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Haha ,cant help laughing,as Damodardas Narendra Modi is nowhere ,near any of these leadersAll these leaders have proved themselves,unlike Modi who is still attempting.Let's start with AKHILESH YADAVHere are listed only some of his achievementsI. Agra-Lucknow ExpresswayThe Agra-Lucknow Expressway is a 6-lane expressway, expandable to 8 lanes. The project was developed by the state government of Uttar Pradesh under the leadership of Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav.Agra-Lucknow ExpresswayAdvertisementThe project is a 302 kilometre tolled controlled-access highway or expressway, undertaken by the Uttar Pradesh Expressways Industrial Development Authority. The expressway reduced the distance between the cities of Agraand Lucknow.The Agra-Lucknow Expressway was completed and inaugurated by Akhilesh Yadav as CM on 21st November 2016. This project serves as the flagship model of development in the state, being the first project of its kind to be completed in the shortest span of time, between June 2014 and November 2016.II. Lucknow MetroUnder Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav, the state gave clearance for the construction of Lucknow Metro in June 2013, after the concept was first proposed by the Lucknow Metro Rail Corporation (LMRC) to the government of Uttar Pradesh in September 2008.Lucknow Metro – Phase 1A (Red Line)Construction of Lucknow Metro began on 27th September 2014, with 8.3 kilometres betweenTransport Nagar and Charbagh Railway Station. It began commercial operations on 5th September 2017, making it the fastest built Metro in the country.It is also the most expensive transport system in Uttar Pradesh with the total estimation for Phase-I (A – Red Line, B – Blue Line) amounting to Rs. 6,928 crores. It is also a 50:50 joint venture between the government of India and the state government of Uttar Pradesh.III. Developing Power SectorIn December 2016, Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav laid the foundation stones and inaugurated power projects worth Rs. 52,437 crores. The projects cover all three aspects of power generation, transmission and distribution.The projects included three thermal power plants with a total capacity of 33,000 MegaWatts, to be constructed in the state.Jawaharpur Thermal Power PlantThe Jawaharpur Thermal Power Plant, aGreenfield project, would have a generation capacity of 1,320 MegaWatts. The project is being built at a cost of Rs.10,566 crores. Two other projects; the Obra C Power Project is at Rs. 10,416 crores and the Hardauganj Extensionis at Rs. 574 crores.The Jawaharpur and Obra C have been awarded to South Korea‘s Doosan Heavy Industries & Construction‘s Indian unit- Doosan Power Systems India (DPSI). The Hardauganj project has been awarded to Toshiba.IV. Modernising Police ForceIn October 2013, the Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister made several announcements in regards to modernising the Police Force in the state, emphasising on the need for equipping the police with modern techniques due to the changing nature of crime patterns. Lucknow,Ghaziabad and Allahabad were to receive state of the art control rooms, as part of the announcement.Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav made the announcement on the occasion of ‘Smriti Diwas‘, while stressing that the priority of the state government was to strengthen its police force. The CM also announced that an increase of Rs.200 would be made for meal allowances, and Closed User Group (CUG) SIM cards would be given to all sub-inspectors.V. 1090 Women Power LineThe 1090 women’s helpline was launched by Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav in 2012 as a means to take realtime action in making women feel safe, as well as promoting and empowering people in society to find a solution to the social ills facing women.The helpline number is a one-state-one-number service that was set up to handle cases of sexual harassment. Women in Uttar Pradesh can access the helpline from anywhere in the state and lodge complaints against those who harass them. The complainant need not physically go to the police station to file an FIR, and the identity of the complainant is kept secret.1090 Women Power Line, operated by a team of female constablesA special cadre of women constables were assigned to attend to calls and provide timely help to victims.VI. Kamdhenu YojanaThe Kamdhenu Yojana is a dairy scheme introduced by the government of Uttar Pradesh under the leadership of Akhilesh Yadav, with the aim of increasing the low availability of high yielding germ plasm animals in the state. Through this scheme, the government aimed at establishing 100 high yielding animal dairy units which would be acquired from outside Uttar Pradesh.Through the Kamdhenu Yojana, more than 2,000 dairy farms of 100, 50 and 20 cattle numbers have been established across the state of Uttar Pradesh.Through this scheme, Uttar Pradesh became the number one milk producing state in India.VII. Kisan Avam Sarvhit Bima YojanaThe Kisan Avam Sarvhit Bima Yojana was launched by Akhilesh Yadav in 2016, which was a replacement to the ‘Krishak Bima Yojana‘ under which the revenue department covered land-holding farmers who had their names in the revenue records; in the event of death, they got up to Rs. 5 lakhs where the state government would pay the premium.Under the new scheme, all landless farmer and other families with a annual income of less than Rs. 75,000 would also be covered.VIII. Kisan BazaarsThe Akhilesh Yadav government, in 2016, set upKisan Bazaars in cities across Uttar Pradesh, to provide an open and easy market for farmers to sell products and purchase equipments.Awadh Shilp Gram or Kisan Bazaar at JhansiKisan Bazaars act as a medium between buyers and farmers, where all goods are sold at valid rates by farmers. It provides a stable platform where farmers can easily sell their produce at good rates, which are collectively decided so no farmer gets affected as a result of fluctuations in prices.IX. Lohiya Awas YojanaIn 2012, the UP government under Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav decided to the scrap the previous BSP government’s Mahamaya Awas Yojana and Mahamaya Sarvajan Awas Yojana, and launch a single housing scheme aimed at the rural poor named ‘Lohiya Awas Yojana‘.Lohiya Awas Yojana, was a social welfare program aimed at providing housing for the rural poor in UP. Under the scheme, differences are made in schemes for the urban and rural poor, as a separate set of schemes are aimed at the urban poor.This scheme was provided for candidates who had no residence for living. Homes were to be provided at free-of-cost by the state government.The Mahamaya Awas Yojana was aimed at Dalits, while the Mahamaya Sarvajan Awas Yojana was meant for non-Dalits.X. Samajwadi Swasthya SevaUpon finishing 6 months in office as Chief Minister, Akhilesh Yadav launched theSamajwadi Swasthya Seva; a free-of-cost, 24/7 emergency ambulance service.The toll-free number set for this service was 108; calling upon which, an ambulance would reach the patient within 20 minutes and she/he would be given medical aid before being shifted to a hospital.Provisions were made for emergency medical relief being available to persons suffering from heart attacks, pregnancies, burns, trauma from accidents or assault, and those with