of supply, and confusing terms of enlistment, posed severe problems for the patriots throughout the war.In that same September 1774, British General Gage sent a force by way of Boston neck to secure the king's munitions on the mainland in Charlestown and Cambridge. False word of supposed violence spread all over Massachusetts and to Israel Putnam in nearby Connecticut. In charge of the regional militia, Putnam left his plowing like the legendary Cincinnatus of Rome, placed half the colony under arms, and began to march to the aid of Boston.All along were armed men rushing forward-some on foot, some on horseback. At every house, women and children making cartridges, running [molding] bullets, lets, making wallets [linen traveling bags], baking biscuits, crying and bemoaning and at the same time animating their husbands and sons to fight for their liberties, though not knowing whether they would ever see them again.By the next day more than 4000 armed colonials assembled in Cambridge, where they seized all the remaining cannon. Two days later an amazing 6000 massed in Worcester. One of Gage's officers estimated that the colonials would muster as many as 30,000 armed men if given the time. With fewer than 3000 British regulars, Gage had no hope of opposing such a number, and he shut himself up in Boston.The powder alarm had far-reaching effects that pointed to a stiffening of American attitudes and a willingness to provide a military response if pressed by the regulars. Shocked by Gage's move to seize their weapon and munitions, and a similar operation by Governor Dunmore in Williamsburg, Virginia, the provincial council in Concord immediately set up a system of alarm riders to raise the "minutemen" units of the local militias. The minutemen were elite members of the local militia companies who were designated for a period of time to respond to an alarm at a minute's notice. This designation revolved through the members of the local company, with about one-quarter of their number pledged to have their guns, ammunition, and a few days rations close at hand.On the morning of April 19, 1775, the war began.The initial encounters between patriots and regulars cemented several false impressions in the minds of both that affected the prosecution of the war thereafter. The first was that militia would turn out in the tens of thousands to defeat regulars who attempted incursions into the interior. Certainly this was true of the battles at Lexington and Concord, but the actual number organized to fight the British in Boston is hard to determine. Nonetheless, the British army in America at the time was certainly not equipped to deal with an uprising of this size without considerable reinforcement.The second impression was that Americans would stand before trained troops only if they remained within their fortifications and the regulars attempted repeated frontal assaults. The reality was that it was virtually impossible for ill-disciplined and poorly supplied part-time soldiers to defeat a professional army in the open field. The militia were barely capable of maintaining a decent line of fire, and found it impossible to make complicated maneuvers like obliques and flanking movements. That British generals chose to make repeated frontal assaults on patriot positions is an indication of the low regard in which they held Americans as military opponents.The third impression left by the early encounters between the militia and the regulars was that the colonials would not stand before a determined mined bayonet charge. This impression was first created at Breed's Hill, where the militia broke before the third advance of the regulars. The idea was reinforced in the summer of 1776 at the battle of Long Island when the Americans fled from their forward positions and stopped their retreat only when they reached the safety of their entrenchments.For most Englishmen and Americans, "the most noxious tool of impending pending tyranny" was a standing army. Throughout British history, standing armies had brought increased levels of taxation, repression, or civil strife. By comparison, reliance on a militia for defense was considered a sign of a healthy and vigorous society in which citizens took on the responsibilities of actively safeguarding "property, liberty, and life itself. "In America, independent companies of riflemen and rangers patrolled the backwoods areas of the colonies, but a well-trained militia provided the most practical solution to the defense needs of most settlements. There remains the cherished romantic concept of the militia as a mythical army of self-trained and self-armed warriors springing from the colonial soil in times of trouble. This picture hardly aligns with the facts. The colonial militia system was a carefully constituted organization, established in all the colonies by the middle of the century, and tested in the French and Indian Wars. While less than adequate to substitute for a regular army, the militia was able to defend the settlements, drive back the Indians, and hold open the newly abandoned lands for European acquisition.Such a force might have served before Lexington and Concord, but after 1775 the Revolution changed from a popular uprising into a very real war. The reality of continuing to rely on the militia for the prosecution of a political and social revolution quickly proved a