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I could not understand if you are looking for syllabus of M.Sc in Environmental Course for your coursework or for preparation of entrance exam. If you are looking for coursework in Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi; here you go.The M. Sc. programme is spread over four semesters. It carries 64 credits and comprises of four different components viz: I) Teaching II) Lab Work III) Field Work and IV) Dissertation.Distribution of credits for M. Sc. Programme is:Total Credits for M. Sc. Degree Programme = 64 credits I) Teaching = 50 creditsII) Lab work, Field work and Dissertation = 14 creditsDistribution of credits for teaching (Total 50 credits)i) Core courses = 26 credits ii) Optional courses = 24 creditsDistribution of credits for Lab work, Field work and Dissertation (Total 14 credits)a) Lab work = 6 credits (Lab Work I =3 credits; Lab Work II =3 credits)b) Field work = 3 creditsc) Dissertation = 5 creditsI) Teaching (50 credits)Teaching is a major component of the programme. It shares 50 credits out of total 64. The remaining three components i.e. Lab work, field work and dissertation share remaining 14 creditsVarious courses offered under M. Sc. programme are categorized as:A) Core courses B) Non Credit courses and C) Optional courses.Altogether there are 46 courses: 13 as core, 2 non credit courses and 31 optional courses. All core courses are offered in I and II semesters and all optional courses are offered in III and IV semester of the M. Sc programme.All Core Courses are of 2 credits each and compulsory for all the students. Non credit courses do not carry any credits, however, as per the JNU ordinance, completion of such courses by every student is a mandatory requirement for the award of the degree. Optional courses are of 3 credits each and cover all specialized courses across different sub disciplines of environmental sciences namely; Mathematics, Physics, Statistics, Geology, Chemistry and Biology. There is a running list of 31 optional courses, out of which students will have to choose any 8 optional courses (four in each semester) to obtain 24 credits.II) Lab work, Field work and Dissertation (14 credits)a) Lab work (6 credits)The lab work component is spread over first two semesters and is called as Lab work I and Lab work II to be completed in I and II semesters respectively. Under Lab Work I and II, sets of experiments specially designed for M. Sc. students by faculty members of the school are carried out in M. Sc. lab or in the lab of the concerned faculty member during the period of five working days in the afternoon.b) Field work (3 credits)To strengthen the field work component and to have a wider exposure of the field conditions, students will undergo extensive field work which will help them in developing the understanding of different aspects of environmental sciences. Field work is completed in second semester. Each student will submit his/her field work report for evaluation.c) Dissertation (5 credits)Each student will work for M. Sc. Project under the supervision of formally assigned supervisor in the school. Assigning of supervisor will be based on academic interest shown by the student in research specialization of the concerned faculty member followed by the consent given by the faculty member to supervise the project work of that particular student. Student shall complete the process of academic interaction to obtain teachers consent to supervise his/her project work by the end of second semester. The work on research project will start in 3rd semester under the supervision of concerned faculty member in his /her lab and will be completed by 4th semester with writing and submission of dissertation. Dissertation will be evaluated by a 3 member expert committee. Students will have to present their work and defend it in an open viva- voce.LIST OF COURSESA) Core Courses (Compulsory for all)(Total courses 13, Total credits: 13 x 2 =26)Remedial Mathematics ES-101ORRemedial Biology ES-102Environmental Chemistry ES-103Earth processes ES-104Ecology ES-105Statistics ES-106Environmental Pollution ES-107Natural hazards and disaster management ES-108Environmental Impact Assessment ES-109Energy and Environment ES-110Remote sensing and Geoinformatics ES-111Environmental Biochemistry and Toxicology ES-112Marine environment ES 113Soil Science ES-114B) Non- Credit Courses (Compulsory for all)Current Environmental Issues ES-11516. Scientific Writings and Ethics ES-116C) Optional Courses – (Total courses- 31 of 3 credits each; Students will have tochoose any 8 courses to obtain total 24 credits)1. Environmental Modeling ES-2012. Climatology ES-2023. Meteorology ES-2034. Noise Pollution ES-2045. Environmental Physics ES-2056. Environmental instrumentation and techniques ES-2067. Geochemistry ES-2078. Groundwater Hydrology ES-2089. Oceanography ES-20910. Natural resource Management ES-21011. Glaciology ES-21112. Biogeochemistry ES-21213. Environmental Geology ES-21314. Water Resources ES-21415. Air Pollution Chemistry ES-21516. Water Pollution Chemistry ES-21617. Soil Pollution Chemistry ES-21718. Solid and Hazardous Wastes Management ES-21819. Metrology ES-21920. Pollution Biology ES-22021. Biodiversity and conservation ES-22122. Forest ecology ES-22223. Microbial Ecology ES-22324. Ecosystem Dynamics ES-22425. Environmental Biophysics ES-22526. Ecology and sustainable development ES-22627. Environmental Xenobiotics and human health ES-22728. Fundamentals of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology ES-22829. Applied biotechnology and Bioremediation ES-22930. Eco-toxicology ES-23031. Environmental and Occupational health ES-231D) Lab Work1. Lab work I (3 credits) ES-2322. Lab work II (3 credits) ES-233E) Field Work (3 credits) ES-234F) Project Work (5 credits) ES-235-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------COURSE CONTENTA) Core CoursesRemedial Mathematics ES-101 (for Non- Mathematics students)Functions- polynomial, logarithmic, exponential, absolute value, trigonometric. Limits, Indeterminate forms, Continuity. Derivability. Differentiation of simple mathematical functions- product rule, quotient rule and chain rule. Integration- by parts, substitution and by partial fractions. Linear differential equations and their solution. Introduction to Matrices and Determinants. Introduction to Vectors- addition, subtraction, multiplication of vectors. Equation of Straight Line and Solving Linear System of Equations.OR2. Remedial Biology ES-102 (for Non- Biology students)History and scope of ecology, Evolution of biosphere, Diversity of life forms. Biological communities, species interaction, Communities properties, succession. Plant diversity and nomenclature with major classes of plants; Phytogeographical regions; Rare and threatened plants and exploration of plant wealth. Animal diversity and categories of animals; Rare and threatened species of mammals, aves, reptiles, pisces etc.; Exploration and conservation of faunal wealth. Microbial diversity, bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes; Microbial diversity in man-made ecosystems and natural ecosystems. Importance of flora and fauna in nutrient cycling, its effect, degradation and metabolism.3. Environmental chemistry ES-103Fundamental Chemistry: Elements, Chemical bonding, chemical reactions and equations, Organic functional groups, classes of organic compounds. Free radical reactions, catalytic processes.Elemental cycles (C, N, S, O) and their environmental significance.Fossil fuels: their types, properties, combustion and environmental implications.Atmospheric constituents, Green house gases and climatic changes. Chlorofluorocarbons and their substitutes. Photochemical smog. Water quality and wastewater treatment. Role of soaps, detergents and phosphorus fertilizers in eutrophication. Persistent organic pollutants: pesticides usage, toxicity and their environmental degradation. Earth crust and weathering mechanism; Soil formation and chemical characteristics. Chemical classes of Hazardous waste, their effects on the environment. Chemical treatment of hazardous wastes.4. Earth Processes ES-104Evolution of various branches of Geology. Origin of the earth. Primary differentiation and formation of core, mantle, crust, atmosphere and hydrosphere. Magma generation and formation of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Concept of Minerals and Rocks. Weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition of earth’s materials by running water, wind and glaciers. Formation of land forms and sedimentary rocks. Plate tectonics- sea floor spreading, mountain building, evolution of continents and structural deformation. Thermal, magnetic and gravitational fields of the earth. Concepts of engineering and urban geology.5. Ecology ES-105History and scope of ecology, autecoloty, synecology, population, community, biome, tolerance range and limiting factors. Distinguishing characters of forests grasslands, arid lands and wetlands; community organization- concept of habitat, functional role and niche, key stone species, dominant species, ecotone, edge effect. Analytical characters, synthetic characters like forms, species diversity and measurement of diversity. Population dynamics, models for single and interacting population, stable points, stable cycles, chaos competition, prey predation, etc. Ecological succession, primary and secondary processes in successions, models of successions, climax community and types of climax. Vegetation of India. Fundamentals of Microbial ecology. Microbial metabolism and microbial interaction. Biochemistry of biological nitrogen fixation and other microbial Pathways in terms of enzymology.6. Statistics ES-106Measures of central tendency. Measures of dispersion. Measures of skewness and kurtosis. Probability- definition, addition and multiplication laws,concept of random variable. Probability distributions- binomial, poisson and normal. Sampling theory- hypothesis testing and interval estimation for large samples. Chi-square test, t-test and F-test of significance. Correlation and regression. analysis. One way analysis of variance.7. Environmental Pollution ES-107Linkage between energy, environment and development. Human population issues. Definition of pollution. Different types of pollution- Air, Water and soil and their local, regional and global aspects. Air: Sources of air pollutants, their behavior in the atmosphere. Effects of air pollutants on humans, animals, plants and properties. Control approaches. Water: Sources, effects, water pollution treatment. Soil: Sources and nature of soil pollution and its harmful effects. Solid waste: generation, collection, environmental effects and safe disposal practices. Environmental problems associated with noise pollution, oil pollution and radioactive pollution.8. Natural hazards and disaster management ES-108Introduction to Hazards- Hazard classification-types of hazards ;Natural Hazards: causes, (continental drift, plate tectonics, sea floor spreading, isostacy, etc.,) distribution pattern, consequences and mitigation: Earthquake, Tsunami, Volcanoes, Cyclone, Flood, Drought, Landslide, cold and heat hazards, forest fire, etc.,- causes, types, distribution adverse effects, etc.,- Disaster introduction- disaster Management Capability-Vulnerability- risk- preparedness and mitigation- Disaster management cycle- community planning education and Engineered structure /structural strengthening techniques- Hazard zonation and mapping- Risk Reduction Measures.9. Environmental Impact Assessment ES-109Linkage between development and environment; global commons: carrying capacity: origin and development of EIA: relationship of EIA to sustainable development: EIA in project planning and implementation: EIA process: evaluation of proposed actions, scoping and base line study, identification and prediction of impacts, mitigation measures. Comparison of alternatives, review and decision making, public participation and compensatory actions: green belts: National Environmental Policies and guidelines in India. Conditions and approach for EIS review. Case studies: river valley projects: thermal power plants: mining projects: oil refineries and petrochemicals.10. Energy and Environment ES-110Energy resources and their exploitation, Sun as source of energy- nature of its radiation, Conventional energy sources: coal, oil, biomass and nature gas, non-conventional energy sources: hydroelectric power, tidal, wind, geothermal energy, solar collectors, photovoltaics, solar ponds, nuclear-fission and fusion, magneto-hydrodynamic power (MHD), Energy use pattern in different parts of the world and its impact on the environment. CO2 emission in atmosphere. Mechanism of radiation action on living systems- Stochastic and Non-stochastic effects; delayed effects, radioactivity from nuclear reactors, fuel processing and radioactive waste, hazards related to power plants, terrestrial and non terrestrial radiation, dose from environment and nuclear radiations, ultraviolet radiations, pathways analysis and dose assessment, radiologic age dating, radioactivity risk assessment, criterion for safe exposure.11. Remote sensing and Geo- informatics ES-111Introduction to Remote sensing & GIS. Principles of remote sensing & GIS. Spectra of Environmental Components. Terrestrial and Extra terrestrial satellites in Remote sensing and GIS. Remote sensing & GIS applications on Ocean, Atmosphere, Land, Geology, Water Resources (Ground water and Surface water). Cryosphere, Disaster, Defence studies. Use of softwares in Remote sensing and GIS to solve Environmental problems including Groundwater Exploration, Rainwater Harvesting, Biomass analysis and its relationship with Georesource evaluation. Use of Remote sensing and GIS in development of Early warning system to monitor Agriculture. Identification of Genetically modified crops in correlation with water quality and soil moisture by using Remote sensing & GIS. Applications of Remote sensing and GIS in early warning of Tsunami, Earthquake, Snowfall, Global warming, Forest fire, Landslide, Landsubsidance. Use of LANDSAT, SPOT, IRS ERS, RADARSAT and Extra terrestrial satellite data by using ERDAS, ARCGIS, ERMAPPER, IDRISI ENVI and S+ software for solving the Environmental problems. Sun-earth cosmic connection to understand environment of the Earth.12. Environmental Biochemistry and Toxicology ES-112Environmental physiology with considerations of intermediary metabolism- approaches for studying energy metabolism and body temperature changes; Thermo regulation and adaptation. Oxygen uptake from the environment, respiration and metabolism. Electron transport system and oxidative phosphorylation. Photosynthesis: C1, C3, C4 pathways and their regulation. Photorespiration. Biochemistry of altered membrane permeability, free radical formation, lipid peroxidation, lysosomal degradation, superoxide dismutase. Environmental pollutants and their effects on living system. Biochemical approaches to the detoxification of xenobiotics through cellular metabolism.13. Marine Environment ES-113Introduction-Classification- open ocean- shallow marine and deep sea environment- marine resources- marine ecology- marine organisms-productivity- coastal environment-coastal water movement- beaches- coastal dunes- barrier islands- cliffed coast- deltas-coast line- estuaries-mangroves- lagoons- salt marshes- coral reefs- classification of marine sediments- clay minerals- biogenic silica- evaporites- nutrient in oceans- carbon and global climate change- marine pollution- law of the sea.14. Soil Science ES-114Soil forming rocks and minerals- Classification- Weathering of rocks and minerals- Processes of weathering and factors affecting them. Soil formation- Factors of soil formation- Soil forming processes- Profile development- Definition of soil- Soil composition. Soil physical properties- Soil separates and particle size distribution- Soil texture and structure- Bulk density, particle density, pore space, soil air, soil temperature, soil water, soil consistence - Significance of physical properties to plant growth. Soil chemical properties- Soil colloids- Inorganic colloids- Clay minerals- amorphous- Ion exchange reactions- Organic colloids- Soil organic matter- Decomposition- Humus formation- Significance on soil fertility, Soil reaction- Biological properties of soil- nutrient availability.B) Non Credit Courses (Compulsory for all )1. Current Environmental Issues ES-115Contemporary and emerging environmental issues of local, regional and global significance. Broadly the topics will be pertaining to: i) Linkage between population, development and environment ii) climate change ii) stratospheric Ozone depletion iii) water resources iv) environmental toxicants and human health v) biodiversity conservation and vi) environmental episodic events, etc.2. Scientific Writings and Ethics ES-116Overview of Moral and Ethical questions in Scientific writing. Overall outline and structure of the article/manuscript. Description, value, and development of points/outlines before writing. Screening of Material for inclusion within the structure of the manuscript.Importance of Authors and their sequence, importance of clear title, abstract or summary. Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Numbers and statistics, Tables and Figures, Discussion. Writing Style: Active or passive, Punctuation, use of commas, apostrophe, semicolon and colon. Avoiding duplication and repetition. Importance of revisions and references.Plagiarism, paraphrasing and copy write violation. Consequences of plagiarism. Why not to fudge, tinker, fabricate or falsify data. Examples.C) Optional Courses1. Environmental Modeling ES - 201Role of Modeling in Environmental Science. Model Classification- Deterministic Models, Stochastic Models, Dynamic Models, Steady State Models. General Steps Involved in Modeling, Mass Balancing, Energy Balancing, Microbial Growth Kinetics- Exponential Growth Model, Logistic Growth Model, Monod Equation, Two Species Population Growth Model of Competition. Lotka-Volterra Prey-Predator Model, Oxygen Sag Model, Gaussian Plume Model.2. Climatology ES - 202Elements of climate, climate controls, Earth's radiation balance, latitudinal and seasonal variation of insolation, temperature, pressure, wind belts, humidity, cloud formation and precipitation, water balance, spatial and temporal patterns of climate parameters, Air masses and fronts, SW and NE monsoon, jet stream, tropical and extratropical cyclone, ENSO, QBO. Classification of climate- Koppen's and Thornthwaite' scheme. Climate change3. Meteorology ES - 203Meteorology fundamentals- Thermal structure of the atmosphere and its composition, Pressure, temperature, wind, humidity, moisture variables, virtual temperature, radiation, radiation from sun, solar constant, surface and planetary albedo, emission and absorption of terrestrial radiation, radiation windows, greenhouse effect, net radiation budget, atmospheric stability diagrams, turbulence, diffusion, dry and moist air parcel, thermodynamic diagrams, T-phigram and mixing height, thermodynamics of dry and moist air, specific gas constant, adiabatic and isoentropic processes, entropy and enthalpy, adiabatic processes of moist air4. Noise Pollution ES - 204Basic properties of sound waves, sound propagation, Definition of Noise, Health Effects of Noise, Concept of sound pressure level (SPL), decibel scale, addition of decibels, Frequency Response of Human Ear, Equal Loudness Contours, Weighting Networks, Octave Bands, Measurement and analysis of sound. Percentile Indices of Noise, Equivalent sound pressure level (Leq), Noise pollution level (NPL), Sound exposure level (SEL), Traffic noise index (TNI), Day-Night level (DNL), noise criteria curves; Noise sources; Industrial Noise and Traffic Noise, Noise control and abatement measures; absorbing materials, barrier materials and damping materials. Acoustic silencers and mufflers.5. Environmental Physics ES - 205Concept and scope of environmental Physics with respect to human environment; built environment; urban environment; global environment. Laws of thermodynamics, irreversible thermodynamics and entropy. Wind chill, Hypothermia. Heat balance (steady and transient), Electromagnetic Radiation, Thermal regulation in buildings- Thermal insulation, Thermal conduction effects, Convection effects, Radiation effects, U-values, Energy use and efficiency in buildings. Energy losses, calculation of energy losses, energy gains.Air regulation in buildings, heat pumps, condensation. Buildings of the future. Nano materials: their properties and influence on human health, environment, communication sector and energy. Method of preparation and Applications of nano materials.6.Environmental Instrumentation and Techniques ES - 206Physics of Dielectrophoresis and its environmental applications, Basics of NMR instrumentations, significance of relaxation time, Raman effect and experimental measurement, Raman Spectroscopy, LASER based techniques, LIDAR based methods and techniques, SODAR Radiofrequency measurement and techniques.7. Geochemistry ES - 207Atomic properties of elements, the periodic, table and geochemical classification of elements; abundance of elements in the bulk earth, crust, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere; introduction to mineral structures and compositions; thermodynamic classification of elements into essential, structural, major and trace elements and their partitioning during mineral formation; chemical reactions involving proton and electron transfers, mineral stability diagrams and controls on the chemistry of natural waters; geochemical cycling-concepts with an example; radioactivity, decay of parent and growth of daughter nuclides and methods of radiometric dating; stable isotopes, their fractionation and application to geothermometry and paleoclimates. Interpretation of XRD and XRF data for Environmental components. Geochemical sample preparation. X-Ray Fluorescence. X-Ray Diffraction. Ion Chromatography, AAS and its interpretation.8. Groundwater Hydrology ES - 208Definition and concept of hydrology and hydrogeology. Distribution of water in the earth’s crust. Hydrological cycle. Genetic types of groundwater and residence time of groundwater, Geological control of groundwater, Vertical distribution of groundwater, Types of aquifers, springs and their classification, Classification of rocks with reference to their water bearing properties. Mode of occurrence of groundwater in different geological terrains of India. Darcy’s law and its validity, Determination of hydraulic conductivity, groundwater tracers. Environmental factors on Groundwater level fluctuations and Land subsidence due to changes in subsurface moisture. Effects of excessive use of groundwater resources. Sources of salinity, Chemical analysis of groundwater, Quality criteria for different uses, Groundwater quality in different provinces of India, pollution of groundwater resources. Ghyben-Herzberg relationship between fresh-saline water. Groundwater exploration. Construction and design of different types of wells. Well completion and development. Groundwater development and management: Groundwater development in urban areas and rainwater harvesting, artificial recharge methods. Management of groundwater and groundwater legislation.9.Oceanography ES - 209Introduction- historical, current and future- Earths structure- Physiography of oceans- origin and evolution of ocean basins (Continental and oceanic basins)- Continental drift, sea floor spreading, plate tectonics- shelf and deep sea sedimentation- physical, chemical and biological aspects of sea water- Ocean current (circulation)- Waves properties and motion- tidal currents and characteristics- air-water interface/ exchange, gas solubility and circulation models.10. Natural resource Management ES - 210Definition- land, water, soil, plants and animals: quality of life: renewable and non-renewable resources: Mineral occurrences, prospects: Mineral resources: Mineral reserves, ore minerals, coal, petroleum, oil and natural gas: water- hydropower, including tidal power; ocean surface waves used for wave power, wind- wind power, geothermal heat- geothermal power and radiant energy- solar power: sustainable development, Urban planning Environmental management, Understanding the resource ecology and life-supporting capacity of resources-Economic models: Green building concept- green technology concept.11. Glaciology ES - 211Glacier systems- Structure and morphology of glaciers- Glacial erosion; Landscape evolution under glaciers, glacial landforms- Mass balance- Glacier dynamics, Englacial and subglacial process and fluctuations- Glacier hydrology- Snow and melt water chemistry of- Approaches to Glaciology- Glacier modeling- Glacier and climate change impact- Glaciers- Glacier and water resources- Recent advances in Glaciology- Spatial Data Acquisition Glacier Hazards- Glaciers as tool for palaeo climate studies.12. Biogeochemistry ES - 212Introduction- Biogeochemical provinces- Atmosphere- Lithosphere: weathering process, soil biogeochemistry- Terrestrial systems: photosynthesis respiration- Wetlands: vegetation adaptations- Freshwater and Marine Biogeochemistry: Lakes, ponds, rivers, mangroves, salt marsh and estuaries- Oceans: productivity and limiting nutrient role, carbon chemistry- Global biogeochemical cycles: Nutrient cycles-Advances in biogeochemistry- Sediment biogeochemistry, stable Isotopes in Biogeochemistry and their application to various environmental problems. Nutrient dynamic in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and Lithosphere. Nutrient budgeting and modeling13. Environmental Geology ES - 213Interior of the earth- minerals and rocks- earth processes- plate tectonics- sea floor spreading, mountain building, rock deformation- evolution of continents and earth quakes, volcanoes, landslides, subsidence, rivers and floods and coastal process- interactions between humans and the geological processes, Environmental Hazards-Pollution of the Environment- Waste Disposal, Natural Resources, and Energy Sources and their exploitation. Past, present and future environmental issues and their affect on the earth and our society.14. Water Resources ES - 214Hydrological cycle- Hydrometeorology and climate- hydrometric networks and catchment morphology- precipitation- evaporation and evapotranspiration- soil moisture-river flow-River, Lakes and Ground water- Occurrence of surface water and groundwater. Movement of water on the surface and below the surface. Springs and Hydrothermal phenomena. Ungauged river basin flow- River bank infiltration and recharge-precipitation analysis- evaporation calculation-river flow analysis- Time variation of stream flow levels- rainfall- runoff relationships- Ecohydrology- urban hydrology- Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM), Urbanization effect on Water resources. Earthquake, Land subsidence and Water resources. Physical, chemical and biological characteristics of Water resources and water quality data processing and interpretation. Sea water intrusion in aquifer system-structural geological approach. Influence of Sun-Earth cosmic connection on Water resources.15. Air Pollution Chemistry ES - 215Chemical composition of atmosphere, Sources of air pollution. Types of air pollutants, organic and inorganic pollutants, their behavior and fate on local, regional and global scale, monitoring of criteria and non-criteria pollutants. Effects of air pollutants on human health, plants, animals and materials. Pollutants and health effects. Air pollution meteorology: Mixing heights, Wind roses, Inversion conditions, Stability of the atmosphere. Long range transport, plume behavior, Air pollution dispersion. Land-atmosphere-ocean interactions of air pollutants. Photochemistry of troposphere, Inorganic reaction in the atmosphere. Reactions involving organic pollutants, Gas to particle conversion. Ozone depletion, Acid rain, Greenhouse effect, Formation of photochemical smog, CFC, their nomenclature, sources and effect, Atmospheric Brown Cloud. Air pollution control technologies: Concept of clean environment, Green technologies, Carbon sequestration, Chemical methods, Electrostatic precipitators.16. Water Pollution Chemistry ES - 216Physicochemical properties of water, Water use- classifications and water quality standard. Basic principles of contaminant behavior in the environment. Hydrologic cycle. Types and sources of water pollution, Major Water Quality (physicochemical and bacteriological) Parameters and their Applications, Basics of water sampling. Water quality objectives and the major chemical, physical and biological processes necessary for designing and managing modern drinking water and wastewater treatment plants, Principles of coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, chemical precipitation, porous media filtration, disinfection, ion exchange, adsorption, membrane Processes, advanced oxidation processes, air-stripping and other advanced treatment processes, Major contaminant groups and natural pathways for their removal from water.17. Soil Pollution Chemistry ES - 217Physical Chemistry of Soil: Soil Solution Phase, The Soil/Solution Interface, Surface exchange reactions, Soil acidity, Electrochemistry and the Soil, chemistry of waterlogged soil. Soil Pollution: Inorganic and Organic-Definition of pollution and contamination, sources of soil pollution, Effects of chemical residues on soil, (pesticides, fertilizers, heavy metals etc., Soil salinity and alkalinity, Soil pollution from nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, micronutrients or trace elements and radionuclide, land degradation, soil erosion. Soil pollution and climate change: Greenhouse gases production, emission, mitigation, carbon sequestration, soil quality.18. Solid and Hazardous Waste Management ES - 218Solid wastes: Definition, types, sources, characteristics, and impact on environmental health. Waste generation rates. Concepts of waste reduction, recycling and reuse. Collection, segregation and transport of solid wastes Handling and segregation of wastes at source. Collection and storage of municipal solid wastes. Solid waste processing technologies. Mechanical and thermal volume reduction. Biological and chemical techniques for energy and other resource recovery. Composting, Vermicomposting, Incineration of solid wastes. Disposal in landfills: site selection, design, and operation of sanitary landfills; secure landfills and landfill bioreactors; leachate and landfill gas management; landfill closure and post-closure environmental monitoring; landfill remediation.Hazardous wastes: Definition, sources and characteristics: Hazardous waste categorization, generation, collection, transport, treatment and disposal. Legislation on management and handling of municipal solid wastes and hazardous wastes19. Metrology ES - 219Fundamentals of metrology, Chemical metrology, Defining uncertainty of measurements, traceability of standards, validation of method, calibration of method, accuracy and precision of results, selectivity, sensitivity, detection limit, limit