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Make in India, a type of Swadeshi movement covering 25 sectors of the economy,was launched by the Government of Indiaon 25 September 2014 to encourage companies to manufacture their products in India and also increase their investment. As per the current policy, 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is permitted in all 25 sectors, except for Space industry (74%), defence industry (49%) and Media of India (26%).Japan and India had also announced a US$12 billion "Japan-India Make-in-India Special Finance Facility" fund to push investment.After the launch, India received investment commitments worth ₹16.40 lakh crore (US$230 billion) and investment inquiries worth ₹1.5 lakh crore (US$21 billion) between September 2014 to February 2016.As a result, India emerged as the top destination globally in 2015 for foreign direct investment (FDI), surpassing the USA and China, with US$60.1 billion FDI.Several states launched their own Make in India initiatives, such as Vibrant Gujarat, "Happening Haryana" and "Magnetic Maharashtra".India received US $60 billion FDI in FY 2016-17.Combined with other initiatives by the end of 2017, India rose 42 places on Ease of doing business index, 32 places World Economic Forum’s Global Competitiveness Index, and 19 notches in the Logistics Performance Index.This initiative converges, synergises and enables other important Government of India schemes, such as Bharatmala, Sagarmala, Dedicated Freight Corridors, Industrial corridors, UDAN-RCS, Bharat Broadband Network, Digital India.The "Make In India" initiativeMake in India was launched on 25 September 2014 with the objective of job creation and skill enhancement in 25 sectors of the economy, and "to transform India into a global design and manufacturing hub".Ease of Doing BusinessIndia jumped to 100th place out of 190 countries in the World Bank's 2017 Ease of Doing Business Index, from 130th in 2016.In February 2017, the government appointed the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the National Productivity Council "to sensitise actual users and get their feedback on various reform measures".As a result, now there is competition among the states of India to improve their current ranking on the ease of doing business index based on the completion percentage scores on 98-point action plan for business reform under make in India initiative. Currently Telangana, Haryana, Odisha, Chhattisgarh and West Bengal(44.35%) are top five states (c. Feb 2018).Ongoing global campaignThe campaign was designed by Wieden+Kennedy,with the launch of a web portal and release of brochures on the 25 sectors, after foreign equity caps, norms and procedures in various sectors were relaxed, including application of manufacturing application made available online and the validity of licenses was increased to three years."Zero Defect Zero Effect" slogan was coined by Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi, to emphasize on the production mechanism that produces products with no defects with no adverse environmental and ecological effects."Make in India Week" multi-sectoral industrial event at the MMRDA from 13 February 2016 was attended by 2500+ international and 8000+ domestic, foreign government delegations from 68 countries and business teams from 72 countries and 17 Indian states also held expos. Event received over ₹15.2 lakh crore (US$210 billion) worth of investment commitments and investment inquiries worth ₹1.5 lakh crore (US$21 billion), where Maharashtra led with ₹8 lakh crore (US$110 billion) of investments.Previously between September 2014 and November 2015, the government received ₹1.20 lakh crore (US$17 billion) worth of proposals from companies interested in manufacturing electronics in India,Sectors coveredMake in India focuses on the following 25 sectors of the economy:AutomobilesGeneral Motors announced an investment of US$1 billion to manufacture automobiles in Maharashtra.In April 2017, Kia announced that the company would invest over $1.1 billion to build a car manufacturing plant in Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh. The facility is the company's first manufacturing plant in India. Kia stated that it would hire 3,000 employees for the plant, and it would produce 300,000 cars annually. Construction of the plant began in mid-2017, and is expected to be completed by March 2019. The first vehicles are scheduled to roll off production lines in mid-2019. Kia president Han-Woo Park announced that the first model produced at the plant would be an SUV(sport utility vehicle) specifically designed for the Indian market.Park also added that Kia would invest over $2 billion and create 10,000 jobs in India by 2021.In March 2016, B.K Modi group announced that it is going to set up an electric bus manufacturing plant near Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh. The investment