infectious diseases; all of whom require immediate hospitalisation.A unit of the UP Ambulance ServiceOn 22nd August 2012, Akhilesh Yadav launched the Uttar Pradesh Ambulance Service, under which 200 vehicles were deployed in 75 districts.XI. Shravan YatraIn March 2015, Akhilesh Yadav launched theSamajwadi Shravan Yatra from Lucknow. According to the scheme, elderly and senior citizens would be enabled to undertake pilgrimages to Haridwar and Rishikesh, free-of-cost.A special train carrying about 1,044 pilgrims was flagged off from Charbagh Railway Station by Vijay Kumar Mishra, the then Minister of State for religious Endowment.Samajwadi Shravan YatraThe scheme takes inspiration from the devotion of Shravan Kumar who carried his blind parents on his shoulders for a pilgrimage.Source List of biggest achievements of Akhilesh Yadav as Uttar Pradesh's Chief Minister - The Indian WireManthan 2017 - India's largest street play festivalLet's talk about MAMTA BANERJEEI. Kanyashree PrakalpaAdvertisementThe Kanyashree Prakalpa was established by the West Bengal government under Mamata Banerjee, with the aim of improving the life and status of girls in the state. The scheme would help economically backward families with cash, so families would not have to arrange for the marriage of their girl child before the age of eighteen due to economic problems. The scheme also aims at uplifting girls from poor economic backgrounds, who can’t pursue higher education as a result of being in a tough economic situation.The scheme has two components. An annual scholarship of Rs. 750 is provided for unmarried girls between classes 8 and 11 in government recognised or equivalent open school or vocational/technical training courses. The other component is the one time grant of Rs. 25,000 that is provided. Both components of the scheme are granted to girls whose families’ income is less than that of Rs. 1.2 lakhs.She was praised by the UN who awarded India first place in the Asia-Pacific group in the ‘Reaching the Poorest and Most Vulnerable’ category.II. Yuvashree (Yuva Utsaha Prakalpa)The Yuvashree scheme, of Yuva Utsaha Prakalpa as it was previously known, is a program launched by the West Bengal government under Mamata Banerjee to provide financial assistance to jobseekers enrolled in ‘Employment Bank‘ to enable them to enhance their employability by undergoing some education or training with the period of assistance.Employment bank is state-owned job portal which is an e-governance initiative of the Labour Department in the West Bengal state government, to widen the window of job opportunities for job seekers in the state.III. Sabooj SathiThe Sabooj Sathi Bicycle Distribution Scheme or Sabooj Sathi, is a scheme launched in September 2015 by the West Bengal government for the distribution of bicycles to about forty lakh students of classes 9 and 11 studying in government run-and-aided schools and madrasas.The West Bengal SC/ST Development & Finance Corporation was declared the nodal agency for procurement and distribution of bicycles.IV. Fair Price Medicine ShopsUnder Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee, the West Bengal government introduced ‘Fair Price Medicine Shops‘ all across the state in 2012. The aim of the initiative is to provide generic medicines, surgical and dressing material, as well as cardiac devices at almost 50% (Or more) less than the maximum retail prices.Fair Price Medicine ShopThe Fair Price Shops are a public-private initiative by the government of India and private businesses.This scheme was also aimed at providing Rs. 2.5 lakhs for each store to unemployed youth, preferably those with pharmacy licenses.V. Khadya Sathi SchemeThe West Bengal state government under Mamata Banerjee launched the Khadya Sathi Scheme in January 2016. Khadya Sathi is food security scheme that that was launched with the aim of providing a kilo of rice at Rs. 2, to 7.5 crore people across the state.While launching the scheme, the Chief Minister said that 7.5 crore people could get five kilograms of rice and wheat, every month at Rs. 2 per kilo. She said that the scheme would benefit nearly 82% of the total population of the state.VI. Extension of Kolkata MetroThe Kolkata Metro is India’s first metro railway in India, opening for commercial services in 1984 under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, and the then Chief Minister of state, Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy. The network consists of one operational line between Noapara and Kavi Subhash, which covers a distance of 27.22 kilometres.Kolkata MetroIn 2010, Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee laid the foundation stone for the Kolkata Metro extension project, proposed at Rs.600 crores for the north-south fringes of the city. The Railway Ministry also announced the construction of five new metro lines, to be constructed in two phases, apart from the extension of the existing north-south corridor.VII. Kisan MandisIn 2013, the West Bengal government under Mamata Banerjee announced the setting up of 341 special markets for farmers called ‘Kisan Mandi‘- to help them sell their produce at the right price.About 50 warehouses for storing seeds were also part of the proposal. The government would also provide Rs. 75 crores to farmers for purchasing agricultural machinery and equipment.VIII. Nirmal BanglaThe West Bengal government under Mamata Banerjee launched the Nirmal Bangla Mission, which is seen as an offshoot of the centre’sSwachh Bharat Abhiyan, to bring all existing sanitation projects under one scheme.On 30th April 2015, Nadia district became the first in the country to earn an Open Defecation Free (ODF) status. About 3,47,000 toilets were constructed in the district, in less than 18 months. The plan was carried out by the district administration of Nadia in collaboration withUNICEF.IX. Success in 100-Days Work Scheme (MGNREGA)The West Bengal government, during the financial year 2016-2017, set a record in the100-Days work scheme under the MGNREGA, by creating a 33% increase in man-days. This was seen as the highest increase in the country.An estimate of almost 24 crore man-days were achieved during the year. The State broke another record in terms of the number of women employed in the scheme. According to official sources, in the financial year 2016-2017, 46.46% of the workforce in Bengal comprised of women.ConclusionMamata Banerjee’s reign in West Bengal has seen a host of developments in the state, first with her claim to restoring peace in Jangalmahal with the ousting of extreme Left Wing militants.She is largely credited with the empowerment of women in the state, along with the beautification of Kolkata. She was named in the Forbes’ list of ‘100 Most Influential People in the World’ and also in Bloomberg Market’s list of ’50 Most Influential People in the World of Finance’.Source List of major achievements of Mamata Banerjee as Chief Minister of Bengal - The Indian WireNow RAHUL GANDHIA leader is one who knows the way, goes the way, and shows the way.” —John MaxwellOn that note, there is no one but one leader who comes to my mind — Rahul Gandhi. You might be surprised but he’s the same person whom I earlier mistook as indecisive, work-shy and an utterly reluctant politician. But over these years, the way he’s turned up and taken politics in stride, he has only injected greater hope and self-belief in each one of us. It’s