of determination, specificity, linearity, analytical error, Accreditation systems, Metrology in environment, QA/QC parameters in environmental studies, use of CRMs (Certified reference materials), inter-laboratory comparison exercise, participation in National and International round Robin tests. Representativeness of sampling site, selection of analytical method, selection of appropriate analytical technique, proper storage of samples with suitable preservative, sample blank, field blank, solvent blank, efficiency of extraction, efficiency of sampling, determination of uncertainty in flow, sample preparation.20. Pollution Biology ES - 220Concepts: Pollutants vs. resources; cycling of materials, tolerance ranges, carrying capacity, bioaccumulation. Air Pollution: Responses of plants and animals, monitoring (e.g. lichens) and control of air pollution by plants. Water pollution: Responses of plants and animals to changes in physico-chemical characteristics; distribution of plants in relation to pollution (microphytes; Phytoplankton, periphyton and moorophytes); Biological monitoring and control of pollution in water. Soil pollution: Responses of plants to soil pollution; changes in soil characteristics by waste disposal, sanitary land fills, mining wastes and human activities, and effects on plants and animals.21. Biodiversity and Conservation ES - 221Biodiversity concepts and patterns, Microbial diversity, Plant diversity, Agrobiodiversity, Soil biodiversity, Economic value of biodiversity, biodiversity losses. Biodiversity hotspots and their characteristic flora and fauna, threatened plants and animals of India, ecosystem people and traditional conservation mechanisms, Biodiversity Convention and Biodiversity Act, IPRs, national and international programmes for biodiversity conservation. Wildlife values and eco-tourism, wildlife distribution in India, problem in wildlife protection, role of WWF, WCU, CITES, TRAFFIC, Wildlife Protection Act 1972. In-situ conservation: sanctuaries, biospheres reserves, national parks, nature reserves, preservation plots. Ex-situ conservation: botanical gardens, zoos, aquaria, homestead garden; herbarium; In-vitro Conservation: germplasm and gene Bank; tissue culture: pollen and spore back, DNA bank.22. Forest Ecology ES - 222Forest and forest environment: Structure of forest ecosystem, major forest types of the world, forest types and forest cover of India, regeneration ecology of forest trees. Forest ecosystem function: Primary productivity of forest ecosystems, litter production and decomposition, nutrient cycling and nutrient conservation strategies, plant water relations. Forest ecosystem management: Forest management systems, joint forest management, forest hydrology, forest fire, application of remote sensing technique in forest ecology, deforestation and sustainable forestry, forest laws, non timber forest products. Role of Biology in management and habitat management techniques. Wildlife farming: Objectives, management design, wildlife products, disease control, breeding. Behavioral, ecology and evaluation.23. Microbial Ecology ES - 223An overview of microbial life and its importance in the environment, Microbial structure and function with special emphasis on Bacteria and Archaea, Evolution and microbial phylogenetic diversity, Microbial nutrition and metabolism with emphasis on microbial metabolic diversity, Environmental factors affecting microbial growth and microbial adaptations to extreme environments (like arctic regions and hot springs), Methods in microbial ecology including introduction to microbial genomics, Microbial habitats (air, soil, subsurface, freshwater, marine and the deep sea), Introduction to geomicrobiology, Natural microbial communities with emphasis on biofilms, Microbial biogeochemical processes of nutrient cycling and biodegradation, Microbial interactions: microbe-microbe interactions, plants as microbial habitats, animals as microbial habitats and human microbiome, Applying microbes in wastewater treatment and solid waste management, Industrial applications of microbes including products for health-pharmaceutical, food and beverage industry and biofuels, Molecular biotechnological applications including genetic engineering for the production of vaccines, diagnostics, biopesticides and transgenic plants, Microbial disease ecology and public health, Transmission of microbial diseases through the environment.24. Ecosystem Dynamics ES - 224The ecosystem concept, abiotic and biotic components. Energy input in ecosystem, standing crop, biomass, primary and secondary production, gross and net production, concept of food chain food web, ten percent law, net community production, methods of measuring productivity, pattern of primary production and biomass in the major ecosystem of the world, Energy flow, Feed back and control. Biogeochemical cycles, gaseous and sedimentary turnover rate and turnover item. Hydrological cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, sulphur cycle, phosphorus cycle, nutrient budget, man’s impact on nutrient cycles. Population dynamics.25. Environmental Biophysics ES - 225Cellular function of cell, membrane structure and transport origin and conduction of impulses in nerve cell muscles, methods in bioelectric measurements. Radiation and molecular response, elementary aspects of atomic and molecular excitation, biointeractions with environment, fundamental and applied aspects of extremely low frequency, radio and microwave fields, bioacoustics, biomedical aspects of laser. Magnetic environments and geomagnetic fields, behavioural changes, therapeutic and diagnostic possibilities.26. Ecology and Sustainable Development ES - 226Ecosystem concept in space and time; Ecosystem level processes and landscape level processes; the concept of sustainable development temporal and spatial dimensions; Currencies for evaluations of sustainable development- Biophysical measurements; Environmental degradations and conservation issues; Global change and sustainability issues: Climate change, biological invasion, bio-diversity concerns; Ecosystem and social processes in: (a) Rehabilitation of degraded rural landscape, (b) Rehabilitation of unbalanced soils, (c) Rehabilitation of specialized habitats, e.g. water bodies, mangroves; (d) Mined area rehabilitation participatory research and education environmental decision making with people initiates.27. Environmental Xenobiotics and human health ES - 227Interaction of pollutants with biological systems at different levels, e.g., organism, organs, and cell organelles. Biochemical degradation of pollutants inside the cell as well as cellular interactions with the pollutants. Toxins of plant origin. Stress response in living systems. Toxicogenomics: Human population issues and population genetics. Pharmacogenomics; Epidemiology. Cellular interaction and metabolism of xenobiotics; metabolic disorders. Bioconversion of pollutants: active vs. inactive process; enzymic degradation by monooxygenases; Role of cytochrome P 450 and its multiple forms. Immunology: Immune cell responses, Immunity and Immunodeficiency. Allergy and hypersensitive reactions and disorders of immune responses. Carcinogens and Carcinogenesis. Metal toxicity: chemical form, metal biomacromolecule interaction, teratogenecity.28. Fundamentals of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology ES - 228Basic concepts of molecular biology needed for understanding biotechnology. DNA structure and organization into chromosomes. DNA replication. Repetitive DNA; coding and noncoding sequences in genomes. Gene structure and expression. Mechanics of transcription, translation and their regulation in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Key discoveries (restriction enzymes, bacterial plasmids, modifying enzymes) leading to recombinant DNA technology. Overview of basic techniques in genetic engineering: Introduction of cloned genes into new hosts using plasmid and phage vector systems. Expression cloning, affinity purification of expressed proteins. Nucleic acid hybridization and polymerase chain reaction as sensitive detection methods. DNA sequencing. Analysis of genomes and proteomes by bioinformatics tools. Genome-wide analysis using microarrays.29. Applied Biotechnology and Bioremediations ES - 229Practical aspects of genetic engineering with microorganisms from extreme environment: Use of extremophilic microorganisms in waste treatment and methane production from agro industrial wastes; Production of enzymes like cellulase, proteases, amylases; alcohol and acetic acid production; Biocomposting: Microbial process involvement, vermin composting, biofertilizer, biopesticides production. Biomining: Microbial leaching of low grade mineral ores, molecular probes for organisms in mines and mine tailings, Petroleum pollutant biodegradation. Alternate fuels: Source and mechanism of various biofuel production. Bioremediation: Concept, role of bioremediation in controlling various pollution problems e.g. solid water, sewage water, industrial effluents, heavy metals, radioactive substances, oil spillage. Phytoremediation: Abatement of different types of pollution using plants, types of phytoremediation, mechanism involved with case studies. Waste water treatment strategies: Domestic and Industrial waste-water, application of microbiology waste treatment. Metagenomics: Environmental Genomics, ecogenomics or community genomics, the study of genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples and future applications in bioremediation.30. Eco-Toxicology ES - 230Principles in toxicology; Definition of Xenobiotics. Animal management in toxicological evaluation; Animal toxicity tests; Statistical concepts of LD50; Dose-effect and dose response relationship; Frequency response and cumulative response; Biological and chemical factors that influence toxicity; Bio-transformation and bio-accumulation. Influence of ecological factors on the effects of toxicity; Concept of green chemistry. Pollution of the ecosphere by industries; Global dispersion of toxic substance; Dispersion and circulating mechanisms of pollutants; degradable and non-degradable toxic substances; food chain. Eco-system influence on the fate and transport of toxicants. Aquatic toxicity tests; Statistical tests; Response of planktons to toxicants; EC49; Photosynthetic bacteria; Bio-absorption of heavy metals. Information management system in eco-toxicology.31. Environmental and Occupational Health ES - 231Basic principle of environmental health. Physiological responses of man to relevant stresses in the environment. Cases and effects of pollution. Industrial Toxicology: Study of environmental dose effect relationships. Evaluation of toxicity and threshold limits. Principles and methods of occupational health. The relationship of occupation of hygiene and safety and disease. Health maintenance: Survey, analysis and recommendations regarding health and safety problems in the working and living environment. Biostatistics, epidemiology: Application of statistical methods to medical records in the study of health problems of human population in a given environment. Treatment of variation, with demographic, vital statistics and epidemiological data. Hazard evaluation in polluted environment with specific emphasis on radiological health. Industrial hygiene technology-laboratory remains illustrating the principles, methods of recognizing evaluating and controlling environmental hazards like air pollution, etc.I would suggest you to visit the link School of Environmental Sciences for further information.

Breast Cancer: A Brief Note.Cancer develops as a result of mutations, or abnormal changes, in the genes who are the growth regulators of cells.Breast cancer is cancer that develops due to uncontrolled growth of breast cells. Breast cancer either begins in the lobules, which are the milk-producing glands (lobular carcinoma), or the ducts, the pathways that carry milk from the lobules to the nipple (ductal carcinoma). Breast cancer can also occur in the stromal tissues, which include the fatty and fibrous connective tissues of the breast; however, it is less common. Most breast cancers begin in the ducts or lobules.Cancer may grow and invade tissue around the breast, such as skin or chest wall and can spread to nearby lymph nodes which can form a pathway for the cancer cells to spread to other parts of the body. Most of the lymph vessels of the breast drain into following lymph nodes:-Lymph nodes under the arm (axillary nodes)-Lymph nodes around the collar bone (supraclavicular i.e.above the collar bone and infraclavicular i.e. below the collar bone).-Lymph nodes inside the chest near the breast bone (internal mammary lymph nodes).Breast cancer cells usually form a tumour which can often be seen on an x-ray (mammogram) or felt as a lump. Breast cancer can occur in both men and women, but it is more common in women. It is the most common cancer in women worldwide and the second leading cause of cancer deaths, after lung cancer.BREAST CANCER TYPES:IN SITU CANCERS:· Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS)· Lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS)INVASIVE CANCERS:· Invasive ductal carcinoma· Invasive lobular carcinoma: It has subtypes which include-i) Adenoid cystic (or adenocystic) carcinomaii) Low-grade adenosquamous carcinomaiii) Medullary carcinomaiv) Mucinous carcinomav) Papillary carcinomavi) Tubular carcinomaLESS COMMON TYPES:· Inflammatory breast cancer· Paget's disease of the breast· Phyllodes tumours of the breast· Angiosarcoma· Male breast cancer· Metastatic breast cancer· Recurrent breast cancerBREAST CANCER SYMPTOMS:It varies from person to person. Different people have different symptoms of breast cancer. Some people may not have any signs or symptoms at all. Some alarming signs of breast cancer are as follows—· New lump or mass in the breast is the first sign of breast cancer. Any lump or thickened area in or near the breast or underarm(armpit) that feels different than surrounding tissue and has developed recently.· Thickening or swelling of part of the breast.· Swelling of lymph nodes (Sometimes breast cancer can spread to lymph nodes under the arm or around the collar bone causing a lump or swelling there, even before the original tumour in the breast can be felt.)· Changes in the nipple area, areola or the skin of the breast like redness, dimpling, puckering, peeling, scaling, flaking or inflammation.· Changes in the shape or position of the nipple (sunken or inverted nipple, nipple retraction) or pain in the nipple area.· Nipple discharge other than breast milk may be bloody or clear.· Any sudden, unexplained change in the size or the shape of the breast.