disastrous illusion.The heart of the militia was the local company. Company strengths from province to province varied from 70 to 200 men. The companies were in some measure bound by kinship ties, but it was mostly neighbors who served in the same unit. Local command was invested in a captain, subalterns, and sergeants. The officers were usually elected by the men-a facet of the patriot army that seemingly frustrated many professional army officers. The overall command structure and the level of authority of individual militia leaders generally lacked clear definition, but their authority came from the provincial congress.Traditionally the militia was prohibited from serving for long periods far from home or outside the colony, and the men remained reluctant to leave their homes in time of danger to fight in other localities. These characteristics of the militia caused great difficulties for Congress when it attempted to establish the authority of the Continental Army.George Washington actually commanded three different army organizations during his tenure as commander in chief. The first was the Army of Observation, composed of the militia companies that besieged the British in Boston. The second was the Army of the United Colonies with its one year enlistments, which was soundly defeated by the British in New York in 1776. Its remnants, pursued through New Jersey, were nonetheless less able to rout the Hessians at Trenton and the British regulars at Princeton. Finally there was the Continental Army established by the Congress in 1777, with its better organized departments, means of transportation, and ancillary units.January 1783 usually marks the end of the American Revolution, but the Continental Army that had won America’s independence did not immediately stand down. A great fear shared by Americans at the end of the Revolution was that the army, its officers, or even George Washington might fail to cede control of the young nation to civil authorities once they had crafted a government. Would it be possible for the delegates in Congress in Philadelphia to invest sufficient military power in a national government to defend against enemies (foreign and domestic) and insure civil stability without transforming the United States into an oppressive regime?The issue of the military — one of the first decisive questions faced by US lawmakers — was fundamental to the question of state versus federal sovereignty, and it had a direct impact on every citizen and their civil liberties. The crux of the problem, as envisioned by the delegates to congress, was to properly apportion the power of the central government with that of the states and the people.The nationalists (a.k.a. federalists) in congress believed that the strength of the nation lay in a strong central government and a regular military composed of an ocean-going navy and a powerful standing army. The anti-nationalists (a.k.a. anti-federalists) wanted to continue the loose confederation of independent states from the revolution and wished to rely for the nation’s defense on a gunboat/privateer navy and a traditional militia — a virtual navy and army of armed fishermen and farmers.The disturbing events involving the military and civilian aspects of government under the Articles of Confederation generally overshadowed congressional deliberations regarding Alexander Hamilton’s proposed plan for a postwar military in May 1783 called the Military Peace Establishment. This proposal for a military organization composed of “a few troops” predated the adoption of the Constitution. Hamilton’s so-called military peace establishment seems an oxymoron, but it was highly favored by Washington as being “under certain circumstances, not only safe, but indispensably necessary.” It was to have four parts:First, a regular army of 2,630 officers and men to garrison the Great Lakes West, overawe the Indians, and guard against British or Spanish incursions onto US territory.Second, a uniform militia system under federal control in every state as an immediate response force and as a reserve for the standing army.Third, federally controlled arsenals and weapons manufactories among the states to support these troops.Fourth, one or more military academies for the training of a professional officer corps for the army with special emphasis on Engineering and Artillery training.[i]The Continental Army of the Revolution had been formed around a war establishment of 88 under-strength battalions that never numbered a total of more than 25,000 (July 1776) men and most often represented less than 7,000 regulars and militiamen. By comparison the proposed army composed of just 2,630 officers and men arranged in 5 regiments could hardly be considered an irresistibly despotic force. Although the number of regular troops proposed by Hamilton’s plan was one-tenth the number that fought for independence, the fear of standing forces was great nonetheless.[i] Millett and Maslowski, 86-87.See: Dorothy Denneen Volo; James M. Volo. Daily Life During the American Revolution (p. 102). Kindle Edition.