is through a technological tie-up with BYD.In July 2017, SAIC Motor announced that it is going to invest ₹2,000 crore ($300 million) to build a car manufacturing plant in Halol, Gujarat.In Mid-2017, European automobile major PSA announced that in a partnership with CK Birla Group, it is going to build a car manufacturing plant in Tamil Nadu at the cost of ₹7,000 crore($1.03 billion)Automobile componentsHitachi announced an auto-component plant in Chennai by 2016 with an increase in their India employees count from 10,000 to 13,000.AviationFrench drone manufacturer LH Aviation announced a manufacturing plant in India to produce drones.During Magnetic Maharashtra: Convergence 2018 , Thurst Aircraft Pvt Ltd signed a MOU with Govt. of Maharashtra to build an aeroplane manufacturing plant near Palghar district(roughly 140 km north of Mumbai) with an investment of ₹35,000 crore($5.2 billion).BiotechnologyChemicalsConstructionIn January 2016, Chinese conglomerate Dalian Wanda Group announced that it would construct an industrial, residential and tourism city in Haryana at the cost of ₹68,000 crore ($10 billion).However the project was deadlocked as on 28 April 2017 because the company management was resisting a demand by the Haryana state government for a 26% equity share.Defence manufacturingIndia and Russia have deepened their Make in India defence manufacturing cooperation by signing agreements for the construction of naval frigates, KA-226T twin-engine utility helicopters (joint venture (JV) to make 60 in Russia and 140 in India), Brahmos cruise missile (JV with 50.5% India and 49.5% Russia).A defence deal was signed during Prime Minister Narendra Modi's visit to Russia in December 2015 which will see the Kamov Ka-226 multi-role helicopter being built in India, was widely seen as the first defence deal to be actually signed under the Make in India campaign.In August 2015, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) began talks with Russia's Irkut Corp to transfer technology of 332 components of the Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter aircraft under the Make in India program. These components, also called line replacement units (LRUs) refer to both critical and non-critical components and fall into four major heads such as Radio and Radar; Electrical & Electronics System; Mechanical System and Instrument System.Lockheed Martin announced in February 2016 its plans to manufacture F-16 in India, although it did not announce any time frame. In February 2017, Lockheed stated that it intended to manufacture the F-16 Block-70 aircraft with a local partner in India, if the Indian Air Force agreed to purchase the aircraft.Boeing announced setting up a factory to assemble fighter planes, either the Apache or Chinook defence helicopter in India, as well as the manufacture of F/A-18 Super Hornet.In May 2018, the Indian Army announced a ₹50,000 crore (US$7.0 billion) ammunition production project to be implemented in phases over a 10-year period. Under the project, 11 private firms will manufacture and supply ammunition for the Army's tanks, rockets, air defence system, artillery guns, infantry combat vehicles, grenade launchers and other field weapons. The Army noted that the objectives of the program were to cut dependence on foreign imports and to establish an inventory of ammunition that would sufficient to fight a 30-day war.Defence exportsIndia confirmed that it will upgrade Myanmar's T-72 tanks, supply DRDO's radars to Armenia, Kamov 226 T multi-utility helicopters to Jordan, indigenously developed lightweight torpedoes to Myanmar (previously sold to Sri Lanka and Vietnam), Astra 70-kilometer range air- to-air missile and 40,000 pieces of a component used in Bofors artillery guns for Rs 322 crore to UAE, and manufacture DRDO weapons in Saudi Arabia by 2018 (Dec 2017 update).Electronic systemsWith the demand for electronic hardware expected to rise rapidly to US$400 billion by 2020, India has the potential to become an electronic manufacturing hub and government is targeting to achieve net zero imports of electronics by 2020. After the launch of this project, 24.8% of smartphones sold in India in the April–June quarter of 2015 were made in India, up from 19.9% the previous quarter.Various companies pledged investment in India to begin manufacturingFoxconn: US$5 billion investment over 5 years in research and development and hi-tech semiconductor manufacturing facility in Maharashtra.Huawei: new research and development (R&D) campus in Bengaluru with an investment of US$170 million and telecom hardware manufacturing plant in Chennai.Lenovo: manufacturing of Motorola at Sriperumbudur near Chennai run by Flextronics.Micromax: 3 new manufacturing units in Rajasthan, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh with ₹3 billion (US$42 million) investment).Qualcomm: "Design in India" programme to mentor ten Indian hardware companies