· Pain in any area of the breast.If any of the above symptoms are present, it does not always mean that one has breast cancer. Those changes can also be due to some serious, non-cancerous conditions, such as an infection or a benign cyst.Cancer can usually appear as a painless, hard mass with irregular edges; however, breast cancers can be tender, soft, or round and can even be painful. Therefore, it is important to report any unusual change in the breast area such as a lump or a mass to an experienced doctor and get examined to find out the cause.WHAT CAUSES BREAST CANCER?:Breast cancer is cancer that develops due to uncontrolled growth of breast cells. They divide more rapidly than the normal healthy cells and accumulate, forming a lump or mass. 85-90% of breast cancers are caused by a complex interaction of the genetic makeup of an individual and the environment as a result of the ageing process.Only 5-10% of breast cancers are linked to gene mutations passed through generations of a family. Some of the inherited mutated genes which can increase the chances of breast cancer have been identified. Two well-known genes are breast cancer gene 1 (BRCA1) and breast cancer gene 2 (BRCA2). Both of them significantly increase the risk of both breast and ovarian cancer.RISK FACTORS FOR BREAST CANCER:Risk factors for breast cancer include:1) Age: Risk for developing breast cancer increases with age. Most invasive breast cancers are found in women over age 55.2) Drinking alcohol: Consuming excessive amounts of alcohol raises the risk of breast cancer.3) Having dense breast tissue: Dense breast tissue increases the risk of breast cancer and also makes mammograms hard to read.4) Gender: Women are much more likely than men to develop breast cancer.5) Genes: Women having the BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations are more likely to develop breast cancer than women who don’t have. Other gene mutations may also affect risk. Mutations in the TP53 gene have also been linked to increased breast cancer risk.6) Bodyweight/ Obesity: Women who become overweight or develop obesity after menopause may have a higher chance of developing breast cancer, which is possibly due to increased estrogen levels. High sugar intake can also be a factor.7) Menstrual history:Early menstruation: Having menarch (beginning of period) before age 12 increases the risk of breast cancer.Late menopause start: Women who do not get menopause (natural stopping of the menstrual cycle) until after age 55 are more likely to develop breast cancer.8) Hormone therapy: Women who take postmenopausal estrogen and progesterone medications to reduce their signs and symptoms of menopause have a higher risk of breast cancer. This risk decreases when women stop taking these medications.9) Family history of breast cancer: If a close female relative has had breast cancer, it increases the risk of developing it. This includes the patient's mother, grandmother, sister, or daughter. If a person doesn’t have a family history of breast cancer, they can still develop breast cancer. In fact, the majority of people diagnosed with breast cancer have no family history of the disease.10) Reproductive history:Giving birth at an older age: Women who give birth to their first child after age 35 may have an increased risk of breast cancer.Never being pregnant: Women who have never been pregnant or never carried a pregnancy to full term are more likely to develop breast cancer than the women who have had one or more pregnancies.11) Previous history of breast cancer or breast lumps: If one has had breast cancer in one breast, they have an increased risk of developing breast cancer in the other breast or in a different area of the previously affected breast. Also, having some type of noncancerous breast lump increases the chance of developing cancer later on.12) Estrogen exposure and breastfeeding: Extended exposure to estrogen increases the risk of breast cancer which could be due to a person having an early menarch or entering menopause at a later than average age. Between these times, estrogen levels are higher. Breastfeeding, especially for more than 1 year, appears to reduce the chance of developing breast cancer which is mostly due to the drop in estrogen exposure that follows pregnancy and breastfeeding.13) Radiation exposure: If a person has undergone radiation treatment for a different cancer, it may increase the risk of developing breast cancer later in life.14) Physical activity: Women who are not physically active have a higher risk of getting breast cancer.15) Smoking: Smoking is associated with a small increase in the risk of breast cancer.BREAST CANCER PREVENTION:Risk of breast cancer can be reduced by making changes in daily life:1) Lifestyle factors:Lifestyle factors can affect your risk of breast cancer. Maintaining a healthy diet and getting more exercise could help you lose weight and lower your risk.Alcohol consumption:Limit the amount of alcohol you drink and talk to your doctor about what amount they recommend for you.Maintain a healthy weight:If you need to lose weight, consult your doctor about healthy strategies to accomplish this. And if you are at a healthy weight, then try to maintain the same. Keep exercising.Choose a healthy diet:Women who eat a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil and mixed nuts may have a reduced risk of breast cancer. The Mediterranean diet focuses mainly on plant-based foods, such as fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and nuts.2) Breast cancer screening:Discuss with your doctor when to start breast cancer screening examinations and tests, such as clinical breast exams and mammograms (X-ray of the breast). Also, talk about the benefits and risks of screening.According to the American Cancer Society, women should have the option of receiving annual screenings at age of 40 years, begin annual screening at age of 45 years, and move to biennial screening at age of 55 years.Breast examination:i) Self-exams:Women should become familiar with their breasts through breast self-exam for breast awareness. It should be part of the monthly health care routine. Breast awareness can't prevent breast cancer, but it may help to better understand the normal changes that the breasts undergo and identify any unusual signs and symptoms which may help to consult the doctor.ii) Breast exam by the doctor:If you have noticed some unusual symptoms, it’s good to have the doctor do a breast exam. During the examination, your doctor will check both of your breasts for abnormal spots or signs of breast cancer. The doctor may also check other parts of your body to check if the symptoms you’re having could be related to some another condition.3) Limit postmenopausal hormone therapy:To reduce the risk of breast cancer, use the lowest dose of hormone therapy possible for the shortest amount of time.4) Breastfeed your children, if possible.5) Genetic counselling and testing:If there is a family history of breast cancer or a family member with a known gene mutation, there can be a chance that you might have inherited a gene which increases your risk of breast cancer, you should talk to your doctor about genetic counselling to see if you should be tested.BREAST CANCER AWARENESS:Nowadays, people today are increasingly aware of the issues associated with breast cancer. Breast cancer awareness efforts have helped people learn what the risk factors are, how they can reduce the level of risk, what symptoms they should look for, and what kinds of screening they should undergo.October is held as the Breast Cancer Awareness Month every year worldwide.DIAGNOSIS:Several imaging tests and procedures used to diagnose breast cancer include:1) Breast exam: Doctor will check both of your breasts and lymph nodes in your armpit, for any lumps or other abnormalities.2) Mammogram: A mammogram is an X-ray of the breast. Mammograms are commonly used for screening for breast cancer. If an abnormality is detected on a screening mammogram, the doctor may recommend a diagnostic mammogram for further evaluation of that abnormality. Many women aged 40 and above get annual mammograms done to check for breast cancer.3) Breast ultrasound: Ultrasound uses sound waves to produce images called sonograms of structures deep within the body. It can help to determine whether a new breast lump is a solid mass or a fluid-filled cyst.4) Breast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): An MRI machine uses a magnet and radio waves to create pictures of the interior of your breast. Before a breast MRI, injection of dye is given.5) Removing a sample of breast cells for testing (biopsy): A biopsy is the only definitive way to make a diagnosis of breast cancer. In this test, tissue or fluid is removed from the breast to be examined under a microscope and do more tests.Common procedures include:i) Fine-needle aspiration: This is for easy-to-reach lumps or those that might be filled with fluid.ii) Core-needle biopsy: This type uses a bigger needle to remove a piece of tissue.iii) Surgical (open) biopsy: A surgeon removes the entire lump along with nearby breast tissue.iv) Lymph node biopsy: The doctor removes a part of the lymph nodes under your arm to see if cancer has spread.v) Image-guided biopsy: The doctor uses imaging to guide the needle.Biopsy samples are sent to a laboratory for analysis whether the cells are cancerous or not and also to determine the type of cells involved in the breast cancer, the aggressiveness (grade) of cancer, and whether the cancer cells have hormone receptors or other receptors which can influence the treatment options.Diagnosis also involves staging cancer.STAGING THE BREAST CANCER:Staging provides a picture of a person’s chances of recovery and their ideal course of treatment. Tests and procedures used to stage breast cancer may include:· Blood tests, such as a complete blood count· Mammogram of the other breast to look for signs of cancer· Breast MRI· Bone scan· Computerized tomography (CT) scan· Positron emission tomography (PET) scanBreast cancer staging also takes into account the following things: cancer's grade; the presence of tumour markers, such as receptors for estrogen, progesterone and HER2; and proliferation factors.BREAST CANCER STAGES:In order to determine a stage of breast cancer, the doctor needs to know:-if the cancer is invasive or noninvasive,-how large the tumour is,-whether the lymph nodes are involved or not, and-if cancer has spread to nearby tissue or organs.Breast cancer has five main stages: stages 0 to 4.i) Early-stage, Stage 0 or noninvasive breast cancer.:Stage 0 is Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS). Cancer cells in DCIS remain confined to the ducts in the breast and have not invaded nearby tissues.ii) Stage 1 breast cancer:Stage 1A: The primary tumour is 2 centimetres wide or less and the lymph nodes are not affected.Stage 1B: Cancer is found in nearby lymph nodes, and either there is no tumour in the breast, or the tumour is less than 2 cm.iii) Stage 2 breast cancer:Stage 2A: The tumour is less than 2 cm with nearby lymph node involvement, or it’s between 2 to 5 cm without any lymph node involvement.Stage 2B: The tumour is between 2 to 5 cm with axillary (armpit) lymph node involvement, or it’s more than 5 cm without any lymph node involvement.iv) Stage 3 breast cancer:Stage 3A: Tumors more than 5 cm and cancer has spread to 1–3 axillary lymph nodes or any breastbone nodes.Or, cancer has spread to 4–9 axillary lymph nodes or has enlarged the internal mammary lymph nodes, and the primary tumour can be any size.Stage 3B: A tumour of any size with the invasion of the chest wall or skin.Stage 3C: A tumour of any size which is found in 10 or more axillary lymph nodes, lymph nodes near the collarbone, or internal mammary nodes.v) Stage 4 breast cancer:Stage 4: Tumor of any size and its cancer cells have spread to nearby and distant lymph nodes as well as distant organs such as bones, lungs, liver, brain.BREAST CANCER TREATMENT:Treatment depends on several factors, including:-the type and stage of the cancer-the person’s sensitivity to hormones-the age, overall health, and preferences of the individual.Treatment options include:1) Surgery:i) Breast-conserving surgery: Only the cancerous part of the breast along with some nearby tissue is removed by the surgeon. Types include:· Lumpectomy· Quadrantectomy· Partial mastectomy· Segmental mastectomyii) Surgery to remove lymph nodes: Lymph nodes from under the arm can be taken out to find out whether cancer has spread to them. There are two kinds of these surgeries in this section:· Sentinel lymph node biopsy- one or a few lymph nodes where cancer is most likely to spread are removed.· Axillary lymph node dissection- this involves more nodes, though usually fewer than 20.iii) Mastectomy: A surgeon removes the entire breast, along with all of the breast tissue and sometimes nearby tissues. There are several types of mastectomies:· Simple or total mastectomy- The surgeon removes the entire breast, but not the lymph nodes under the arm unless they’re within the breast tissue.· Modified radical mastectomy- entire breast along with lymph nodes under the arm are removed by the surgeon.· Radical mastectomy- entire breast and lymph nodes under the arm and up to the collarbone, as well as the chest wall muscles under the breast are removed by the surgeon.· Partial mastectomy- The surgeon removes the cancerous breast tissue and some tissue nearby, usually more than in a lumpectomy.· Nipple-sparing mastectomy- The surgeon removes all the breast tissue except the nipple.· Contralateral prophylactic mastectomy- If you have cancer in one breast and a very high risk of getting it in the other breast, you might choose to have both breasts removed.2) Radiation therapy:A patient may undergo radiation therapy around a month after surgical therapy. Radiation therapy involves targeting the tumour with controlled doses of radiation that kill any remaining cancer cells.The amount and type of radiation therapy depend on the type of surgery you had, whether your cancer has spread to the lymph nodes or somewhere else in your body, the size of your tumour, and sometimes, your age. One might have a single type or a combination:i. External beam radiation: Radiation comes from a machine outside your body. It can generally be given 5 days a week for 5 to 6 weeks. Some types of external beam radiation include:· Hypofractionated radiation therapy- Larger doses using fewer treatments, typically only 3 weeks are given.· Intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT)- Single large dose of radiation in the operating room right after breast conservation surgery (before the wound is closed) is given.· 3D-conformal radiotherapy- Radiation from special machines which better aim it at the area where the tumour was being given. Treatments are given twice a day for 5 days.ii) Internal radiation (brachytherapy): Something radioactive is putinside your body by the doctor for a short time.· Interstitial brachytherapy- Several small, hollow tubes called catheters are inserted into the breast around the area where the cancer was. They stay in place for several days. Doctors put radioactive pellets into them for short periods every day.