I know I sure as hell will be voting for Trump.President Trump is far from perfect, however he is way better than Obama ever was and has accomplished some pretty good things, here is a short list.Here is a very short list of some of his accomplishments;Despite an inexcusable 55-day delay, he gave Ukraine the lethal aid that the Obama-Biden administration refused to deliver. He secured the release of additional American citizens held abroad. He launched cyberattacks on Iran, approved a major arms sale to Taiwan, imposed visa restrictions on Chinese officials over Beijing’s oppression of the Uighurs, and refused to make major concessions to North Korea.He has continued to appoint conservative judges at a record pace. The Senate recently confirmed Trump’s 50th pick for the federal circuit courts of appeal, which have final say over about 60,000 cases a year. In three years, Trump has appointed just five fewer circuit court judges than Obama appointed in eight years. And he has flipped three of these courts from liberal to conservative majorities, giving conservatives the majority in seven out of 13.He ordered the operation that killed Islamic State leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. It was a high-risk mission that required U.S. forces to fly hundreds of miles into terrorist-controlled territory.His tariff threats forced Mexico to crack down on illegal immigration. Mexico is for the first time in recent history enforcing its own immigration laws — sending thousands of National Guard forces to its southern border to stop caravans of Central American migrants. Plus, Congress is poised to approve the U.S.-Mexico-Canada free-trade agreement, which would not have been possible without the threat of tariffs.His “maximum pressure” campaign is crippling Iran. Iran’s economy is contracting, inflation is spiraling and the regime has been forced to cut funding for its terrorist proxies, including Hezbollah and Hamas, the Iranian military and the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). And now the Iranian people are engaged in the largest popular uprising since the 1979 revolution.His withdrawal from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty is delivering China and North Korea a strategic setback. The United States is now testing new, previously banned intermediate-range missiles. These weapons will allow us to compete with China’s massive investment in these capabilities, and also provide a fallback in the likely case negotiations with North Korea fail — obviating the need for temporary deployments of U.S. carrier battle groups and allowing us to put North Korea permanently in our crosshairs.He stood with the people of Hong Kong. He warned China not to use violence to suppress pro-democracy protests and signed the Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act. Hong Kong people marched with American flags and sang our national anthem in gratitude.He has got NATO allies to cough up more money for our collective security. Allies have increased defense spending by $130 billion since 2016. And the White House reports almost twice as many allies are meeting their commitment to spend 2% of gross domestic product on defense today than before Trump arrived.He implemented tighter work requirements for food stamps. With unemployment at historic lows, there is no reason more people should not be earning their success through productive work. The rules apply only to able-bodied, childless adults. When we require people to work for public assistance, we not only help meet their material needs but also help them achieve the dignity and pride that come with being a contributing member of our community. Work is a blessing, not a punishment.He continued to deliver for the forgotten Americans. Unemployment is at record lows; this year the number of job openings outnumbered the unemployed workers to fill them by the widest gap ever; wages are rising, and low-wage workers are experiencing the fastest pay increases. Fifty-seven percent of Americans say they are better off financially since Trump took office.Awarding Funding to Address the Needs of Individuals with Disabilities in Emergency Responses: CDC has awarded $3 million in COVID-19 funding to support the development of resources for people with disabilities who have extreme low literacy and the creation of national standards to inform emergency response communications for reaching people with disabilities. CDC also awarded $10 million in COVID-19 funding to the Association of State and Territorial Health Officials, the National Association of County and City Health Officials, and the Association of University Centers on Disabilities to address the needs of Americans with disabilities in COVID-19 preparedness, planning, mitigation, and recovery efforts.Unprecedented Support for Independent Living: Through the CARES Act, the Administration for Community Living (ACL) awarded an unprecedented $85 million in direct funding to more than 350 Centers for Independent Living (CILs), community-based organizations led by individuals with disabilities. With this funding, individuals received food and prepared meals, personal care and basic home items, personal protective equipment such as masks and gloves to ensure continuity of support services, housing assistance, and alternative transportation for medical appointments. CILs also transformed direct services to include virtual options and supported people with disabilities by providing access to technology and the Internet.Guidance on Disability Rights Protections: In March 2020, the HHS Office for Civil Rights (OCR) issued a Bulletin on Civil Rights laws and HIPAA during