with the potential to come up with innovative solutions and help them reach global scale.Samsung: 10 "MSME-Samsung Technical Schools" and manufacturing of Samsung Z1 in its plant in Noida).Spice Group: ₹5 billion (US$70 million) mobile phone manufacturing unit in Uttar Pradesh.Vivo Mobile India began manufacturing smartphones at a plant in Greater Noida with 2,200 employs.Wistron: Taiwanese company to start manufacturing of Blackberry, HTC and Motorola devices at a new factory in Noida.Xiaomi: smartphones to be manufactured at a Foxconn-run facility in Sri City made operational by producing Xiaomi Redmi 2 Prime.HMD Global: Finnish company announced in early 2018 that it will start manufacturing all the parts of Nokia phones in Foxconn run facility in Chennai.Electrical machineryFood processingIndia is among the largest producers of fruits, vegetables, rice and milk globally with trade surplus in food items export.Aarisa Pitha of Jharkhand, Gushtaba of Kashmir, Chicken Curry of Punjab, Khakhra and Khandvi of Gujarat, Bamboo Steam Fish, Vada and Medhu Vada of Karnataka, Khajaand Inarsa of Bihar , Kebab of Uttar Pradesh and Puran poli of Maharashtra have been selected as traditional regional food to be promoted in the ongoing campaign.Marine Products Export Development Authority announced the deal to supply shrimp eggs to farmer in India for eventual exports of shrimp from India to other countries.In Odisha Investor Summit, Poseidon Aquatech announced plans to undertake shrimp farming and processing in the state at the cost of ₹100 crore($14.7 million).Noodles manufacturer Indo Nissin Foods Ltd also announced that it intended to invest additional ₹50 crore($7.3 million) to expand the existing facility by 2017.ExportsIn December 2017, India announced it will shortly announce a new agricultural exports policy to promote Indian and organic foods, enhance compliance of phytosanitaryinternational food-safety requirements, development of farm-to-port and farm-to-airport cold chain with focus on 25 farm export clusters.Information technology and business process managementLeatherMedia and entertainmentMiningDuring Odisha investor summit, NLC India signed a MOU with govt. of Odisha to set up a coal mining processing plant at the cost of ₹7,500 crore($1.1 billion).Oil and gasIn April 2018, Saudi Arabian Oil giant Aramco signed an initial deal with a consortium of Indian refiners to build a $44 billion refinery and petrochemical project on India's west coast. The project will include a 1.2 million-barrels-per-day (bpd) refinery, integrated with petrochemical facilities with a total capacity of 18 million tonnes per year.PharmaceuticalssIn April 2018, During PM Modi's visit to Sweden, Biopharmaceutical firm AstraZeneca said it will invest around ₹ 590 crore($90 million) in India over the next five years.Ports and shippingRailwaysAlstom/GE Transportation: The French and American rolling stock manufacturers announced ₹400 billion (US$5.6 billion) locomotive manufacturing factories in Madhepura and Marhaura in Bihar.Hyperloop One: The American company working to commercialise Hyperloop, signed a Framework Agreement with govt. of Maharashtra to begin the development of the route from Mumbai to Pune, starting with an operational demonstration track.Rapid TransitCRRC: The Chinese Giant announced in 2016 that it is going to set up a Railway equipment plant in Bavo, Haryana in DMIC with an investment of $63.5 million.Renewable energyIn February 2018, During Uttar Pradesh investors summit. Avaada Power and ReNew Power announced Solar projects worth ₹ 10,000 crore($1.4 billion) and ₹8,000 crore($1.1billion) each.During Magnetic Maharashtra: Convergence 2018, ReNew Power signed a MOU with govt. of Maharashtra and announced a solar projects worth $2.17 billion.In August 2016, NLC India announced that it is going to set up a 500MW Solar Power Plant in Odisha at the cost of ₹3,000 crore($441 million)Roads and highwaysSpace and astronomyThermal powerIn May 2017, the Union Cabinet approved the construction of 10 indigenously-built Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs). The contracts for the reactors worth an estimated ₹70,000 crore (US$9.7 billion) will be awarded to Indian companies. The construction 10 reactors with a combined nuclear capacity of 7 GW is also expected to create 33,400 direct and indirect jobs.During Odisha investor summit, NLC India signed a MOU with govt. of Odisha to set up a 2,000MW Thermal power plant at the cost of ₹15,000 crore($2.2 billion)Textiles and garmentsTourism and hospitalityWellness and HealthcarInternational healthcare firm Columbia Asia announced in June 2017, that it will invest over Rs 400 crore ($60 million) to set up two new hospitals in India by the end of 2019 as it looks to expand presence in the country.In Assam investor summit, Indo-UK Institute of Health announced that it will setup a medical city in Guwahati at cost of ₹1600 crore($231 million)During Happening Haryana summit, Patanjali group announced that it would set up a Healthcare university and a healthcare centre with an investment of ₹5,000 crore($735 million).In April 2015, Patanjali Ayurved announced that it is going to open 10000 Yoga Gym in Haryana to promote wellness, develop positive thinking among youths and immunise them from day-to-day ailments.