not limited to his contribution to the Congress, but his larger commitment towards national goals. Rising way above other politicians, he stands way ahead as a matchless political reformer.2004: Rahul Gandhi enters into politicsAfter obtaining degrees in International Relations and Philosophy from the Universities of Rollins and Cambridge and working in London, it was least expected that Rahul would ever join politics. But to everyone’ surprise this shy guy did choose a public platform to voice his opinion. And the rest, as they say, is history. Rahul entered into politics in May 2004 when he decided to contest the Lok Sabha polls from the traditional family constituency of Amethi which Rajiv Gandhi had once held. At that time, this move generated great surprise amongst political commentators who considered his sister Priyanka more charismatic and likely to succeed. But hiswhopping victory with a margin of over 100,000 votes against BJP put an end to all the doubts that ever existed. While some treated it as “gene talent”, others called it a “political ploy”. The real truth that stealthily rose to great heights was the fact that a new leader had finally arrived.A new leader had finally arrived.2007: Rahul Gandhi is appointed as the General Secretary, IYC & NSUIIn September 2007, Rahul was appointed the ‘General Secretary’ in charge of the Indian Youth Congress (IYC) and the National Students Union of India (NSUI). It was during this time that he pledged to reform youth politics. Consequently, keeping up to his promise, in November 2008, he held interviews at his 12, Tughlak Lane residence in New Delhi to handpick at least 40 people who would make up the ‘think-tank’ of the Indian Youth Congress (IYC). In doing so, he succeeded in bringing a positive change to the organization that he had always wanted. Not just that, it was under his leadershipthat IYC and NSUI witnessed a dramatic increase in number of members from two lakhs to twenty five lakhs. Be it his individual efforts or his breakthrough vision, finally we have a leader who believes in practicing first and preaching later.A. 2007: Rahul Gandhi is appointed as the General Secretary, IYC & NSUIIn September 2007, Rahul was appointed the ‘General Secretary’ in charge of the Indian Youth Congress (IYC) and the National Students Union of India (NSUI). It was during this time that he pledged to reform youth politics. Consequently, keeping up to his promise, in November 2008, he held interviews at his 12, Tughlak Lane residence in New Delhi to handpick at least 40 people who would make up the ‘think-tank’ of the Indian Youth Congress (IYC). In doing so, he succeeded in bringing a positive change to the organization that he had always wanted. Not just that, it was under his leadershipthat IYC and NSUI witnessed a dramatic increase in number of members from two lakhs to twenty five lakhs. Be it his individual efforts or his breakthrough vision, finally we have a leader who believes in practicing first and preaching later.2009 General Elections proved that the legacy of the Gandhi family and its deep union with the Congress Party is not just for namesake. Other than this, the other major factor behind the win was that barring Congress, there was no other political party which had fielded so many young candidates. And without any iota of doubt, the credit of this victory of UPA goes straight to Rahul Gandhi. He proved his mettle again by almost single-handedly winning more than 20 seats in Uttar Pradesh and an overall of 204 seats in the Lok Sabha. Such incredible results in Uttar Pradesh when no one expected Congress to do so well were not because of any significant or strategic caste calculations. Rather against all the odds, it was solely because of a young visionary who reached out to the common masses and showed them a better future without fragmenting them on the basis of caste or religion. Rahul once said, “I feel we should all be detached from power. Only then we can contribute to the society better.” Envisaging the same thought, he motivated the youth to join politics and make way for its holistic reformation. After a long time, it’s indeed refreshing to see someone doing things which this nation really needs.Rahul Gandhi worked tirelessly for the farmers,and stood by them to get them Compensation,which Modi did not give them,nor had time to meet themAfter a long time, it’s indeed refreshing to see someone doing things which this nation really needs.Rahul Gandhi has worked tirelessly to support poor farmersRahul Gandhi on building transparency and freedom of thoughtRahul Gandhi and his AchievementsLet me quote his thought here, “Give me all the power you want – give one individual all the power you want, give him everything, he cannot solve the problems of a billion people.” In a democracy where, power centralization is the ruling reality of political system, Rahul Gandhi daringly experiments and challenges the prevalent statuesque. Despite having a political lineage, this young leader finds dynastic rule undemocratic and does not flinch away from confessing it. In a meeting with the Congress MPs, he said, “I want to empower the 720-odd MPs in Parliament. I want to give voice to the middle tier, empower the middle-level leaders. There are some parties in India which are run by one leader, two leaders, five to six leaders and 15 to 20 leaders. My priority is that I want to empower the MPs as also the 5,000-odd legislators in various states.”As a believer of secular politics, he says, “The Congress as I see, does not belong to me or to you, but it belongs to the whole country.” Highlighting the problems of over-centralization of power in India, brazenness of corruption in the country, women’s rights and alienated youth who are “excluded from the political class,” Rahul has always initiated a step towards covering the loopholes of our current system. At crucial decisive times, he brought the issues of massacre of Muslims in Modi ruled Gujarat, killing of Christians in Kandhamal and problems faced by the Dalit community to the forefront. In case you don’t know, it was Rahul Gandhi, who appointed Sam Pitroda, the man behind telecommunication revolution, as a Cabinet Minister in the Prime Minister Office.Rahul Gandhi the spokesman of the massesIn 2011, he was arrested by the UP police at Bhatta Parsaul village after he turned out insupport of agitating farmers demanding more compensation for their land being acquired for a highway project. This showed his real courage to stand by his men and support their cause. Such connect with the grassroot level is something India has rarely seen in a politician. Supporting his party, he once said, “The Congress Party is now my life. The people of India are my life. And I will fight for the people of India and for this party. I will fight with everything I have.”e.The Congress needs towork majorly on increasing its booth-level presence. (Photo: PTI/file)On his part, Rahul Gandhi has started direct telephonic dialogue with district and city party presidents. Before that, he held an interaction with block presidents of the party.Over these conversations, he tried to explore how the Congress can become the number one party in UP. He took the theses leaders in confidence, and assured them that this time, poll tickets would be distributed based on their recommendations. Gandhi also stated that indiscipline would not be tolerated in the party anymore.The party president appealed to Congress workers to focus on local issues in their ‘politics of empowerment’, while giving importance to the youth, women, minority and tribal communities.Through these aggressive attempts to rebuild the party, the Congress on one hand is trying to recover lost ground, while on the other, it is trying to give a message to the possible alliance partners of the Mahagathbandhan — such as the SP and the BSP — that the grand old party will emerge as a tough negotiatorin 2019.FootnotesRahul Gandhi chose not to become Prime Minister, and even never occupied ministerial position during the decade long UPA rule. His body of work is however extraordinarily impressive. It is unanimously accepted that he was the prime mover behind these legislations and movements:–Lokpal Act: Lokpal Act came to be passed only because of the efforts and commitment of Shri Rahul Gandhi. The same was appreciated even by Anna Hazare in his letter dated 15.12.2013.