the COVID-19 pandemic, reminding covered entities of their obligations to provide effective communications and reasonable modifications to persons with disabilities. This follows emergency guidance issued in 2017, 2018, and 2019.Preventing Disability Discrimination in Triage Decisions: In April 2020, OCR resolved a complaint against Pennsylvania after the state revised its interim Crisis Standards of Care to prevent disability discrimination in triaging of vital health care.Preventing Disability Discrimination in Ventilator Allocation Decisions During COVID-19: In April 2020, OCR resolved a complaint with the state of Alabama concerning ventilator rationing guidelines that categorically excluded persons with profound intellectual disabilities.Preventing Disability Discrimination in Hospital “No Visitor” Policies During COVID-19: In June 2020, OCR resolved a complaint with the state of Connecticut after the state issued an executive order on no-visitor policies in hospitals to ensure these policies do not deny reasonable access to needed support persons for people with disabilities. OCR also resolved a complaint with Hartford Hospital after it agreed to grant a 73-year-old woman with aphasia access to support persons to help with her communication and comprehension in her treatment.Protecting Rights and Preventing Abuse in Long-Term Care: ACL began issuing guidance in March to help State Long-Term Care Ombudsmen continue working to protect the health, welfare, and rights of nursing home residents, most of whom are protected under the ADA.Protecting Against Disability Discrimination in State Triage Plan: In June 2020, OCR resolved a complaint against Tennessee after it updated its crisis standards of care plan to ensure that the criteria does not discriminate against persons based on disability or age. Through technical assistance, the state updated its policies to ensure that hospitals do not deny life-saving care during a crisis based on stereotypes about disabilities or other impermissible factors.Protecting Rights in HealthcareAccess to Health Care for Individuals with Developmental Disabilities: In February 2019, OCR resolved a case in North Carolina alleging discrimination against an individual with autism who was deemed ineligible to be on a heart transplant wait list because of his disability. After OCR intervened in the case, the medical facility reversed course and allowed the individual to be eligible for the waiting list.Access to Sign Language Interpreter for Deaf Child: In July 2019, OCR resolved a case with Mid-Maryland Musculoskeletal Institute to protect a 6-year-old patient’s rights to effective communication while attending physical therapy sessions.Preventing Discrimination in Human ServicesEnsuring Beneficiary Safety in Group Homes - PDF: In January 2018, OCR, the HHS Office of Inspector General, and ACL jointly published a report: “Ensuring Beneficiary Health and Safety in Group Homes Through State Implementation of Comprehensive Compliance Oversight - PDF.” ACL has subsequently invested nearly $10 million in projects that seek to enhance the quality, effectiveness, and monitoring of home- and community-based services (HCBS) for people with developmental disabilities; to improve the quality of community living; and ensure health and safety.Disability Discrimination Protections for Individuals with Opioid Use Disorder: In May 2020, OCR secured an agreement with West Virginia to protect persons in recovery from opioid use disorder, resolving an uncle’s complaint that he had been denied the ability to gain custody of his young niece and nephew (in state custody) due to his enrollment in a medication-assisted treatment (MAT) program.Protections for Individuals with Disabilities in State Child Welfare Systems: In November 2019, OCR entered an agreement with Oregon to protect the rights of parents with disabilities. OCR’s investigation was spurred by allegations that the Oregon Department of Human Services removed two children from their parents because of stereotypical beliefs and assumptions concerning the parents’ intellectual disabilities.Empowering Americans with Disabilities to Live in the CommunityHelping Veterans with Disabilities Remain in Their Homes: ACL has worked with the Department of Veterans Affairs to expand the Veteran-Directed Care program, which allows veterans to use VA benefits to work with ACL-supported aging and disability networks to access the services they need to live independently.Training and Assistance under the ADA: ACL’s ADA National Network provides training and technical assistance on the Americans with Disabilities Act. In 2019, the Network hosted over 1,100 training activities and nearly 17,000 individual consultations with people with disabilities, agencies, businesses, and state and local governments. During the pandemic, the ADA Network has provided technical assistance to consumers and employers on the implications for disability-related services and return to work.Promoting Innovation to Combat Isolation: In partnership with the HHS Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health, ACL launched a prize competition to combat social isolation for people with disabilities, veterans and older adults. The Mobilizing and Empowering the Nation and Technology to Address Loneliness & social isolation (MENTAL) Health Innovation Challenge will