· Intracavitary brachytherapy- This is the most common type of brachytherapy for women with breast cancer. The doctor uses a small catheter to put a device inside your breast. The device is widened and stays in place during the treatment. The other end sticks out of the breast. The doctor uses a tube to put radiation sources (often pellets) into the device. You usually get this twice a day for 5 days as an outpatient. After the last treatment, the doctor collapses and removes the device.Breast cancer radiation can last from three days to six weeks, depending on the treatment. Radiation oncologist determines which treatment is best for you based on your situation, your cancer type and the location of your tumour.Side effects of radiation therapy include fatigue and a red, sunburn-like rash where the radiation is aimed. Breast tissue may also appear swollen or more firm. More-serious problems such as damage to the heart or lungs are rare and very rarely, second cancers in the treated area occur.3) CHEMOTHERAPY:Chemotherapy uses drugs to destroy fast-growing cancer cells. If cancer has a high risk of returning or spreading to another part of the body, the doctor may recommend chemotherapy after the surgery to decrease the chance of recurrence of cancer, it is called adjuvant chemotherapy.Chemotherapy is sometimes given before surgery in women with larger breast tumours to shrink the tumour to a size which makes it easier to remove with surgery, it is called neoadjuvant chemotherapy.Chemotherapy drugs can be in the form of pills you take or medicines are given in your veins, or sometimes both.Chemotherapy side effects depend on the drugs you receive. Common side effects include hair loss, nausea, vomiting, fatigue and an increased risk of developing an infection. Rare side effects can include premature menopause, infertility (if premenopausal), damage to the heart and kidneys, nerve damage, and, very rarely, blood cell cancer.4) HORMONE THERAPY:Hormone blocking therapy is used to prevent hormone-sensitive breast cancers from recurrence after treatment. Hormone therapy may be used to treat estrogen receptor (ER)-positive and progesterone receptor (PR)-positive cancers.Hormone blocking therapy is usually administered after surgery but can be sometimes used beforehand to shrink the tumour. This therapy may be the only option for people who are not suitable candidates for surgery, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy. A person may be recommended hormone therapy for 5–10 years after surgery.Examples of hormone-blocking therapy medications include:· Tamoxifen· Fulvestrant· Aromatase inhibitors-Anastrozole-Exemestane-Letrozole· Ovarian ablation or suppression-Goserelin, which is a luteinizing hormone-releasing agonist drug that suppresses the ovaries.Hormonal treatment may have an effect on fertility.5) TARGETED THERAPY DRUGS:Targeted drug treatments attack specific abnormalities within cancer cells. For example, Herceptin (trastuzumab) can block body’s production of the HER2 protein which helps breast cancer cells grow, so taking a medication to slow the production of this protein may help slow cancer growth. Examples include:· Lapatinib (Tykerb)· Bevacizumab (Avastin)· Pertuzumab (Perjeta)· Trastuzumab (Herceptin)6) IMMUNOTHERAPY:Immunotherapy uses your immune system to fight cancer. Medications such as atezolizumab (Tecentriq) help the immune system fight cancer.7) SUPPORTIVE (PALLIATIVE) CARE:Palliative care is specialized medical care which focuses on providing relief from pain and other symptoms of a serious illness. Palliative care specialists work with you, your family and your other doctors to provide an extra layer of support that complements your ongoing care. Palliative care can be used while undergoing other aggressive treatments, such as surgery, chemotherapy or radiation therapy.Palliative care used along with all of the other appropriate treatments, makes the cancer patient feel better and live longer.Palliative care is provided by a team of doctors, nurses and other specially trained professionals and it aims at improving the quality of life for people with cancer and their families.Different specialists often work together to treat breast cancer. Surgeons perform operations. Medical oncologists treat cancer with medicine. Radiation oncologists treat cancer with radiation.The Kingsway Hospitals, Nagpur bring expertise and technology to provide comprehensive care for patients with all types of cancers, including breast cancer. They offer a broad scope of cancer services, ranging from public education, screening, diagnosis, and treatment, pain management, and palliative care.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA:A REGIONAL ANALYSISABHIMANDASReserve Bank of IndiaDevelopment is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Some of its major dimensionsinclude: the level of economic growth, level of education, level of health services, degreeof modernization, status of women, level of nutrition, quality of housing, distributionof goods and services, and access to communication. In India, the progress of socio-eco-nomic development among major states is not uniform. This study examines the exist-ing variability of inter-state development and thereby identifying the indicators respon-sible for the diversity in development. Instead of studying the variability of a particularvariable across states, a composite index based on several indicators has been developedusing principal component analysis and states are arranged according to the indicesderived using four broadly accepted components: (a) economic production and econom-ic condition or in other words level of economic development; (b) common minimumneeds; (c) health and health-related services and (d) communication. The findings of theanalysis support the general perception about the states. The states in India are markedwith wide disparity in socio-economic development. The factors, which are found out tobe more important for the overall development process, relate to basic needs like educa-tion, availability of food, minimum purchasing power and facilities like safe drinkingwater, health care infrastructure, etc. It is also found that enrollment ratio cannot beraised unless minimum needs of the common people are satisfied. Therefore, true devel-opment requires government action to improve elementary education, safe drinkingwater facilities and health care, and to remove barriers against social minorities, espe-cially women. The role of social development such as literacy (and particularly offemale literacy) in promoting basic capabilities emerges as the prerequisite to overalldevelopment. These results clearly emphasize the role of well-functioning public actionsin improving the overall living conditions of the people. Although economic growth inthe sense of expanding gross national product and other related variables is one of themost fundamental input to the overall development process, the basic objective of devel-opment should focus on the expansion of human capabilities which has been neglectedfor long in India.INTRODUCTIONSince Independence in 1947, India has made enormous strides towardsthe progress of the nation. The concerted and coordinated efforts of theDEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYVolume 28 Number 2, December 1999, pp. 313~45*I sincerely acknowledge the academic help received from my Ph.D. supervisor ProfessorK.B. Pathak, Director, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, India to final-ize this paper.national governments through various Five Year Plans, starting from 1951,have changed the economic scenario of the country considerably.Agriculture production has risen steadily, and progress of industrializationhas increasingly played a role in India’s economic development. During1950-51, agriculture contributed about 50 per cent of the country’s GrossDomestic Product but in 1992-93 its share reduced to 26 per cent. There are,indeed, many areas of economic development and social development inwhich India’s achievements have been creditable. However, overall successin reducing poverty, ignorance and inequality has been quite limited. From350 million inhabitants in 1952, India’s population had grown to 593 millionby 1974, 900 million by 1992 and probably it will cross the one billion markby the next decade. But a large proportion of the population continues tofall far short of minimum basic needs. The average per capita income for theyear 1991-92 stood as low as Rs.5,529 per annum. The sheer number of peo-ple, together with the instability and inability of the economy to providethem with even a bare level of subsistence, along with the unprecedentedpopulation increases, is an ongoing threat to India’s economic development.The faster movement of the population growth compared to economicgrowth never allows India to come out of the vicious circle of per capitacontributions (Dandekar, 1995). At the same time, the enormous size of thecountry, its cultural, ethnic and religious traditions, social backwardness, itspaucity of communication, and variety of climate, geographical and socio-economic activities, make nation-wide solutions incomparably difficult todevise and implement.1One of the most important aspects of India’s development progress is itsremarkable regional disparity in eliminating basic deprivations. The econo-my suffers from large and incessant inequalities. The majority of the poorpeople live in rural areas and belong to the category of landless labourersand the land continues to be highly inequitably distributed.2On the otherhand, underemployment and unemployment are standard features of urbanlife. The rural population below the poverty line in some of the relativelyeconomically developed states is about 21 per cent, while in some of theother states, more than 65 per cent. The rural population is below the pover-ty line. In terms of social development this contrast is even sharper. For314 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETY1It is worth mentioning that many countries are heterogeneous with respect to ethnic ori-gins, languages, religions, geography and traditions, but none can match the vast scale anddiversity to be found in India. As a result the country is called an “ethnological museum”.2Small and marginal farmers constitute over three-quarters of the landholders, but ownonly 29 per cent of the land. In contrast, large farmers constitute only 2 per cent of the land-holders, but own more than 20 per cent of the land (Agarwal, 1991).example, female literacy of the major Indian states varies from 20 per cent to86 pr cent. Other indicators relating to health, nutrition, etc. also registeredsignificant internal diversities.Various factors, such as the level of literacy, female education, nutritionalstandards, infant mortality, morbidity, employment, income distribution,public distribution system, political commitments etc., and their corre-sponding interactions, contribute to these striking variations among statesin the livelihood of common people. It may be mentioned that broad state-level comparison may not be able to capture fully the extent of diversitiesamong various indicators characterizing several facets of development.Nevertheless, state-level indicators are of prime importance as far as thestate is a crucial and political unit. A wide range of relevant fields of actions,including health and education, are constitutionally defined as ‘state sub-jects’, to be handled by the individual states rather than the central govern-ment, or as ‘concurrent subjects’, involving both state and central govern-ments (Sen and Dreze, 1998). This provides a strong motivation for studyingthe variability of inter-state development and thereby identifying the indica-tors responsible for existing diversity in development. In this context, anystate-level policy action on the issues relating to human livelihood necessar-ily depends on the proper measurement of development process and thesuitability of the choice of the indicators affecting development. In thispaper we have focussed on the proper measurement and derivation of acomposite index of developmental process and thereby studying the vari-ability existing among major Indian states.The specific objectives of this paper, as alluded to earlier, are as follows: a)Sectoral identification of the developmental process into some category (cat-egories not necessarily mutually exclusive) by identifying the dynamicsfrom the outcome of the process. b) To develop a composite index for eachsector of the development process and thereby constructing the overallindices of development of individual states. c) To identify the relative hier-archy of states in the sectoral and overall development by identifying thevariables responsible for the hierarchy.The second section is devoted to the selection and sources of variables,and the limitations of the data. The principal component methodology forconstructing a composite index of development for individual states isbriefly discussed in the third section, followed by the empirical analysis inthe fourth section. The disparity in each sectoral development of individualstates has been discussed in various sub-sections. A two-dimensional clus-tering diagram has been used to study the similarity/dissimilarity of theprogress of development among states. Some issues on the progress ofSOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA315development in India vis-a-vis some other Asian countries have also beenpresented in this section. The final section concludes with some policyimplications.DATA AND SELECTION OF VARIABLESAfter the Second World War, the study of economic development of theeconomically backward countries grew very rapidly with the issue of eco-nomic needs and deprivation of the common people as the central impor-tance (Hall, 1983). Studies in this respect and subsequently in the area ofhuman development and physical quality of life, especially in the context ofIndia, are voluminous (Sen, 1981; Ram, 1982; Karkal and Irudaya Rajan,1991; Nissan, 1993). Several authors used the methodology given by UNDPto construct the composite index of development. Irrespective of the argu-ments and debate regarding the methods to pursue the policy, there remainsthe question of how to measure the progress of development. As the majorfocus of this paper is to study the socio-economic differential and relatedbehaviour in a developmental perspective, the macro-level country charac-teristics and individual state level variables affecting quality of life, directlyor indirectly, through developmental process have to be identified. “TheIndian subcontinent, with its large size, wide structure and eco-social dis-parities is better understood and better interpreted when studied at theregional level. Analysis of data at disaggregated form narrows down thevariability and enables better identification of special characteristics” (DuttaRoy Choudhury, 1995). Accordingly, the country is divided into five differ-ent regions of 16 major states, which account for above 95 per cent of thetotal population. The Northern region is comprised of four states: Punjab,Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and Rajasthan; western region is comprised oftwo states: Maharashtra and Gujarat; eastern region is comprised of fourstates: West Bengal, Assam, Orissa and Bihar; and the central region is com-prised of two states: Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh; and finally south-ern region is comprised of four states: Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,and Karnataka.3316 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETY3For administrative purposes, India is divided into 32 units including 26 states and 6 UnionTerritories, which are further divided into about 500 districts. The distribution of major stateshas been represented by a map at the end of this paper. Geographically, Madhya Pradesh isthe biggest state accounting for 13.5 per cent of the total area of the country. Other large states,in order of sizes are Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. UttarPradesh, which is fourth in land area, stands first in the country in population size accountingfor 16 per cent of the total population of India. The next largest states in terms of populationIn general, development can be viewed as a multi-dimensional phenome-non; some of its major dimensions include level of economic development,level of education, level of health services, degree of modernization, statusof woman, level of nutrition, quality of housing, distribution of goods andservices, and access to communication. Again, it is not possible to study oneparticular factor mentioned above in isolation. The movements of the indi-cators specifying various levels of socio-economic