-Whistleblowers Protection Act, 2011: This Bill was tabled with the purpose of providing protection to persons reporting corruption by a public servant. The Act was passed by the Lok Sabha on 27.12.2011 & the Rajya Sabha on 21.02.2014 and received President`s assent on 09.05.2014. BJP government did not give effect to the Act and instead moved an amendment bill to dilute the provisions of the original Act. The amendment Bill had sought to remove the clause which protects whistleblower from prosecution under the Official Secrets Act if any person made a disclosure under the Whistle Blowers Protection Act.-The Prevention of bribery of foreign public officials and public international organizations bill, 2011: This Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha on March 25, 2011. Under this Bill any person who commits any offence as mentioned shall be liable to imprisonment between six months and seven years and a fine.-Real Estate Regulatory Authority Bill:When homeowners approached him, he undertook to have a law to protect them. It was Rahul Gandhi’s unconditional support to the Bill led to its smooth passage in the Parliament. At the time, he had stated that if the Government tables the bill in the Parliament, he would support it without second thoughts. The same was passed by the Rajya Sabha on 10.03.2016 and by the Lok Sabha on 15.03.2016 and received the Hon`ble President`s assent on 25.03.2016. The Act has become life savior for all those people who had invested their hard earned money to book a flat and were duped by the builders.-Land Acquisition Act 2013: After visiting Bhatta Parsaul, Rahul Gandhi wanted to transform the centaury old legislation regarding the Land Acquisition. He not only formulated this bill but also ensured that the Bill gets passed in the Parliament. The Bill received President`s Assent on 26.09.2013. The Act also requires developers to get consent of at least 80% of the people whose land is sought to be acquired. When Modi Sarkar sought to dilute its provisions, it again was Rahul Gandhi whose strong opposition stopped them in their tracks.-JFood Security Bill: Standing up for the hungry poor of our Country the Food Security Bill was drafted, billed and passed by the Congress with Rahul Gandhi at its helm.-GST: When Rahul Gandhi took Prime Minister Narendra Modi head on by describing Goods and Sales tax as Gabbar Singh Tax which has ruined all small scale businesses, businessmen received concessions in the form of reduced GST rates.-Democratization of NSUI and Youth Congress: Shri Rahul Gandhi have always maintained that there must be free and fair poll and therefore he got this reform initiative. He axed the culture of nepotism which crippled nominations of meritorious candidates. Rahul Gandhi is a firm believer that these moves will lead to a more transparent organization building.After 10 years of uninterrupted UPA rule, fully conscious of the serious anti-incumbency he would face at the Centre, he donned the war-paint when general elections were called. Though many knew the foregone conclusions, he ploughed on- incessantly, persistently. The BJP’s portrayal of him notwithstanding, he has come into his own as a Leader of great potential in Gujarat.During elections to the Rajya Sabha from Gujarat, the CLP Leader and Opposition Party Leader Shankarsinh Vaghela left the INC. 13 sitting legislators left the Party along with him. The BJP had employed the very same tricks of doling out huge amounts of cash and other allurements that they had employed in Arunachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Goa and Manipur. The number of INC Legislators dropped precariously from 57 to 44. Nobody in his right mind thought the INC had a chance of even winning back the 44 seats we were left with. It must be remembered that this is the State from where both the Prime Minister of India and the National BJP President hail.Yet, in less than six months, the INC bounced back and how!! Each and every exit poll confirms that the INC vote share has increased phenomenally. If there is no large scale EVM fraud it is clear that the INC will not get less than 80 seats.The credit for this upsurge must certainly go to Rahul Gandhi for turning a rag tag army in Gujarat just six months ago into a lean, mean fighting machine. Even the serious complications in dealing with the young trio of Hardik, Jignesh and Alpesh were resolved seamlessly. Not a single INC Leader spoke out of turn, and those that did were dealt with swiftly and effectively. His own personal style was warm, confident, charismatic and purposeful.I m not even going to try and write about Kejriwal as he is one of the Top candidate s.Or Mayawati.not required.Even these 4are good enough to stand by King of fake promises and Jhumalas,Modi SarkaarHe reminds one of Munna Bhai MBBS ,where his jaddoo ka jappis were famous.That is ALL what Modi has done in his now 5 years term.!!!!Even when people are visibly uuncomfortable about his forcing his way.Jadoo poucha kiya,kuch toilet banaya,aur 12 Million Bullet train,Fancy boat or 3000crore ka statue sab GUJARAT mei banaya.Ab Gujarat wapas jane ka samay aa gaya hai.Koi bhi ab Modi se kosoon door accha hai.KOI BHIJAGO INDIA JAGO

Establishment of the familyDetermining the geographic location, material culture, and linguistic characteristics of the earliest stages of Uralic at a period thousands of years prior to any historical record is a problem beset with enormous difficulties; consensus among Uralic scholars is limited to a handful of general hypotheses.The original homeland of Proto-Uralic is considered to have been in the vicinity of the north-central Urals, possibly centred west of the mountains. Following the dissolution of Uralic, the precursors of the Samoyeds gradually moved northward and eastward into Siberia. The Finno-Ugrians moved to the south and west, to an area close to the confluence of the Kama and Volga rivers.Shared cognatesSeveral kinds of indirect evidence support the above supposition. One approach attempts to reconstruct the natural environment of these groups on the basis of shared cognates (related words) for plants, animals, and minerals and on the distribution of these words in the modern languages. For example, cognates designating certain types of spruce are found in all the Uralic languages except Hungarian (Finnish kuusi, Sami[Lapp] guossâ, Mordvin kuz, Komi koz, Khanty kol, Nenets xādy, Selkup