Solanum tuberosum Linn.It belongs to family Solanaceae (Dicotyledonae).Taxonomy followed of Bentham Hoocker, Hachinson, Englar Prantel, Haswel Parker.IdentityPreferred Scientific NameSolanum tuberosum L. or Linn. or LinneausPreferred Common NamepotatoOther Scientific NamesSolanum cultum (A. DC.) Berth.Solanum esculentum Neck.Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena HawkesSolanum tuberosum subsp. tuberosum (L.) HawkesInternational Common NamesEnglish: English potato; Irish potato; white potatoSpanish: papa; patataFrench: pomme de terreRussian: kartofel'Chinese: ma ling shu; yang shuPortuguese: batataLocal Common NamesCambodia: dâmlông barangCroatia: krumpirCzech Republic: bramborGermany: KartoffelHaiti: parmentiére; pomme té; prome téIndonesia: kentangIreland: prátaItaly: patata; pomo di terraLaos: man fàlangxMalaysia: ubi kentang; ubi kentengMyanmar: ah-lu; ahr-lu; ar-looNetherlands: aardappelPapua New Guinea: potetoPhilippines: papas; patatasPoland: ziemniakPortugal: batataSlovakia: zemiakSlovenia: krumpirSweden: potatisThailand: man-alu; man-farangTurkey: patatesUkraine: kartoplyaVietnam: khoai taayEPPO codeSOLTU (Solanum tuberosum)Summary of InvasivenessSolanum tuberosum is native to Central and South America, but is now widely naturalized beyond its native range in extra-tropical regions and is considered a weed in many places including Australia, Indonesia, Micronesia, India, and Turkey (Holm et al., 1979; Randall, 2012). It has been declared a noxious weed in the United States, Turkey and South Africa (Randall, 2012) and listed in the American Lands Alliance’s “Worst Invasive Species in the conterminous United States” list (Randall, 2012). It is considered an agricultural weed on plantations and cultivated fields in parts of the Pacific Islands where it has been introduced (Randall, 2012). Because of the species’ global importance as a staple food crop, caution and vigilance is essential when cultivating the species in order to minimize escape into the wild.Taxonomic TreeDomain: EukaryotaKingdom: PlantaePhylum: SpermatophytaSubphylum: AngiospermaeClass: DicotyledonaeOrder: SolanalesFamily: SolanaceaeGenus: SolanumSpecies: Solanum tuberosumNotes on Taxonomy and NomenclatureThe Solanaceae or Nightshade family consists of 90 genera and 3000-4000 species with great variation in habit and distribution on all continents except Antarctica, with the majority of species diversity in Central and South America (PBI Solanum Project, 2014). This family includes some of the world’s most important crop plant species, including potatoes, peppers, and tomatoes, as well as some of the world’s deadliest plant species, including belladonna (Atropa belladonna), jimsonweed (Datura stramonium), satan’s apple (Mandragora officinarum) and black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger).Solanum is one of the largest genera of vascular plants with between 1000 and 1500 species, 1000 of which are speculated to be of American origin (Hunziker, 1979). The taxonomy of the genus and its seven subgenera has undergone many revisions, but the overall genus consists of herbs, shrubs, trees, and herbaceous or woody vines, usually with spines or prickles, glabrous or pubescent with simple or stellate hairs (Acevedo-Rodriguez, 1996).The genus Solanum includes the potato, S. tuberosum, the tomato, S. lycopersicum, and the aubergine, S. melongena, with many other members cultivated for medicinal and ornamental uses. While the etymology of the genus’ scientific name is unclear, it may be derived from the Latin word “sol”, meaning "sun," referring to its affinity for sunlight, or from the Latin word “solare”, meaning "to soothe”, the Latin word “solamen”, meaning "a comfort", or the Akkadian word “sululu”, meaning “happy”, in reference to the narcotic effects of some Solanum species after ingestion (Smith, 1971; Wiart, 2006; Quattrocchi, 2012; NZPCN, 2014).The potato is among the world’s most important crop plants. There are over 5000 cultivars of this species, due to its long and widespread cultivation throughout the world. The species name tuberosum refers to this global use of the tuber as a food.S. tuberosum is a complex species with diploid, triploid and tetraploid representatives. The tetraploid plants are most important worldwide; they are classified into two cultivar groups: cv. group Andigena (S. tuberosum subsp. andigena) and cv. group Tuberosum (S. tuberosum subsp. tuberosum). The tetraploid subspecies andigena is reportedly derived from a natural cross of the