development amongstates are not uniform. Thus, instead of studying the variability of a particu-lar variable across states, a composite index based on several indicators isbeing developed and then the states are arranged according to the indicesderived. Though this method of composite index for ranking of the regionsis widely popular in development economics, there are few attempts madein the field of demography (Mauldin and Berelson, 1978; Fabri, 1977;Morris, 1979). None of these studies, however, has received the generalendorsement of the international community and none of the studiesinclude a range of available modernization measures. Here a compositeindex of development is constructed using four broadly accepted compo-nents: (a) economic production and economic condition or in other wordslevel of economic development; (b) common minimum needs (CMN)which, in general, the state is supposed to provide; (c) health and healthrelated services and (d) communication. However, many of these categoriesare problematic to measure and there is no internationally accepted rule tomeasure such categories.Indicators Relating to Economic DevelopmentThe selected variables for level of economic development are as follows:1) GDP per capita at constant price (1980-81=100) (PCGDP); 2) Per capitaconsumption expenditure for 30 days (PCCONSU); 3) Percentage of peopleabove poverty line4(ABOVE); 4) Employment Rate (EMPL). Of the manychoices available for measuring economic production, state level GDP percapita is the most widely accepted and commonly available indicator. TheSOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA317size are Bihar, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.4The Task Force on “Minimum Needs and Effective Consumption Demand” constituted bythe Planning Commission in 1979 defined the poverty line as per capita monthly expenditureof Rs.49.09 in rural areas and Rs.56.64 in urban areas at 1973-74 prices, corresponding to theper capita daily calorie requirement of 2400 in rural areas and 2100 in urban areas. For subse-quent years, the poverty line has been adjusted because of price changes, using the priceindices which are implicit in the private consumption expenditure series reported by NationalAccounts Statistics. The corresponding levels at 1987-88 price levels are Rs.131.80 in ruralareas and Rs.152.13 in urban areas.state level GDP (State domestic product-SDP) figures are available from theDirectorate of Economics & Statistics of respective state governments. One impor-tant aspect of economic health of the people in the nation is the capacity oftheir expenditures towards consumable goods to the extent possible. It isuniversally accepted that income and consumption vary in the same direc-tion. Thus, per capita consumption expenditure of states can be taken as aproxy index of states’ income standard too. The NSSO (National SampleSurvey Organization) published, in their 43rd round survey, the state levelper capita consumption expenditure for 30 days. Those figures have beenused here. Several planning strategies are being implemented to meet thechallenges to eradicate poverty. It is perceived that the foremost priority ineradication of poverty is to meet the common basic needs of the people.“Poverty has to be identified with deficiency in total level of living. Andtotal level of living includes not only energy requirements but also balanceddiet needed for health, and the other components of basic needs essentialfor human existence at a tolerable level” (Rao, 1977). The percentage of peo-ple below the poverty line of the state shows their level of output, incomeand distribution of necessary goods and services irrespective of the debateof determining the poverty line. Though there is no general agreementabout a “normal” calorie intake, we have taken the state level data on per-centage of people above poverty line from CMIE (Centre for MonitoringIndian Economy) publication on social sectors.Another important indicator for economic development is the employ-ment rate. It is an indicator of the ability of the economy to create and caterjobs. This particular variable is not only an index of the overall economicdevelopment but also serves as a crucial link between social and demo-graphic determinants. Employment data for individual states has also beentaken from CMIE (Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy) publication onsocial sectors.Indicators Relating to Common Minimum Needs (CMN)Selected variables for this group are as follows: 1) Literacy (EnrollmentRatio) (ENROL); 2) Percentage of households having safe drinking water(WATER); 3) Percentage of houses having electric facility (ELEC) and 4)Percentage of households living in pucca house5(HOUSE). Education is oneof the principal attributes of the quality of a population. It plays an impor-318 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETY5Made of high-quality materials like cement, bricks, etc. throughout, including the roof,walls and floor. About 24 per cent of houses in India are pucca. The quality of housing is betterin urban areas, where about 57 per cent of houses are pucca (NFHS, 1992).tant link between social and economic development processes. For the edu-cation component of the developmental process, two types of indicators aregenerally used. One type is cumulative and measures the proportion of thepopulation with certain characteristics relating to educational attainment,such as the percentage of the population literate or the percentage with pri-mary schooling completed. The other type of measure is current and mea-sures the proportion of the student-age population currently enrolled inschool. Thus, the percentage literate is a measure of the stock of education inthe population at a moment in time, while the enrollment ratio is a measureof the current input to that stock. Because the developmental process isdynamic and socio-economic change may be rapid, the measures reflectingthe current situation are considered preferable. Therefore, enrollment ratiosare selected as being more representative of the current situation than litera-cy rates. The indicator selected is the gross enrollment ratio for males andfemales for the primary and secondary levels of schooling combined. Thismeasure represents the total number of students enrolled at the primary andsecondary levels, regardless of age, divided by the population within theage groups normally attending these schooling levels. The net enrollmentratio, which includes only those enrolled students in the appropriate agegroup, would have been preferable, but comparable data were not availablefor all states.In India, even after 50 years of independence, a majority of the people donot have a safe drinking water facility.6There is a wide disparity amongstates in this respect. A village with a safe drinking water facility does notnecessarily mean that all households in the village have a safe drinkingwater facility. Therefore, percentage of households having a safe drinkingwater facility is a better indicator than percentage of villages having safedrinking water. Other than this, one major component of daily amenities isthe household electricity. It may be mentioned that availability of these twoinfrastructure facilities is mainly dependent on the public (government)actions and political commitments.Indicators Relating to HealthOne vital component of human development is the access and availabilityof primary health services. In this category, six variables have been selected:1) Expectation of life at birth (EXP); 2) Doctors per lakh7populationSOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA3196It is pity to mention that even after 50 years of independence, problems relating to safedrinking water facilities is still a burning issue of any election campaign in India.71 lakh = 100,000 and 10 lakh = 1 million. According to 1991 Population Census, India’s(DOCPL); 3) Hospital bed per lakh population (HOSBPL); 4) Percentage ofpeople not morbid (NMORBI); 5) Children survival rate per thousand birth(CSR) and 6) Hospitals per lakh population (HOSPL). Decline in the deathrate and reduction in infant mortality is directly related to the level of exist-ing health standard. These are related to other socio-economic indicatorstoo. Therefore, expectation of life at birth (EXP) can be taken as an indicatorof the health of the country. It may be mentioned that expectation of life atbirth (EXP) is one of the most widely used variables in the field of humandevelopment.Another indicator for availability of health services relates to the numberof hospital beds. Accordingly, hospital beds per lakh population are takenas an indicator of health services facilities, specifically characterizing thelevel of infrastructure and accommodation facilities of health available in astate. But, all hospitals in a country extend their services towards the out-door patients on a regular basis. Thus number of hospitals per lakh popula-tion (HOSPL) indicates the accessibility of health facilities around the vicini-ty of the hospital. It is generally felt, however, that measures, such as HOSB-PL, HOSPL, etc., of the supply of health services are weak both because thecomponent of distribution of services is not captured, and hospital care isonly one component of the health care system. There are several health cen-tres and several doctors who practice outside the bigger medical and healthinstitutions. Services rendered by them can be thought to be more powerfulcomponents than the available hospital facilities as far as the distribution andaccessibility are concerned. Therefore, the number of doctors per lakh popu-lation (DOCPL) is taken as another indicator in this group under discussion.However, it is perceived that the child survival rate can be taken as anindirect measure of health-care accessibility, as suggested by the WorldHealth Organization (1981). Although the child survival rate can be seen asreflecting the distribution of health services, it is obviously influenced byother factors as well, such as nutritional levels, general sanitation, access totransport and cultural practices. In the recent years, much attention has beengiven to the morbid condition of the people because a state may have goodhealth in terms of life expectancy, infant mortality, etc., but a sizable propor-tion of people in the state may be sick or morbid. In this connection, some-times many demographers in India quote the example of Kerala.8Most ofthe time, especially in India, reliable data on morbidity is not available.320 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYpopulation is 846.3 million.8The state Kerala has made remarkable progress in reducing mortality. The mortality char-acteristics of Kerala are commendably comparable with most of the developed nations.However, morbidity rate in Kerala is not as low as that developed nations.However, recent National Family Health Survey data (NFHS, 1992-93) hasprovided some excellent dis-aggregated data on many of the demographiccharacteristics of people, including data on sate-level prevalence of morbidi-ty.9State-wide morbidity data, included here, is relevant both for demo-graphic assessment of the population and to health policies and pro-grammes.CommunicationThe final component of the development process discussed here relates tothe extensiveness of the communication infrastructure and mass media.This component also measures the extent of infrastructure facilities for thedistribution of goods and services in the society. The role of this componentwas to evaluate the degree of percolation throughout the community ofthose goods and services, which particularly relate to communication net-works. There are a wide variety of indicators of communication infraustruc-ture based on consumption items, such as passenger cars, television setsetc., available for this purpose. But the indicators based on consumptionitems are more suitable for developed countries. Reliability and accuracy ofthese data is always questionable in the developing countries. Another wayto envisage the effect of mass media would be the exposure of common peo-ple to TV, radio, etc. While exposure to television is mostly centralized inurban/semi-urban places, exposure to radio is more in rural areas.Keeping all these things in mind, the following five variables, for which afair amount of reliable state level data are available in India, have been cho-sen as communication and mass media indicators: 1) Post offices per lakhpopulation (POSTL); 2) Telegraph offices per lakh population (TELGL); 3)Telephones per lakh population (TELEPHL); 4) Percent of ever marriedwomen age 13-49 who usually watch television (TV) at least once a week; 5)Percent of ever married women age 13-49 who usually listen to the radio(RADIO) at least once a week. The data on mass media exposure are basedon National Family Health Survey (NFHS), 1992-93 and communicationdata are based on CMIE (Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy) publica-tions.Most of the data points in each category of variables relate to the year1990-91, except per capita consumption expenditure for 30 days whichrelates to the year 1988-89. Unless otherwise mentioned the source of theSOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA3219The data on morbidity, as reported by NFHS (1992-93), include prevalence of blindness(partial and complete), tuberculosis, leprosy, physical impairment of limbs and malaria dur-ing last three from the date of survey.information base is CMIE.METHODOLOGYTo derive a composite index from a set of variables, a wide variety of mul-tivariate statistical techniques are available. Actually, the choice of the mostappropriate method depends upon the type of the problem, the nature of thedata and the objective of the analysis. In social science, variables are, in gen-eral, correlated and the researchers are not in a position to study the socio-economic dynamics with a set of independent variables. One needs to lookfor an alternative dimension reduction technique which will enable them tosummarize the whole set of information into a manageable form withoutmuch loss of the information content of the original data. The theme of themultivariate analysis is simplification and “to summarize a large body ofdata by means of relatively few parameters” (Chatfield & Collins, 1980).Though the composite index can be built up using simple techniques likeranking and indexing methods, these techniques have many drawbackswhich have been criticized by many researchers like Dandekar Committee(1984), Kundu and Raza (1982), and Sarker (1995). Main drawbacks are arbi-trariness and allocation of equal weights. Kendall (1939) developed a com-posite index formula to overcome these problems using inter-dependentvariables pertaining to agricultural productivity, which is formally equiva-lent to what Hotelling (1933) called as a “first principal component”. In prin-cipal component analysis (PCA), a set of original variables is transformed toa new set of uncorrelated variables called principal components. These newvariables are linear functions of the original variables and derived in decreas-ing order of importance. The objective is to find out only a few components,which account for most of the variation in the original data set. For details ofmethodology, refer to Anderson (1985), and Chatfield and Collins (1980).It is important to note that the principal components of a set of variablesdepend critically upon the scales used to measure the variables. This scalingprocedure is arbitrary and data dependent. If all the variables are of equalimportance, then the