kūt). Because the range of this type of fir tree is restricted to more northern climates, it is generally assumed that the widespread consistent association of the name and the tree suggests a period in which Proto-Uralic was spoken within that zone. Several other terms for plants (e.g., Finnish muurain ‘cloudberry’ [Rubus arcticus]), a term for metal (Estonianvask ‘copper,’ Hungarian vas ‘iron,’ Nganasan basa ‘iron’), and a word for ‘reindeer’ (Sami boaƷo) are also consistent with a northern Ural location. Great caution is necessary in such matters, because the association of words and objects also can result from borrowing, perhaps long after the period of Uralic unity; especially such culturally mobile items as “metal” and “reindeer” cannot be traced with certainty to a Proto-Uralic community. The central Volga location of Proto-Finno-Ugric is strongly supported by an abundance of shared terminology dealing with beekeeping, which constitutes a significant part of the culture of this region.Contacts with unrelated languagesA second approach to determining the location of Proto-Uralic is based on contacts with other, unrelated languages as evidenced by loanwords from one group to the other. Early Finno-Ugric borrowed numerous terms from very early dialects of Indo-European. Though these words are entirely lacking from the Samoyed languages, within the Finno-Ugric division they are shared by the most remotely related members and show the same phonetic relationships as the native Finno-Ugric vocabulary. Examples include agricultural and apicultural terminology (e.g., ‘honey’: Finnish mete, Komi ma, Hungarian méz [compare Indo-European *medhu-]; ‘pig’: Finnish porsas, Komi porś); several numerals (‘hundred’: Finnish sata, Hungarian száz); mineral words (‘salt’: Finnish suola, Komi sol); and the word for ‘orphan’ (Finnish orpo, Hungarian árva). The nature of these borrowings, together with the linguist’s relatively richer knowledge of early Indo-European, supports a southward movement of Proto-Finno-Ugric and also provides some insight into the culture of the Finno-Ugrians.The distribution of the daughter languagesThe central Volga origin hypothesis is also supported by the geographic distribution of the daughter languages. Except for Hungarian, which moved westward across the steppes, the Finno-Ugric languages form two chains distributed along major waterways, with the confluence of the Kama and Volga at their centre. One chain extends northward along the Kama, across the northern tip of the Urals into the Obwatershed, then southward along the Ob and its tributaries. The second extends to the northeast along the Volga to the Gulf of Finland. The extinct Merya, Murom, and Meshcher languages were once links in this chain. Finally, assumptions about the more distant relationships of Uralic have influenced views concerning its original location. Earlier, proponents of the Ural-Altaic hypothesis tended to place the Uralic homeland in south-central Siberia, near the sources of the Ob and the Yenisey, but there is no substantive support for this view.Current distributionThe Finno-Ugric languages are represented today by some 20 languages scattered over an immense Eurasian territory. In the west they include the European national languages Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian as well as the Sami (or Lapp) languages, the westernmost members of the group, spoken by numerous distinct communitiesacross the northern Scandinavian Peninsula from central Norway to the White Sea. The remaining Finno-Ugric languages are located in the Baltic countries and in Russia, all formerly republics of the Soviet Union, with one major concentration—which includes Estonian, Livonian, Votic, Karelian, and Veps—extending from the Gulf of Riga to the Kola Peninsula. The Mordvin and Mari languages are found in the central Volga region; from there extending northward along river courses west of the Urals are the Permic languages—Udmurt, Komi (Zyryan), and Permyak (or Komi-Permyak). East of the Urals, along the Ob River and its tributaries, are the easternmost representatives of the Finno-Ugric group—Mansi and Khanty.The largely nomadic Samoyeds are sparsely distributed over an enormous area extending inward from the Arctic shores of Russia from the White Sea in the west to Khatanga Bay in central Siberia in the east. Nenets, the westernmost of these languages, reaches eastward to the mouth of the Yenisey River and includes a small insular group on Novaya Zemlya. Speakers of Enets are located in the region of the upper Yenisey. The lower half of the Taymyr Peninsula is the habitat of the Nganasan, the easternmost of the Uralic groups. The fourth language, Selkup, lies to the south in a region between the central Ob and central Yenisey; its major representation is located between Turukhansk and the Taz River. A fifth Samoyedic language, Kamas (Sayan), spoken in the vicinity of the Sayan Mountains, survived into the 20th century but is now extinct. Yukaghir is represented by two small language groups (designated Tundra and Kolyma) in far northeastern Siberia, between the tundra east of the Alazeya River and the upper tributaries of the Kolyma.The political history of the various Uralic groups largely has been one of resisting encroachment from adjacent European (especially Germanic and Slavic) and Turkic groups and from other Uralic neighbours. Only the three largest and westernmost groups—Hungary, Finland, and Estonia—have succeeded in achieving political independence. The political status of the Uralic groups within Russia generally reflects their demographic significance. The five largest minority groups, with populations ranging from 100,000 to almost 1,000,000 speakers, are centred in the largely autonomous republics of Mordoviya, Mari El, Udmurtiya, Komi, and Karelia. Four other groups possess autonomy to a lesser degree: the Khanty and the Mansi (in Khanty-Mansi autonomous okrug [district]), the speakers of Permyak (in Komi-Permyakautonomous okrug), and the Nenets (in Taymyr, Nenets, and Yamalo-Nenets okrugs). The Sami, who are widely distributed across four countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia), have achieved only local political recognition. A number of the smaller Uralic language communities, such as Votic, face extinction through cultural assimilation.Because the names designating many of the Uralic peoples have never been standardized, a wide range of appellations is encountered in references to these groups. Earlier designations, especially in the case of the groups in Russia, tended to be taken from derogatory names used by neighbouring peoples—e.g., Cheremis, now Mari. Seetable for the names in use. Standard usage is in the left column, and earlier, Russian-based forms are in parentheses. The name that the group uses for itself and certain other information, such as Russian and Old Russian forms, are in the right column. Several names are identical to the word for ‘man’ in these languages. (Finnish mies‘man’ also has been etymologically related to the names Magyar and Mansi.) It is important that Khanty (Ostyak) be differentiated from Selkup (Ostyak Samoyed) and from Ket (Yenisey Ostyak, a non-Uralic tongue), which should not be confused with Enets (Yenisey).Languages Of The FamilyThe two major branches of Uralic are themselves composed of numerous subgroupings of member languages on the basis of closeness