diploid cultivated potato S. stenotomum and the diploid weedy species S. sparsipilum, resulting in a doubled chromosome count (Cribb and Hawkes, 1986; D’Arcy, 1986), with the subspecies tuberosum reportedly derived from andigena through gene mutation and selection in Chile and Europe (Cribb and Hawkes, 1986).DescriptionS. tuberosum is an erect, juicy herb with numerous fleshy, robust, angular, branched stems up to 1.2 m tall and subterranean tubiform stolons. Root system usually 40-50 cm deep, without obstructions up to 1 m. Tubers developing at the tip of the stolons, globose to ellipsoid, very variable in size, weight and colour; tuber skin with scars of scale leaves ('eyebrows'), axillary buds ('eyes', usually several eye buds per eyebrow), numerous lenticels, almost impermeable to chemicals, gases and liquids, providing good protection against microorganisms and water loss; number of eyes very variable, normally about 10-15 on a tuber of 50 g.Stems up to 1.5 cm in diameter, usually hollow, winged; wings sometimes decurrent and undulate-crenulate. Leaves alternate, petiolate, odd pinnately compound, with or without numerous interstitial leaflets, in outline 10-30 cm x 5-15 cm; lateral leaflets opposite or alternate, usually 3-4 pairs, very unequal in size, largest ones stalked, ovate to ovate-elliptical, 2-10 cm x 1-6 cm, smallest ones subsessile, ovate to suborbicular, 1-15 mm in diameter; terminal leaflet usually largest; all leaflets thinly to densely pubescent, dark green, pinnatinerved. Inflorescence a many-flowered cymose panicle, sometimes with small bracteoles; peduncle 5-15 cm long, branching above; pedicel up to 3.5 cm long, articulate at or above the middle; flowers white or white suffused with pink or violet, typically with a greenish-yellow central star; calyx campanulate, 1.5-2 cm in diameter, deeply 5-partite, pubescent outside; corolla subrotate to rotate-stellate, 2-4 cm in diameter, with 5 acuminate lobes, finely veined, pubescent outside; anthers 5, 5-7 mm long, free, erect but slightly curved around the style, yellow, dehiscence by 2 apical pores, each on a short, thick filament; style up to 13 mm long, stigma clavellate to capitate. Fruit a subglobose berry, up to 2 cm in diameter, yellow-green, 2-carpellate, many-seeded, poisonous. Seed flat, subcircular to ovate, 1-3 mm in diameter, pale yellow-brownish.Plant TypeHerbaceousPerennialSeed propagatedVegetatively propagatedDistributionThe species of Solanum are considered native to Central and South America, mainly to the highland plains ('puna') and Andes mountains between 40°N and 45°S. S. tuberosum is considered native to the Peruvian-Bolivian Andes region, but has been introduced to most parts of the world. It is cultivated throughout the West Indies (Acevedo-Rodriguez and Strong, 2012) and the upland regions of Mesoamerica (Gentry and D’Arcy, 1986), as well as throughout Europe, in much of Asia, and in many other regions. The Distribution Table does not list all the countries where S. tuberosum is grown as a crop.Distribution TableThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.History of Introduction and SpreadThe species of Solanum are considered native to Central and South America, mainly to the highland plains ('puna') and Andes mountains between 40°N and 45°S. S. tuberosum includes thousands of varieties that vary by size, shape, colour, and other sensory characteristics. The cultivated potato originated in the Peru-Colombia-Chile region of the South American Andes, but has a wide-ranging centre of diversity from Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile across the Pampa and Chaco regions of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern Brazil and northward into Central America, Mexico, and the southwestern United States (Kiple and Ornelas, 2000; Wagner et al., 2014). Based on archaeological and genetic evidence the first domestications occurred at least 8000 years ago in the high Andes of Peru and Bolivia (Hunziker, 1979; Cribb and Hawkes, 1986), and during the Spanish conquest the cultivated potato was being grown in the Andes, from Venezuela to northern Argentina and into the lowland regions of Chile (Cribb and Hawkes, 1986).Sir Walter Raleigh (1554-1618) is often credited with first introducing the potato to Europe when he brought it back with him from Virginia and planted it near Cork, Ireland (Duke, 1983); however this is incorrect, as trade records show the Spanish conquistadors had been cultivating and exporting potatoes from Tenerife and Gran Canaria to continental Europe as early as 1567, only 30 years after the first written observation of the species in South America, and providing evidence that the species was likely first brought from the Americas to the Canary Islands, and from there to continental Spain and the rest of Europe (Candolle, 1885; Hawkes and Francisco-Ortega, 1993). The species was initially used in Europe to feed