variables have to be scaled in such a way that theyhave unit variance. According to Chatfield and Collins (1980), there is gen-erally thought to be little point in carrying out a PCA unless the variableshave roughly similar variances. Thus the conventional way of getting unitvariance is either to standardize the variables or simply divide by standarddeviation. In this study, the aim is to develop composite index of develop-ment rather than to study the disparities among the states. Assuming a pri-ori that the variables are of equal importance, the correlation matrix has322 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYbeen analyzed. However, the composite index derived using the correlationmatrix will enable one to study the disparities also. Hence, we have scaledthe variables by normal standardizing procedure. In addition, an overallefficiency index has been compiled by taking the first principal componentscore (PRIN1) as the variable of the respective group and subsequently usingPCA. An effort is made to include both first (PRIN1) and second principalcomponent scores (PRIN2) in the overall index construction by takingrespective communality as weights. But, because of the substantial reductionof power to explain variability to a greater extent, the idea has been dropped.EMPIRICAL ANALYSISFive variables, per capita state domestic product (PCGDP), per capita con-sumption expenditure for one month (PCCONSU), percentage of peopleabove the poverty line (ABOVE) and employment rate (EMPL), have beenconsidered for the construction of the index relating to economic develop-ment. Loading structure and other related statistics are depicted in Table 1.It can be seen that the first principal component (PRIN1) explains almost 59per cent of variation of the data, which is taken to be satisfactory.It is observed that per capita consumption expenditure has the highestloading in the first principal component followed by per cent above povertyline and per capita state gross domestic product. One interesting and strik-ing result is that employment has not turned out to be as significant as com-pared to other factors for the economic development process in India.If we examine more carefully then we find that expenditure capacity forIndia is very low and that determines to a greater extent the level of eco-nomic development. On average, one Indian national consumes onlyRs.188.40 worth of things that are absolutely necessary in a month (Table 2).Low per capita income and higher degree of economic imbalance in theearnings capacity leads to the fact of lower consumption expenditure. Beingabove the poverty line is also found to be an important indicator. Weobserve that only 64.8% of India’s population live above the poverty line. Inother words, 35% of the total population is still below poverty line.Thus, irrespective of GDP per capita and employment rate, the basicproblem of India still lies in the circle of poverty, hunger and economicimbalance. It must be recognized that the majority of the common people inIndia (especially in rural areas) are deprived of every opportunity of life andcontinue to live a miserable life, often falling far short of even minimumcalorie needs. These poor people belong to the categories of landless lobour-ers, small and marginal farmers, fishermen, rural artisans and backwardSOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA323324 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYTABLE 1. PRINCIPAL COMPONENT LOADINGS FOR DIFFERENT GROUP OF INDICATORSEconomic development Common minimum needs Health CommunicationVariables PRIN1 PRIN2 Variables PRIN1 PRIN2 Variables PRIN1 PRIN2 Variables PRIN1 PRIN2PCGDP 0.5179 0.1982 ENROL 0.3554 0.8765 EXP 0.4625 0.0582 TELEPL 0.4855 -0.3885PCCONSU 0.6021 -0.1298 ELEC 0.6350 0.0267 DOCPL 0.2725 0.4754 POSTL 0.2343 0.6355ABOVE 0.6006 0.1079 WATER 0.4438 -0.2847 HOSBPL 0.3761 -0.6183 TELGL 0.3239 0.6152EMPL -0.0925 0.9655 HOUSE 0.5229 -0.3867 HOSPL 0.2792 -0.5295 TV 0.5441 -0.2554NMORBI 0.3402 0.4869 RADIO 0.5554 -0.0370CSR 0.4985 0.1479Variation 58.8% 84.5% Variation 56.8% 79.5% Variation 61.4% 79.8% Variation 57.0% 90.0%Explained explained explained explainedNote: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component Scoresclasses and backward tribes. They have either no assets or assets with verylow productivity and thus they continue to work for very low paid jobs.Unless the condition of these categories of people is improved, the rootcause poverty will not be alleviated, and overall development process willbe delayed by further decades.The programme to cater to common minimum needs (CMN) of the peo-ple was outlined several times in several five year plans of various govern-ments. To a common citizen, CMN became a part of the government’sresponsibility to satisfy. Four selected variables in this category are enroll-ment ratio (ENROL), percentage villages electrified (ELEC), percentage ofhousehold having safe drinking water facility (WATER) and percentage ofhouseholds living in pucca houses (HOUSE). In India, average enrollmentratio is estimated to be 88.8% (Table 3). Rajasthan has the lowest level ofenrollment ratio (49.9%), followed by Bihar (54.2%) and Uttar Pradesh(60.5%). The highest level of enrollment is achieved by Tamil Nadu(125.1%).More than fifty per cent (51.2) of Indian households still do not have thefacility of electricity at home, even after 50 years of Independence. A dis-tressing situation is revealed in the case of Bihar where only 12.5% of house-SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA325TABLE 2. INDICATORS RELATING TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTSTATE PCGDP PCCONSU ABOVE EMPLANDHRA PRADESH 1979.25 183.14 72.80 92.65ASSAM 1992.77 159.66 63.16 94.91BIHAR 1353.68 152.89 46.63 95.96GUJARAT 3029.80 171.55 67.67 94.21HARYANA 3807.28 244.65 83.37 92.41HIMACHAL PRADES 2485.79 239.61 90.80 96.88KARNATAKA 2284.57 157.55 61.86 94.94KERALA 2098.15 217.97 67.92 78.81MADHYA PRADESH 1939.36 152.89 56.60 97.14MAHARASHTRA 3739.39 171.07 59.90 95.33ORISSA 1542.48 174.34 44.39 93.56PUNJAB 4128.00 264.71 87.30 94.93RAJASTHAN 2151.25 218.79 65.40 94.26TAMIL NADU 2537.01 170.93 54.87 89.64UTTAR PRADESH 1785.73 164.73 59.01 96.56WEST BENGAL 2749.52 169.98 56.01 91.87MEAN 2475.25 188.40 64.86 93.38STD 822.33 36.26 13.34 4.36CV% 33.22 19.25 20.57 4.67holds are electrified, followed by Assam (only 18.7%). On the other hand,about 87% of households in Himachal Pradesh have the facility of electrici-ty, followed by Punjab (82.3%). Achievements of these two states are farahead of any other Indian states. On the average, 62.7% of households inIndia have the facility of pure drinking water. Punjab and West Bengal areon the top of the list, followed by Himachal Pradesh and Haryana. One ofthe acute problems in Orissa is safe drinking water. Only six per cent ofhouseholds in Orissa has the facility of safe drinking water. The last compo-nent of common minimum needs is percentage of household having puccahouse. This is one proxy indicator of housing quality in India. It is not nec-essarily true in India that living in kachcha10house signifies bad quality ofhousing. In some of the cases in India, housing quality for kachcha houses iseven better than pucca houses. But pucca house shows the ability of the per-son to improve the housing quality. On the average, only 34.5 households inIndia live in pucca house. Here again Assam and Orissa are at the bottom of326 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETY10Made from mud, thatch or other low quality materials. Almost one-half (49 per cent) ofhouses in India are kachcha and sixty per cent of houses in rural area in India are kachcha(NFHS, 1992-93).TABLE 3. INDICATORS RELATING TO COMMON MINIMUM NEEDSSTATE ENROL ELEC WATER HOUSEANDHRA PRADESH 90.62 46.30 55.08 29.77ASSAM 76.36 18.74 45.86 10.53BIHAR 54.19 12.57 58.76 24.07GUJARAT 103.70 65.93 69.78 43.42HARYANA 73.05 70.35 74.32 41.46HIMACHAL PRADESH 102.37 87.01 77.34 49.75KARNATAKA 98.41 52.47 71.68 30.45KERALA 103.65 48.43 18.89 51.56MADHYA PRADESH 81.48 43.30 53.41 20.93MAHARASHTRA 114.28 69.40 68.49 35.37ORISSA 83.94 23.54 39.07 13.00PUNJAB 93.31 82.31 92.74 72.14RAJASTHAN 49.91 35.03 58.96 47.04TAMIL NADU 125.09 54.74 67.42 34.60UTTAR PRADESH 60.48 38.89 68.84 32.70WEST BENGAL 110.50 32.90 81.98 15.74MEAN 88.83 48.87 62.66 34.53STD 21.87 21.98 17.86 16.23CV% 24.62 44.98 28.50 47.00the list. Especially for these two states, almost 90% of people do not havepucca housing facility.The first principal component (PRIN1) for the category of common mini-mum needs explains about 57 per cent of the variation in the data (Table 1).Percentage of households having electricity (ELEC) has highest loading(0.64) in PRIN1, followed by housing facility (0.52) and safe drinking waterfacility. Least weight was assigned to enrollment ratio (0.35). It plausiblysupports the dictum that basic needs, which is described in economic devel-opment and CMN are of major importance for a healthy enrollment ratio.When the people do not have the ability to provide other minimum needsand the state is not supplying the necessary facilities of life, the drop outrate is significantly high. Therefore, enrollment ratio can not be raisedunless minimum needs are satisfied.To study the overall health situation in individual states, six indicatorssuch as life expectancy at birth (EXP), number of doctors per lakh population(DOCPL), hospital beds per lakh population (HOSBPL), hospitals per lakhpopulation (HOSPL), percentage of population not morbid (NMORBI) andchildren survival rate (CSR) have been considered. The average lifeexpectancy of an Indian individual is only 62.3 years which is significantlylow as compared to developed countries. Kerala has achieved the highestlife expectancy at birth (72.4 years) and in contrast Uttar Pradesh recordedthe lowest at 52.8 years, followed by Assam (54.5 years) and MadhyaPradesh (57.9 years) (Table 4). There were only 51 doctors available per lakhpopulation in India. Haryana was at an extreme low of only 3 doctors perlakhpopulation, followed by Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Punjab,on the other hand, recorded the highest number of doctors per lakh popula-tion. It is observed that number of hospital beds per lakh population (HOSB-PL) has the highest observed variability. This indicates that there is a veryhigh degree of disparity among states in terms of health infrastructure facili-ties.For the health category, first Principal component (PRIN1) explains 61.4per cent of the variation of the data. It is observed from the loading struc-ture that most determining factors for the health component in India still liein the infant mortality rate followed by expectation of life. The number ofdoctors per lakh population has the least weight in the loading pattern.The chosen variables for the last component of development, communica-tion, are presented in Table 5. The extent of variability was more discerniblefor telephone per lakh population (TELEPHL). This communication media isused more in urban localities than in rural India, and the level of urbaniza-tion for individual states varies greatly.SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA327The first principal component (PRIN1) explains 57 per cent variation ofthe data. It is observed that mass media variables such as TV and RADIOwere more important, followed by TELEPHL. This clearly affirms thatmedia has a very definite and positive role to play in the overall develop-ment process. The other two variables, namely number of post offices perlakhpopulation (POSTL) and number of telegraph offices per lakhpopula-tion (TELGL), are almost of equal importance in determining the first princi-pal component.First, the sector specific indices have been developed and discussed in thenext four sub-sections, followed by a discussion on overall development inthe subsequent section.Composite Indices Based on Economic DevelopmentThe composite index/score of this sector has been calculated based on theindicators as described in an earlier section. State-wide scores for all themajor 16 states based on first principal component and second principalcomponent are presented in Table 6 and the states are arranged in descend-ing order of magnitude of indices derived from the first principal compo-328 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYTABLE 4. INDICATORS RELATING TO HEALTHSTATE EXP DOCPL HOSBPL HOSPL NMORBI CSRANDHRA PRADESH 64.48 49.51 40.28 2.80 90.76 980.00ASSAM 54.48 46.83 56.49 1.20 95.11 969.50BIHAR 60.09 30.53 33.68 0.38 94.39 973.20GUJARAT 62.74 52.80 142.78 5.74 92.63 976.30HARYANA 64.22 3.18 42.69 0.47 97.22 977.20HIMACHAL PRADESH 66.55 32.84 74.49 1.10 96.62 982.40KARNATAKA 65.30 98.23 84.33 0.65 93.58 978.30KERALA 72.37 56.55 265.30 7.01 97.22 996.10MADHYA PRADESH 57.96 16.90 27.41 0.55 90.14 961.50MAHARASHTRA 65.06 62.54 99.98 3.95 91.79 984.10ORISSA 58.40 35.03 45.78 0.10 90.46 966.60PUNJAB 66.55 131.33 72.34 1.07 95.48 982.60RAJASTHAN 61.34 31.92 46.51 0.50 88.79 966.40TAMIL NADU 63.05 81.61 87.33 0.73 96.92 984.70UTTAR PRADESH 52.84 23.85 33.99 0.53 88.09 962.20WEST BENGAL 61.94 61.29 80.45 0.58 97.62 981.60MEAN 62.34 50.93 77.11 1.71 93.55 976.42STD 4.86 32.11 58.62 2.08 3.23 9.35CV% 7.79 63.05 76.02 121.63 3.45 0.96nent. The highest value of the score for a particular state indicates that thestate was the top of the hierarchy in terms of economic development. It isobserved that the value of the scores varied from -2.172 to 3.286 (PRIN 1).As the indicators have been standardized with respect of their means, onthe whole it can be interpreted that the states yielding positive scores on thefirst component are above ‘average’ level of existing states in India. In otherwords, these states are better off as compared to the other states.Accordingly, there were only seven states, which can be considered aboveaverage in terms of economic development. There was no surprise thatPunjab was at the top with a score of 3.29 followed by Haryana markedwith a score of 2.63. Punjab has dominated in all selected indicators.Himachal Pradesh has occupied the third position. The only South IndianState identified in the above average group was Kerala.In respect of economic criteria, 9 major states were below average level.Andhra Pradesh was approaching the average. Bihar was the poorest of all,preceded by Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. As Rajasthan wasobserved to be above average in Indian scenario, the nomenclature ofBIMARU11as described by some dogmatic demographers in India, is nolonger valid here. It may be mentioned that the largest share of populationSOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA329TABLE 5. INDICATORS RELATING TO COMMMUNICATIONSTATE TELEPHL POSTL TELGL TV RADIOANDHRA PRADESH 652.00 24.38 5.92 39.10 62.40ASSAM 476.00 30.77 4.93 18.00 32.80BIHAR 167.00 13.20 4.30 12.70 25.90GUJARAT 1331.00 21.29 4.29 39.40 47.00HARYANA 834.00 15.50 2.29 49.00 42.20HIMACHAL PRADESH 864.00 50.46 12.20 47.10 54.60KARNATAKA 950.00 21.58 8.94 39.50 62.90KERALA 1181.00 17.08 6.84 42.20 71.30MADHYA PRADESH 460.00 16.70 5.01 26.70 32.70MAHARASHTRA 1851.00 15.25 3.26 46.40 52.30ORISSA 289.00 25.10 7.61 16.10 34.90PUNJAB 1250.00 18.73 2.95 57.30 42.00RAJASTHAN 501.00 23.18 3.94 17.90 27.20TAMIL NADU 1016.00 21.57 9.91 50.40 59.70UTTAR PRADESH 291.00 13.92 4.16 19.00 29.70WEST BENGAL 653.00 12.36 2.74 33.30 48.30MEAN 797.88 21.32 5.58 34.63 45.37STD 453.35 9.25 2.82 14.32 14.19CV% 56.81 43.39 50.54 41.35 31.27in India belongs to these least performing states, such as Bihar, Orissa,Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. It