award $750,000 in prizes for development of an easy-to-use online system that offers recommendations for programs, activities, and resources that can help users connect to others and engage in the community, based on their individual needs, interests, and abilities. The winning system will be announced and demonstrated at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in January 2021 and will become the centerpiece of a national public awareness campaign.Improving Home- and Community-Based Services (HCBS) in Medicaid: CMS issued several pieces of guidance to assist states in implementing the criteria defining a home and community-based setting, balancing the need to ensure settings facilitate and empower beneficiary autonomy and community integration with the need to ensure a workable implementation approach for states and providers. CMS has developed an HCBS quality framework, strategy, and work plan to align and coordinate activities within CMS and with other partners related to HCBS quality measurement, in order to ensure the health and safety of people receiving HCBS; promote high-quality and accessible HCBS; and promote value-based care and services for people receiving HCBS.A New Center to Combat Health Inequities: In September 2019, ACL launched the Center for Human Dignity in Healthcare for Individuals with Disabilities to reduce life-limiting healthcare inequities faced by people with disabilities. The center, based at the Children’s Hospital Medical Center at the University of Cincinnati, increases education around four focus areas: Prenatal Genetic Testing, Mental Health and Suicidality, Organ Transplantation and Aging and End of Life. The Center is conducting an analysis to identify gaps and investigate the impact of discrimination and disparities on the medical treatment outcomes of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (ID/DD). In response to COVID-19, the Center developed two fact sheets on medical discrimination: one for people with disabilities and one for medical practitioners.Promoting Physical Activity for Americans with Disabilities: ACL refocused the I Can Do It program, returning it to its roots as a program that partners with schools to encourage and support physical activity for children with disabilities.Expanding Work OpportunitiesA First-Ever Task Force to Boost Employment for Americans with Disabilities: ACL launched a historic government-wide task force focused on expanding employment for Americans with disabilities, to build on the historically low unemployment rates for Americans with disabilities in the booming Trump economy before COVID-19. Fourteen federal agencies actively participate in the task force’s work on key issues, particularly the removal of barriers that inhibit employment and, recently, the anticipated difficulty of post-COVID-19 employment and reentry.A Prize to Boost Private-Sector Support for Employment: As part of National Disability Employment Awareness Month 2019, ACL announced a national prize competition, Inclusive Talent Pipeline for American Business, which drew nearly 60 applicants from the private and nonprofit sectors to create and operationalize innovative and market-disruptive approaches to recruiting, retaining, and advancing employees with disabilities. Five Round One prize winners were announced in April 2020 and are currently preparing to pilot their proposed models in the fall of this year.Improving HealthcareNew Wheelchair Options in Medicare: Medicare expanded coding and increased payments for complex rehabilitative wheelchairs to ensure access to newer, expensive complex rehabilitative wheelchair options and accessories.Broader Access to Therapy: Medicare allowed therapy assistants (rather than only therapists) to perform maintenance therapy under the Medicare home health benefit starting in 2020, helping to expand access to this important service for all beneficiaries, including individuals with disabilities.Reforming Payment for Medicare Advantage Beneficiaries with Disabilities: Starting in 2017, CMS modified the Medicare risk adjustment model used to pay beneficiaries enrolled in Medicare Advantage plans to have separate factors for disabled (versus aged) beneficiaries, to better reflect their expected cost to the plans, allowing payments to be better targeted to plans based on the cost of their enrollees.Expanding More Flexible Preventive Services: For 2018, CMS finalized billing codes for “prolonged preventive services,” allowing for additional Medicare payment for preventive service visits that extend beyond the typical time, which can be important for beneficiaries with mobility or cognitive disabilities who may take extra time to complete these visits.Closing the Life Expectancy Gap: In June 2020, ACL announced a funding opportunity to improve health outcomes for the ID/DD population, who have significantly lower life expectancy than their non-ID/DD peers. Funding will support a national consortium that will build upon existing efforts to collaborate with medical and allied health schools to embed ID/DD content into their curriculum.Expanding Research on Disability IssuesEstablishing Prevalence of ID/DD: ACL is leading an interagency effort to establish and maintain valid and reliable prevalence rates of intellectual and developmental disabilities and to improve data about health status and factors that