pigs, before becoming a staple crop for humans (Wiart, 2006).During the 18th and 19th Centuries the potato was introduced into several tropical and subtropical countries, including the South-East Asian region, mainly by colonists from Europe. It was introduced into Papua New Guinea in the early 1930s, where it is now a popular cash crop in the highlands at altitudes above 1500 m.Date of introduction to the West Indies is uncertain. The species was not included in Bello’s works (1881; 1883) or in Urban’s work on the Antilles (1898-1928), but the species was included in Britton’s 1918 work on Bermuda, where he reported it had been cultivated “since the early days of the colony”. A specimen of the species was collected in Haiti in 1928 (Smithsonian Herbarium Collection).The species has been present in Africa as a widely cultivated food crop since at least the early 19th century (Jaeger and Hepper, 1986).Risk of IntroductionBased on the current literature, the species poses a risk to native flora. It is a declared noxious weed in the United States and South Africa (Randall, 2012; USDA-NRCS, 2014) and listed in the American Lands Alliance’s “Worst Invasive Species in the conterminous United States” list (Randall, 2012). It is considered an agricultural weed on plantations and cultivated fields in parts of the Pacific Islands where it has been introduced (Randall, 2012). Because of the species’ global importance as a staple food crop both in the international commercial industry and on the local scale, caution and vigilance is essential when cultivating the species in order to minimize cultivation escape into the wild.HabitatS. tuberosum is one of the most important food crops of the world, and grown in cool-temperate regions and at higher altitudes in the tropics (Wagner et al., 2014). It is native to the mountainous areas of Bolivia, Chile and Peru. It is an important food crop in the mountainous countryside of China (An-ming, 1986). In Antioquia, Colombia the species has been reported growing in Lower Montane Rain Forest (bh-MB) and Lower Montane Wet Forest (Vascular Plants of Antioquia, 2014), while in Bolivia it is recorded growing in dry valleys, the Yungas forest, and humid puna grassland of the central Andes region (Bolivia Checklist, 2014).Habitat ListBiology and EcologyGeneticsThere are numerous cultivars of S. tuberosum. Sporophytic count has been reported as 2n=24, 36, 48, 72, 96 (Wagner et al., 2014; IPCN Chromosome Reports, 2014).Botanical InformationTetraploid S. tuberosum can be classified into two cultivar groups, with the following characteristics:- cultivar group Andigena (subsp. andigena), mainly occurring in South America from Venezuela to northern Argentina and is supposed to have originated by chromosome doubling in an unknown wild diploid species from the Andean region between Bolivia and Venezuela. Its members are tall, often straggling; leaves intensively dissected with numerous leaflets; adapted to short days; they usually produce rather irregularly shaped, deep-eyed and often pigmented tubers that are usually not acceptable to the more sophisticated markets of Europe and North America. They are also grown to a small extent in Mexico and Guatemala.- cultivar group Tuberosum (subsp. tuberosum), mainly occurring in Europe and North America, supposed to have originated from selections made during the last 300 years from cv. group Andigena. Its members are smaller, less straggling, with less dissected leaves and are adapted to long days. This group has become a world crop and is now cosmopolitan in distribution. It was first introduced into Europe where selection began and from where cultivars spread to North America. With growing interest in the crop, supplementary introductions from South America were made to both these regions. Continuing selection has led to the establishment of numerous cultivars, a process still going on wherever the crop is grown. Cultivars vary in characteristics of their tubers, sprouts, foliage, flowers, growth cycle and disease resistance; much of the variability is also influenced by the environment. Propagation by true seed, however, produces variability due to genetic recombination.Growth and DevelopmentThe general growth and development patterns of potato plants are characteristic within cultivars, but also vary with the environment and fertilizer treatments.After harvest, tubers usually enter a period of dormancy, the duration of which depends on cultivar, maturity of the tuber, soil and climatic conditions during growth, and storage conditions. It often lasts for 2-6 months, but in some cases bud growth has already started before harvest. High temperatures during growth and storage tend to shorten dormancy and low temperatures prolong the dormancy period. Dormancy can be broken by treating tubers with chemicals such as chlorohydrin, thiourea or gibberellic acid. However, naturally sprouted tubers without the