of linguistic relationship. Finno-Ugriccan first be divided into the most distantly related Ugric and Finnic (sometimes called Volga-Finnic) groups, which may have separated as long ago as five millennia. Within these, three relatively closely related groups of languages are found: the Baltic-Finnic, the Permic, and the Ob-Ugric. The largest of these, the Baltic-Finnic group, is composed of Finnish, Estonian, Livonian, Votic, Ingrian, Karelian, and Veps. The Permic group consists of Komi, Permyak, and Udmurt. The Ob-Ugric group includes Mansi and Khanty.The Ugric group comprises the geographically most distant members of the family—the Hungarian and Ob-Ugric languages. Finnic contains the remaining languages: the Baltic-Finnic languages, the Sami (or Lapp) languages, Mordvin, Mari, and the Permic tongues. There is little accord on the further subclassification of the Finnic languages, although the fairly close relationship between Baltic-Finnic and Sami is generally recognized (and is called North Finnic); the degree of separation between the two may be compared to that between English and German. Mordvin has most frequently been linked with Mari (a putative Volga language group), but comparative evidence also suggests a bond with Baltic-Finnic and Sami (that is, West Finnic). The extinct Merya, Murom, and Meshcher tongues, known only from Old Russian chronicles, are assumed to have been spoken by Finnic peoples and, from their geographic location northwest of Mordvin, must have belonged to West Finnic. One hypothesis for the internal relationships of the Uralic family as a whole is given in the figure.Family tree diagram of the Uralic languages, including their probable relationship to Yukaghir.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.The precursor of the modern Samoyedic languages is thought to have divided near the beginning of the 1st century CE into a northern and a southern group. North Samoyedicconsists of Nenets, Enets, and Nganasan. South Samoyedic contains a single living language, Selkup, and numerous other dialects now extinct: Kamas, Motor, Koibal, Karagas, Soyot, and Taigi.AdvertisementUgricHungarianHungarian, the official language of Hungary, remains the primary language of the fertile Carpathian Basin. Bounded by the Carpathian Mountains to the north, east, and southwest, the Hungarian language area is represented by several million speakers outside the boundaries of Hungary—mostly in Romanian Transylvania and in Slovakia. To the south a substantial Hungarian population extends into Croatia and Serbia, and other large Hungarian populations exist in Austria and Ukraine. Hungarian emigrant communities are found in many parts of the world, especially in North America, Israel, and Australia.The ancestors of the Hungarians, following their separation from the other Ugric tribes, moved south into the steppe region below the Urals. As mounted nomads, in contact with and often in alliance with Turkic tribes, they moved westward, reaching and conquering the sparsely settled Carpathian Basin in the period 895–896. The Hungarians came under the influence of Rome through their first Christian king, Stephen (István) I, in 1001, and the use of Latin for official purposes continued into the 19th century. Following a Hungarian defeat at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Hungary was occupied by Turkish forces, who were replaced by German Habsburg domination in the late 17th century. Concern for a common literary medium, closely tied with Hungarian nationalism, began in the late 18th century. More recent foreign influences on the language were suppressed and replaced by native words and constructions. The literary form received a broad dialect base, facilitating its use as a national language.Modern Hungarian has eight major dialects, which permit a high degree of mutual intelligibility. Budapest, the nation’s capital, is located near the junction of three dialect areas: the South, Trans-Danubian, and Palóc (Northwestern). As a result of unfavourable treaties following both world wars, especially the Treaty of Trianon, two dialects (Central Transylvanian and Székely) lie almost entirely within Romania, and the remaining six dialects radiate outward into neighbouring countries.The Hungarians’ own name for themselves is magyar. Other Western appellations, such as the French hongrois, German Ungar, and Russian vengr, all stem from the name of an early Turkic tribal confederation, the on-ogur (meaning ‘10 tribes’), which the Hungarians joined in their wanderings toward the west, and does not indicate relationship with the ancient Huns, a Turkic tribe. One of the earliest recorded references to the Hungarians, a Byzantine geographic survey of Constantine VII(Porphyrogenitus; died 959) entitled De administrando imperio, lists the megyer as one of the Hungarian tribes, but, as was typical in early reports, the Hungarians were not distinguished from their Turkish allies.Ob-Ugric: Khanty and MansiWidely dispersed along the Ob River and its tributaries, the so-called Ob-Ugric peoples, the Khanty and the Mansi, are among the least demographically significant of the Finno-Ugric groups. Although the Khanty have decreased in number over the past few centuries, their language is still maintained by about 9,500 speakers (2010 census). The Mansi, by contrast, had only some 12,300 ethnic representatives by the early 21st century; of these, fewer than 1,000 claimed Mansi as their mother tongue. To a large extent both groups have been assimilated by their Russian and Tatar neighbours.It is likely that the precursors of the Ob-Ugric tribes were still centred west of the Urals well within historic times, long after the division of Proto-Ugric into distinct languages. The Russian Primary Chronicle of Nestor, which assigned to the Khanty and Mansi the common name jugra, places them in the vicinity of the Pechora River in 1092; they did not shift to the Ob waterways until several centuries later.Both groups live for the most part within the Khanty-Mansi autonomous okrug, which has its administrative centre in Khanty-Mansiysk at the confluence of the Ob and Irtyshrivers. The Khanty are concentrated along the Ob and its eastern tributaries, while the Mansi are found along the western tributaries primarily north of the Irtysh and just east of the Urals; a few Mansi speakers are also found in the Arctic lands west of the Urals.Because of the great distances between the various groups, the dialects of both languages show considerable divergence. They are usually designated by the name of the river on which they are spoken. Mansi has four main dialect groups, of which one (Tavda) is practically extinct and another (Konda) is spoken only by individuals above a certain age. The largest dialect group (Northern) is centred on the Sosva and serves as the basis for the literary language. Khanty is divided into three main dialects: a northern dialect in the general area of the mouth of the Ob, an eastern dialect extending from east of the Irtysh to the Vakh and Vasyugan tributaries, and a southern dialect lying between the other two. Literary Khanty has been based primarily on the northern group, but standardization remains weak, and since 1950 other dialects have also been used.Both of the Ob-Ugric languages first appeared in printed form in 1868 as a result of Gospel translations published in London, but it was not until