influence health outcomes of individuals with ID/DD.A First-Ever Government Wide Inventory: A partnership between the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and ACL’s National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research (NIDILRR) aims to create a government-wide inventory of all federally supported disability research, launching in the fall of 2020, housed at the NIH Library.Building a Limb Loss and Preservation Registry: In 2018, NIH and the Department of Defense announced plans to establish a registry to document the number of people in the United States living with limb loss and to provide insights on their challenges and needs.Studying Conditions that Affect Americans with Down Syndrome: In June 2018, NIH launched the INCLUDE (INvestigation of Co-occurring conditions across the Lifespan to Understand Down syndromE) project to study conditions that affect both individuals with Down syndrome and the general population. The goal is to learn more about these conditions in both populations so that new treatments can be developed in both groups. People with Down syndrome and other intellectual disabilities have often been excluded from participating in clinical research and clinical trials because it was thought that it would be too difficult to include them in complicated research studies, or the process to provide informed consent would be too challenging. People with Down syndrome are now being invited to speak up about their research needs, and new clinical trials supported by INCLUDE focus on topics such as sleep apnea, Alzheimer’s disease, and treatment of co-occurring ADHD.New Hope for Turning Thoughts into Speech: The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communications Disorders (NIDCD) supported groundbreaking research on augmentative and alternative communication devices, which help people with voice, speech, or language disorders communicate. This includes people with ALS or brainstem stroke who lose their ability to move their muscles for writing or speaking, even as they are able to think and reason normally. In an important advance, NIDCD-supported researchers developed an approach to turn a person’s thoughts directly into speech. The scientists trained a computer algorithm that is typically used to interpret voice commands to decipher brain activity instead. Individuals with epilepsy undergoing brain surgery listened to sentences spoken by different people, and the researchers used the neural patterns measured from these patients to train the computer algorithm. When the patients simply thought of the words they had heard, the algorithm was able to accurately decipher the thoughts 75 percent of the time.Making Hearing Aids More Accessible and Affordable: Approximately 28.8 million adults in the United States could benefit from using hearing aids, yet only one in four has ever used one. Research funded by NIDCD directly contributed to a measure included in the 2017 FDA reauthorization act to create a first-of-its-kind category of direct-to-consumer hearing aids for adults with perceived mild-to-moderate hearing loss, which is expected to spur innovation, reduce consumer costs, and improve hearing health care for millions of Americans who have hearing loss by making hearing aids more accessible and affordable.Designing Visually Accessible Spaces for People with Low Vision: Mobility challenges are one of the most serious consequences of impaired vision, and one approach for dealing with this problem is to make public spaces more accessible for people with low vision. Building on the concept of environmental modifications that enhance physical mobility (such as ramps for wheelchairs), the National Eye Institute (NEI) supported a combination of empirical and computational research to extend the concept of environmental modifications to “visual accessibility” (i.e., to what degree one can use vision to travel safely through an environment). In the final phase of this project, the models developed to predict low-vision visibility and navigability of real-world spaces are being translated into a set of open-source software modules to enhance architectural and lighting design for visual accessibility. The intended use is for architects and lighting designers to submit a design to the software and get a labeled output indicating what is likely to be a potential mobility hazard for pedestrians with reduced acuity and/or contrast sensitivity.Advances in Turning Thoughts into Computer Control: NEI is supporting work aimed at helping quadriplegic people use computer interfaces. By implanting recording electrodes in visual and motor areas of the brain, the researchers are able to turn the person’s intentions for cursor movements on a computer screen into action.Progress on Restoring Visual Perception to the Blind: NEI is supporting work aimed at helping blind people achieve useable visual perception. By placing stimulating electrodes on the visual cortex of the brain, the researchers are able to turn images recorded by a camera mounted on the head into the sensation of a rough pattern of light and dark. This interface is being gradually improved by training computational algorithms to optimize the pattern of stimulation. The blind patient also has to be trained to work with the brain-machine interface, but good progress is being made.I could easily keep going,