use of chemicals are preferred as they give more uniform germination and better growth. Once the period of natural dormancy has ended, the seed tuber passes through various subsequent physiological stages: apical dominance of sprouts, multiple sprouting and senility. An apical sprout is dominant over the other buds, so these remain dormant. Only when this apical or top sprout is removed (de-sprouting) will the other buds of the tuber develop sprouts during this phase. The degree of apical dominance depends on the cultivar. The optimum stage for planting is multiple sprouting, not only because of the number of sprouts, but also because of the vigour of individual sprouts. The number of sprouts (germinating eyes) per tuber depends on the extent of apical dominance, which is affected by variety, tuber age and physiological age as affected by chitting. It also depends on nutrition, tuber size and tuber health. After prolonged storage seed tubers may reach the stage of senility and have then become unfit for planting.After planting, sprouts develop into stems. A main stem grows directly from the seed tuber. The lower lateral branches from the main stem are called secondary stems. Apart from secondary stems, a stem may develop branches at higher nodes several times during its growth. Main and secondary stems grow and behave like independent plants, and develop roots, stolons and tubers. Plant population is, therefore, best expressed as number of stems, rather than number of plants.In plants growing from tubers, adventitious roots arise from the nodes of the underground stems. Plants grown from true seed develop a slender taproot with lateral branches.The tuber is a modified stem which develops by the swelling of the tip of an underground stem (stolon).The length of the growing period depends upon cultivar, amount of fertilizer (particularly N), pest attack (particularly the nematode burden on the roots), disease and weather conditions. In South-East Asia, cultivars generally mature in 3-5 months.Reproductive BiologyThe species produces viable seeds and is also capable of regenerating from its underground tubers.EcologyTo achieve their yield potential potato crops require well-distributed rainfall of 500-750 mm in a growing period of 3-4.5 months. Cropping is possible in drier areas, as in Northern China, but yields are restricted. It can tolerate an annual temperature of 3.6 to 27.8°C, but is a cool weather crop, growing best at 15-20°C for most cultivars (Duke, 1983). Most commercial cultivars of potato tuberize best in cool climates with night temperatures below 20°C. Little or no tuberization occurs at night temperatures above 22°C. Optimum day temperatures for dry matter production are within the range 20-25°C. High light intensities favour dry matter production through their effect on photosynthesis. Short daylengths (12-13 hours) lead to earlier maturity. Potato is tolerant of moderate frost and cool soils (Missouri Botanical Garden Plant Finder, 2014).In the short daylength conditions of the tropics and subtropics, maximum yields can usually be obtained in cool highland areas and in cooler seasons. In Papua New Guinea, for example, optimum growth of potato takes place at altitudes between 1500 and 2200 m above sea-level, where day temperatures are about 25°C and night temperatures about 20°C.Potato is tolerant of most soils, except heavy, waterlogged clays. Good drainage is of great importance. Impermeable layers in the soil limit rooting depth and the amount of available water, and so greatly reduce yields. Deep soils with good water retention and aeration give best growth and yields. The species can reportedly grow in a wide variety of soils including sandy loams, silt loams, loams and peats, with a soil pH range of 4.2 to 8.2 (Duke, 1983). Potatoes perform well across a wider range of soil pH than most crops. It is commonly thought that the optimum range is 4.8 to 7.0, but high yields of good quality potatoes are obtained on soils of above 8.0 pH, as on the Wisbech series in Lincolnshire, UK.In the Americas, S. tuberosum can be grown from sea level up to 4500 m. In Nicaragua the species has been observed at 800-1000 m (Flora of Nicaragua, 2014), while in Panama it has been observed between 1000 and 2000 m (Panama Checklist, 2014). In Antioquia, Colombia, the species has been reported at elevations of 2000-2500 m in Lower Montane Rain Forest (bh-MB) and Lower Montane Wet Forest (Vascular Plants of Antioquia, 2014). In Pakistan the species apparently does well in hilly areas up to 3000 m (Flora of Pakistan, 2014). In Ecuador the species has been reported between 0 and 4500 m (Vascular Plants of Ecuador, 2014), and in Bolivia it has been observed between 2500 and 4000 m and is capable of tolerating dry soil (Bolivia Checklist, 2014).ClimateSoil TolerancesSoil reactionacidalkalineneutralSoil texturelightmediumNotes on Natural EnemiesDiseases of S. tuberosum