after the formation of their autonomous okrug in 1930 that any sort of literary form of either language really existed. Until 1937 numerous books were published using a modified Latin (roman) alphabet; since then Cyrillic has been used. Some elementary education is conducted in the native languages within the okrug.FinnicFinnishFinnish, together with Swedish (an unrelated North Germanic language), serves as a national language of Finland. It is now spoken by more than 5,000,000 people, including about 95 percent of the inhabitants of Finland plus some 265,000 Finns in North America, Sweden, and Russia. It is also recognized as an official language in Russia’s Karelian region, alongside Russian.Finnish as the common language of the Finns is not the direct descendant of one of the original Baltic-Finnic dialects; rather, it arose through the interaction of several separate groups in the territory of modern Finland. These included the Häme; the southwestern Finns (originally called Suomi), who appear to be close relatives to the Estonians because they arrived directly from across the Gulf of Finland; and the Karelians, perhaps themselves a blend of Veps and more western Finnic groups. Early Russian chronicles refer to these as jemj, sumj, and korela. The intermixture of the three groups is still reflected in the distribution of the five main modern dialects, which form a western and an eastern area. The western area contains the southwestern dialect (near Turku), Häme (south-central), and a northern dialect subgroup (largely a mixture of the other two plus eastern traits). The eastern area consists of the Savo dialect (perhaps a blend of the original Karelian and Häme dialects) and a southeastern dialect, which strongly resembles Karelian. The Finnish word for their land and their language is suomi, the original meaning of which is uncertain. The first use of the term Finn (fenni) is found in the 1st century CE in Tacitus’s Germania, but this usage is generally considered to refer to the ancestors of the Sami, who have also been labeled Finns at various times. (The province of Norwegian Lappland is called Finnmark.)The first book in Finnish was an alphabet book from 1543 by Mikael Agricola, founder of the Finnish literary language; Agricola’s translation of the New Testament appeared five years later. Finnish was accorded official status in 1809, when Finland entered the Russian Empire after six centuries of Swedish domination. The publication of the national folk epic, the Kalevala, created from folk songs collected among the eastern dialects by the folklorist and philologist Elias Lönnrot (first edition in 1835; substantially expanded in 1849), gave increased impetus to the movement to develop a common national language encompassing all dialect areas.EstonianEstonian serves as the official language of Estonia, located immediately south of Finland across the Gulf of Finland. Most of the more than 1,000,000 speakers of Estonian live within Estonia, but others can be found in Russia, North America, and Sweden. Modern Estonian is the descendant of one or possibly two of the original Baltic-Finnic dialects. The modern language has two major dialects, a northern one, which is spoken in most of the country, and a southern one, which extends from Tartuto the south. The northernmost dialects share many features with the southwestern Finnish dialect. The Estonians’ own name eesti came into general use only in the 19th century. The name aestii is first encountered in Tacitus, but it is likely that it referred to neighbouring Baltic-Finnic peoples.The first connected texts in Estonian are religious translations from 1524; the Wanradt-Koell Catechism, the first book, was printed in Wittenberg in 1535. Two centres of culture developed—Tallinn (formerly Revel) in the north and Tartu (Dorpat) in the south; in the 17th century each gave rise to a distinct literary language. Influenced by the Finnish Kalevala, the Estonian author F. Reinhold Kreutzwald fashioned a national epic, Kalevipoeg (“The Son of Kalevi”), which appeared in 20 songs between 1857 and 1861. As with the Kalevala, this was instrumental in kindling renewed interest in a common national literary language in the late 19th century.Smaller Baltic-Finnic groupsThe five less-numerous Baltic-Finnic groups—Karelian, Veps, Ingrian, Votic, and Livonian—lie within Russia and the Baltic nations, largely in the general vicinity of the Gulf of Finland. The Karelians, Veps, and Livonians were among the original Baltic-Finnic tribes; Votic is considered to be an offshoot of Estonian, and Ingrian a remote branch of Karelian. None of these languages currently has a literary form, although unsuccessful initial attempts to establish one have been made for all but Votic (for Livonian as early as the 19th century, for the others during the 1930s). Since the beginning of the 20th century, the numbers of these Baltic-Finnic speakers have been drastically reduced. The last known speaker of Livonian died in 2013, and, with the exception of Karelian and Veps, the extinction of the others within several generations seems certain. Ingrian and Votic each have fewer than 200 speakers.Karelian, the largest of these groups, with some 25,000 speakers—not counting those Karelians who emigrated into Finland following World War II—lies along a broad zone just east of the Finnish border from just north of St. Petersburg to the White Sea. A separate group of Karelians is found far to the south near Tver (formerly Kalinin) on the upper Volga. Karelian has two major dialects, Karelian proper and Olonets (aunus in Finnish), which is spoken northeast of Lake Ladoga. One of the first historical mentions of the Karelians is found in a report of the Viking Ohthere to King Alfred of Wessex at the end of the 9th century; this indicates that they were already on the southern Kola Peninsula as neighbours of the Sami and gives their name as beorma.The language of one of the original Baltic-Finnic tribes, Veps, is spoken southeast on a line connecting lower Lake Ladoga with central Lake Onega. In the early 21st century, only slightly more than one-fourth of the ethnic population of some 6,000 Veps still consider the language their native tongue—a sharp decline from the 26,172 speakers reported in the mid-1800s. A small Baltic-Finnic group, composed of the Ludic dialects, is found between Veps and Karelian and is generally considered a blend of the two major groups rather than a separate language; the dialects are more closely akin to Karelian. The Ingrians and the Votes live on the southern Gulf of Finland in the border area between Estonia and Russia, where they survived because the border area was for many years closed to outsiders, even to visitors from other parts of the Soviet Union. Livonian persisted in a few villages on the northernmost tip of Latvia, on the CourlandPeninsula, but the language is now considered extinct.Sami and other Finnic groupsThe Sami (Lapp) languagesThe Sami are widely distributed, inhabiting territory from central Norway northward and eastward across northern Sweden and Finland to the Kola Peninsula. Their numbers have increased over the past century to more than 30,000, but the number of Sami speakers has declined rapidly since 1950 as the language has given way to the various official national languages. Sami is generally divided into three main dialect groups, each comprising various