are numerous and widespread, affecting yield and quality where the plant is grown as a crop. The most prevalent diseases are:- bacterial diseases, including bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum, bacterial soft rot caused mainly by Erwinia carotivora, and common scab caused by Streptomyces scabies- fungal diseases including late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans, early blight or target spot caused by Alternaria solani, black scurf caused by Rhizoctonia solani [Thanetophorus cucumeris], and pink rot caused by Phytophthora erythroseptica- several viral diseases including potato leafroll luteovirus (PLRV) and the mosaic viruses, notably potato X potexvirus (PVX) and potato Y potyvirus (PVY).Duke (1983) states: In the USA, potatoes are injured by more than 100 species of insects, especially the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata). It and the flea beetle (principally Epitrix spp.) reduce yields by feeding on the foliage. The potato aphid attacks the foliage and also spreads several viral diseases. Potato leaf hoppers cause a destructive disease-like condition known as hopperburn by sucking juices from the plants. The tubers are attacked by wireworms, often rendering the potatoes unsuitable for sale.Pathway CausesImpact SummaryEnvironmental ImpactS. tuberosum has a negative environmental impact if given the chance to become weedy; however because of its importance as one of the top staple food crops of the world, the species continues to be widely commercially cultivated.Social ImpactForaging societies living in upland regions where the species occurs in the wild, such as the indigenous Aeta and Igarot of the Philippines, consider the presence of the species beneficial as it provides much nutrition (Fox, 1952). However, all parts of the plant except the tubers are poisonous, and the species poses a health threat to humans and mammals if the species becomes invasive. Tubers that have become green are poisonous, as the green colour indicates these tubers have produced alkaloids.Risk and Impact FactorsInvasivenessAbundant in its native rangeHighly adaptable to different environmentsTolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etcBenefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)Long livedFast growingHas high reproductive potentialHas propagules that can remain viable for more than one yearReproduces asexuallyImpact outcomesNegatively impacts agricultureImpact mechanismsHybridizationLikelihood of entry/controlHighly likely to be transported internationally deliberatelyUsesWorldwide, tubers of the potato crop are used for direct human consumption (48%), processing (11%, of which 2% is for the production of starch), vegetative propagation (13%), stock feed (20%) and the remaining 8% is waste. Worldwide, the use of potatoes for alcohol production is negligible, but can be important in some locations. The species is a rich source of protein, vitamin C and starch.Potato tubers are consumed in many forms. Whole, they may be boiled, roasted or steamed in their skins; they may be peeled and then boiled or steamed and mashed with margarine or butter, with or without milk, or they may be baked or roasted. Large quantities are consumed fried as chips (French fries, pommes frites) or as thinly sliced crisps. In the USA, 32% of the potato harvest was processed into French fries during 1989-1990. Dutch processors produced 1.47 million t of frozen French fries in 1990 compared with 6000 t in 1960. In many Asian countries, potatoes are part of various curry dishes.The fairly good storing ability of the raw tuber, in addition to processing into many forms of dehydrated, frozen and canned tubers, results in a supply reasonably independent of season. This and the simple cooking methods contribute to potato's importance as a major world crop.Transgenic potatoes have been engineered to generate an immune response to Escherichia coli infection in humans and have potential as a new strategy for development of safe and inexpensive vaccines against diseases such as tetanus, diphtheria and hepatitis B. The species has been the subject of genetic research to improve cultivars for agricultural purposes. As a member of the Solanum genus, S. tuberosum has also been studied for its production of potentially medicinal alkaloids.Uses ListAnimal feed, fodder, forageFodder/animal feedGenetic importanceGene sourceHuman food and beverageBeverage baseFlour/starchVegetableMedicinal, pharmaceuticalSource of medicine/pharmaceuticalTraditional/folklorePrevention and ControlDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.Papers on control of S. tuberosum are generally studies on volunteer potatoes as a weed in succeeding crops. Rahman (1980) reviews the literature on S. tuberosum as a weed, including mechanical, cultural and chemical control methods. Lainsbury et al. 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