subtypes. These dialects are virtually mutually unintelligible, so that when speakers of different Sami groups meet they generally converse in Finnish, Swedish, or Norwegian. To speak of a single Sami (or Lapp) language is therefore misleading. Sami represents a group of at least four or five languages at least as diverse as the separate Baltic-Finnic languages. The largest group, North Sami (with approximately two-thirds of all speakers), is centred in northern Norway, Sweden, and Finland. East Sami consists of two small groups in eastern Finland—Inari and Skolt—in addition to Kola Sami in Russia. South Sami is still represented by a few speakers scattered from central Norway to north-central Sweden.North Sami has had a literary tradition that began with the 17th-century Swedish Sami Bible and other religious translations; in the mid-20th century elementary schools that used Sami as the language of instruction were found in many larger North Sami communities. Two basic variants of the literary language are in use. One, in Norway and Sweden, employs a special Sami orthographic system devised to accommodate a wide range of dialectal variation; a second, in Finland, is based on a narrower adaptation of Finnish orthography. Each of the two types has numerous local variants, and progress toward a common Sami orthography has been slow.It is clear that the Sami were already present north of the Gulf of Finland prior to the arrival of the first Baltic-Finnic tribes, and from there they may have extended over much of the Scandinavian Peninsula. They have been mentioned as the northern neighbours of the north Germanic tribes in numerous historical sources of the 1st millennium of the Common Era. The Sami were taxed by the Norwegians in the 9th century and by the Karelians in the 13th century and since that time have continually retreated northward under pressure from their southern neighbours. The Sami’s own name for themselves, sabme, is etymologically related to the Finnish dialect name, häme.Other Finnic languagesMordvin, Mari, and two of the Permic languages—Udmurt and Komi—are recognized by separate republics within Russia (respectively Mordoviya, Mari El, Udmurtiya, and Komi). They also share official status with the Russian language. Mordvin, Mari, and Udmurt are centred on the middle Volga River, in roughly the area considered to have been the original home of Proto-Finno-Ugric. Because of their location, the history of these groups over the past millennium has been closely tied to that of the Turkic Bulgars, the Tatars (until 1552), and then the Russians. The Komi, having moved far to the north, eventually reaching into the Arctic tundra, did not come under Bulgar or Tatar influence. Old Permic, a written form of early Komi, was used in religious manuscripts in the 14th century, and a native Komi literary tradition stems from the 19th century. Grammars of Mari and Udmurt prepared by Russian linguists appeared in 1775, but native literary development in these languages, as well as in Mordvin, is of relatively recent origin. Although those groups enjoyed the status of large minorities during the Soviet era, their numbers have increased over the past century, and they have maintained ethnic consciousness.MordvinMordvin, with some 393,000 speakers (of the 843,000 Mordvins reported in 2010), is the fourth largest Uralic group. The Mordvins are widely scattered over an area between the Oka and Volga rivers, some 200 miles southwest of Moscow. Less than half of their number live within the republic of Mordoviya. Mordvin has two main dialects, Moksha and Erzya, which are sometimes considered separate languages. Both have literary status. Although the Mordvins do not have a common designation for themselves beyond the two dialect names, the name Mordens appears in the 6th-century Getica of Jordanes and is no doubt related to the Permic word for ‘man,’ murt/mort.MariMari (formerly known as Cheremis) is currently maintained by more than 500,000 speakers (approximately three-fourths of the ethnic Mari). They live primarily in an area north of the Volga between Kazan and Nizhny Novgorod, northeast of the Mordvin area, especially within Mari El republic. Mari El’s three main dialects are the Meadow dialect, used by the largest group north of the Volga and the basic dialect of the republic; Eastern Mari, used by a small group near Ufa, originally speakers of the Meadow dialect who emigrated in the late 18th century; and the Mountain dialect, to the west and on the south bank of the Volga. The Mountain and Meadow dialects both serve as literary languages and differ from each other only in minor details.The Permic languagesSpeakers of the three closely related Permic languages, Udmurt, Komi, and Permyak, number some 600,000. Udmurt is concentrated largely in the vicinity of the lower Kama River just east of Mari El republic, in Udmurtiya. Only very minor dialectal differences are found within Udmurt.The Komi language area extends into the Nenets and Yamalo-Nenets autonomous okrugs far to the north. Lesser groups of Komi are found as far west as the Kola Peninsula and east of the Urals. Two major dialects are recognized, although the differences are not great: Komi (Zyryan), the largest group, which serves as the literary basis within Komi republic; and Komi-Yazva, spoken by a small, isolated group of Komi to the east of Komi-Permyak autonomous okrug and south of Komi republic. Permyak (also called Komi-Permyak) is spoken in Komi-Permyak, where it has literary status.SamoyedicNenets, with the largest number of speakers of all the Samoyed languages, has grown substantially in size over the past century, from some 9,200 speakers in 1897 to about 22,000 in 2010. Two distinct groups of Nenets differ in dialect as well as in cultural traditions: the Forest Nenets, a smaller, more-concentrated group in the wooded area north of the central Ob River; and the Tundra Nenets, a group whose territory stretches roughly 1,000 miles eastward from the White Sea. These are the “Samoyadj” of Nestor’s chronicles, but little is known of the history of any of the Samoyed peoples until recent centuries.Nenets alone among the Samoyedic languages can claim a native literature, although both it and Selkup have been in written form since the 1930s. Evidence of the cultural prestige of certain Nenets tribes is seen in the adoption of a Samoyed language by Khanty speakers on the Yamal Peninsula. Enets is spoken by a dwindling group of fewer than a hundred Samoyeds near the mouth of the Yenisey River, just east of the Nenets. Nganasan, spoken by the northernmost Eurasian people, is found north and east of the Enets-speaking group, centring on the Taymyr Peninsula. The number of Nganasans has remained fairly constant, and they seem to have a high degree of ethnic identity, though less than 20 percent of some 900 Nganasans still claimed Nganasan as their mother tongue in the 2010 census.Selkup, the last of the southern Samoyed languages, is represented by scattered groups of speakers who live on the central West Siberian Plain between the Ob and the Yenisey. Less than half of the 4,200 Selkup recorded in the 2010 census spoke Selkup.Yukaghir: a probable relativeThe Yukaghir, in two small areas of Sakha republic and Magadan oblast (province) of northeastern Siberia, had reached 1,600 by the 2010 census. But at the same time the number of Yukaghir speakers had dwindled to 370.