is thus observed that northern statesdominated the India’s economic scenario while states in central and most ofthe eastern India registered a very low level of economic development.Composite Indices Based on Common Minimum NeedsFirst principal component scores of individual states have been arrangedin descending order and presented in Table 7. Out of 16 major states, 7 stateswere found to perform above the average and the scores in the first princi-pal component varied between -2.26 to 2.99. Punjab and Himachal Pradesh,with their respective scores of 2.99 and 2.18, stood at the top. In contrast,Assam was at the bottom of the hierarchy. In fact there was virtually littledifference among the last three states, Assam, Orissa and Bihar, in thisgroup. West Bengal was presented just below the average standard. Most ofthe southern states were much better off compared to eastern and centralregional states in India. In the western region, states were evenly poised and330 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYTABLE 6. INDICES SCORES BASED ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTSTATES PRIN1 PRIN2PUNJAB 3.286 0.650HARYANA 2.627 0.055HIMACHAL PRADESH 1.951 0.804KERALA 0.700 -3.395RAJASTHAN 0.306 0.013MAHARASHTRA 0.244 0.758GUJARAT 0.179 0.401ANDHRA PRADESH -0.027 -0.198WEST BENGAL -0.500 -0.273TAMIL NADU -0.622 -0.831KARNATAKA -0.800 0.386ASSAM -0.890 0.312UTTAR PRADESH -1.158 0.575MADHYA PRADESH -1.379 0.763ORISSA -1.746 -0.300BIHAR -2.172 0.280Note: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component Scores11BIMARU is the acronym given for the states Bihar (BI), Madhya Pradesh (MA), Rajasthan(R) and Uttar Pradesh (U). BIMARU in Hindi (national) language means ‘sick’ (in somewhatderogatory sense!) for the very fact that these states are highly underdeveloped and accountfor a major share of India’s population.disparities were much less. Gujarata and Maharashtra, with third andfourth position respectively in the hierarchy list, showed very little differ-ence in the first component scores.A similar situation was observed in the case of Tamil Nadu and Haryana.Condition of Uttar Pradesh was noticeably better than Bihar, Orissa andAssam. These states have to drive a long way in the transition process ofoverall development to reach the level of northern states, especially Punjab.Composite Indices Based on HealthFrom the loading pattern in the first principal component of health cate-gory, it was envisaged that in Indian context the most important compo-nents for health are infant survival rate and average span of life. These twoindicators were also universally identified and used as the major variablesfor human development index as outlined by UNDP. In fact, these two vari-ables are proxy measure of health facilities, evolved through the process ofsocio-economic development. Composite indices of health for individualstates are presented in Table 8. There is wide range of variation amongstates in the composite scores. It can be seen that Kerala was on the top ofthe hierarchy with a score of 4.85. The next best state in this respect wasfound to be Punjab with an index of 1.46, which was much lower thanSOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA331TABLE 7. INDICES SCORES BASED ON COMMON MINIMUM NEEDSSTATES PRIN1 PRIN2PUNJAB 2.998 -1.156HIMACHAL PRADESH 2.177 -0.007GUJARAT 1.198 0.292MAHARASHTRA 1.179 0.932TAMIL NADU 0.879 1.383HARYANA 0.877 -0.958KARNATAKA 0.352 0.342WEST BENGAL -0.235 0.989KERALA -0.311 0.886ANDHRA PRADESH -0.387 0.303UTTAR PRADESH -0.655 -1.204RAJASTHAN -0.722 -1.817MADHYA PRADESH -0.949 0.170BIHAR -2.046 -1.122ORISSA -2.092 0.662ASSAM -2.264 0.303Note: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component ScoresKerala.Out of 16 major states, 9 states were above the average level. It is alsoobserved that all south Indian states are located above average in the list.Two states, positioned in the top of the list, Gujarat and Maharashtra, hadalmost the same level of health development. These two states were evenbetter than Tamil Nadu. Himachal Pradesh ranked sixth in the hierarchylist. The health facilities of this state are not in tandem with other sectors ofdevelopment. Indeed this state is lagging behind in terms of health infra-structure facilities. West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh were in the vicinity ofthe average.In contrast to these states, seven states were marked noticeably below332 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYMAP. MAJOR STATES IN INDIAAbbreviations used for the name of major states:1)Northern Regional States: Punjab - PU, Himachal Pradesh - HP, Haryana - HA, Rajasthan - RAand Jammu and Kashmir - JK.2) Western Regional States: Maharashtra - MA and Gujarat - GU.3) Southern Regional States: Karnataka - KA, Kerala - KE, Tamil Nadu - TN and Andhra Pradesh -AP.4) Eastern Regional States: Bihar - BI, Orissa - OR and West Bengal - WB, Assam - AS.5) Central Regional States: Uttar Pradesh - UP and Madhya Pradesh - MP.States not indicated in the map in the North-Eastern region are: Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland,Tripura, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh. Remaining states are Goa, Sikkim and Delhi.average level. Uttar Pradesh, with a score of -3.01 was at the bottom of thelist preceded by Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. Bihar was placed in a compar-atively better position than Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,Rajasthan and Orissa. This was due to, a slighty longer life span, and thebetter health services availability, especially doctors per lakh population, ofBihar compared to other states. It is important to notice that these statesconsistently performed badly in all sectors of the development process. Thepoor performance of Orissa was due to very high level of infant mortalityrate and as a result Orissa is designated as the most ‘tragic state’ in India.Composite Indices Based on CommunicationComposite indices of development, in respect of communication for rank-ing of the states on the basis of first principal component score, are depictedin Table 9. About 8 major states in India are found to have communicationsfacilities below average. Even Punjab, the high performing state in other cat-egories of development, is found to be comparatively in the lower positionin the list. Bihar once again is at the bottom of the list followed by UttarPradesh and Rajasthan. Less communication infrastructure of these statesmay be a major bottleneck to its development process. Himachal Pradesh ismarked as the top most state in terms of communication infrastructure. ThisSOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA333TABLE 8. INDICES SCORES BASED ON HEALTHSTATES PRIN1 PRIN2KERALA 4.853 -1.661PUNJAB 1.463 1.849GUJARAT 1.187 -1.708MAHARASHTRA 1.163 -0.745TAMIL NADU 1.027 1.330HIMACHAL PRADESH 0.759 0.537KARNATAKA 0.651 1.040WEST BENGAL 0.577 1.159ANDHRA PRADESH 0.001 -0.457HARYANA -0.288 0.460BIHAR -1.047 0.408ASSAM -1.239 0.249RAJASTHAN -1.747 -0.622ORISSA -1.892 -0.234MADHYA PRADESH -2.454 -0.657UTTAR PRADESH -3.014 -0.948Note: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component Scoresstate performed consistently in every other area of development too. TamilNadu secured the second position of the list followed by Kerala.Maharashtra and Karnataka registered almost the same level of develop-ment in respect to communication.It may be noticed that the hierarchy of the states does not change much inrespect of communication and mass media.Composite Indices of Overall DevelopmentDevelopment models of individual states in each of the categories clearlyestablish a cogent regional pattern. Most of the states in northern region areeconomically developed and do provide a relatively higher proportion ofminimum basic needs to the people as compared to other states. Southernstates, on the other hand, are found to be more advanced in respect of healthachievements. Western states fall in between these two different scenariosand are marked with a middle level of progress. The crux of India’s devel-opment problem is, therefore, mainly associated with the states in centralregion. In some cases, it is associated with eastern states. As theregions/states differ noticeably in each sector of the development process,indices of overall development have been compiled by taking the scores offirst principal component as the variable values for respective categories334 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYTABLE 9. INDICES SCORES BASED ON COMMUNICATIONSTATES PRIN1 PRIN2HIMACHAL PRADESH 2.402 3.141TAMIL NADU 1.896 0.454KERALA 1.749 -0.547MAHARASHTRA 1.426 -2.052KARNATAKA 1.425 0.486PUNJAB 0.846 -1.533ANDHRA PRADESH 0.796 0.285GUJARAT 0.667 -0.829HARYANA -0.064 -1.395WEST BENGAL -0.643 -1.093ASSAM -1.303 1.113ORISSA -1.329 1.495MADHYA PRADESH -1.341 0.022RAJASTHAN -1.805 0.370UTTAR PRADESH -2.099 -0.063BIHAR -2.622 0.145Note: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component Scoresand thereby using another PCA.12Using these four variables, each charac-terizing a separate sector of the developmental process, component scoreshave been estimated. An attempt was also made to include first two princi-pal components’ scores of each category as the variables for further PCA.But, as the inclusion of the second component score as variable drasticallyreduced the explanation power of the resulting first principal component,we confined our analysis to using the first component scores only.The loading structure of the variables, representing each sector of devel-opment, in the first two principal components have been exhibited in Table10. It is observed that the first component explains about 73 per cent vari-ability of the data. The first two components together capture more thanninety per cent of variation in the combined data. It is interesting to notethat almost all sectors are equally important in determining the overalldevelopment of any state. However, health facilities turned out to be one ofthe most important factors in the overall development process in India.Nine states, out of 16 major states, were found above the average level ofdevelopment. Lots of coercive efforts has to be made to pull up the otherhalf of the states. Composite index scores also differed substantially amongstates.In the overall development, Punjab, as indicated in Table 11, was again atSOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA33512Though there may be some criticism about the underlying methodology of using principalcomponent scores as variables in the construction of overall index. The argument behind thiswas the fact that when the first principal component cannot capture the full information con-tent of the data set, further use of first component score as a variable in another PCA will loseout more information content of the original data. Instead one can use all original variabletogether to construct the overall index provided the combined variables will explain a sizablevariation of the data in the first principal component. But this procedure every time may notyield good results; and for our case only 36 per cent variation was explained by the first com-ponent when all variables were taken together. Therefore, we decided to consider the earliermethod for construction of composite index of overall development.TABLE 10. PRINCIPAL COMPONENT LOADINGS OF CATEGORY OF VARIABLESVariables PRIN1 PRIN2Economic Development 0.4795 -0.5826Common Minimum Needs 0.4700 -0.6179Health 0.5247 -0.3833Communication 0.5233 0.3630Variation explained 73.4% 90.7%Note: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component Scoresthe zenith of the list. Himachal Pradesh, comparatively a small state inIndia, performed consistently better in tandem with Punjab in each categoryof development, economic criteria, basic needs, health facilities and commu-nication. This particular state can play a model role in India’s progress anddevelopment. In contrast to performance of these successful states, Biharand Orissa were at the zephyr. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Assam andRajasthan were also at the bottom of the list. These states recorded almostthe same level of overall development. The sector specific problems of thesestates have to be identified as mentioned earlier. Specific progrommes haveto be outlined and properly implemented to uplift these states to a stagefrom where socio-economic transition would be easy to achieve.Seeing the overall development of states from the bottom of the Table 11,it may be mentioned that BOUMAR (Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, MadhyaPradesh, Assam and Rajasthan) would be a better acronym for the leastdeveloped Indian States.Clustering of StatesAnother way to look into the homogeneity/heterogeneity of states is toplot the second principal component scores (PRIN2) against the first princi-pal component (PRIN1). Diagrammatic representation of PRIN2 against336 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYTABLE 11. INDICES SCORES BASED ON OVERALL DEVELOPMENTSTATES PRIN1 PRIN2PUNJAB 2.706 -1.348HIMACHAL PRADESH 2.338 -0.506KERALA 1.869 1.771MAHARASHTRA 1.237 0.304HARYANA 1.035 -1.328TAMIL NADU 0.982 0.772GUJARAT 0.981 0.160KARNATAKA 0.497 0.746ANDHRA PRADESH 0.117 0.289WEST BENGAL -0.307 0.289RAJASTHAN -1.172 -0.903ASSAM -1.795 0.220MADHYA PRADESH -1.800 -0.328UTTAR PRADESH -2.013 -0.839ORISSA -2.171 0.285BIHAR -2.504 0.414Note: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component ScoresPRIN1 is generally called a two-dimensional plot.13Taking the first compo-nent (PRIN1) along the X-axis and the second component (PRIN2) along theY-axis, the two-dimensional plotting was carried out. The plots of PRIN2 vs.PRIN1 for all the categories separately are presented in Graph 1 to Graph 5.Clustering of states14for each sector of development and overall develop-ment based on these plots is discussed below separately.The first two principal components, in respect of economic criteria, cumu-latively explain 84.5 percent of variation of the data. It is observed fromGraph 1 that, there is a feasible homogeneous group, consisting of Punjab,Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, which were above average. Another clus-ter very close to the average consists of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan.There was little difference between Karnataka and Assam in their economiccondition. One can see the enormous difference between Bihar and Punjab.Kerala turned out be an outlier state in India. These results, therefore, sug-gest that there is wide disparity among states. Thus policies affecting theeconomy of the state would have to be outlined and implemented separate-ly for each of the homogeneous clusters and separate plan outlays have tobe proposed according to the nature of the problems and level of develop-ment of the cluster.In respect of common minimum needs, the first two principal compo-nents jointly explains 79.5 percent of variation of the data. As indicated inGraph 2, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana belong to one homoge-neous cluster. Similarly, Gujarata, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnatakaformed another cluster. These two clusters lie in two different sides of the X-axis indicating that there exist substantial differences between them,SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA33713Basically this plotting technique for clustering the units is more popular in social scienceswhen cardinal/ordinal distances of several categories of variables are to be measured.Principal component methodology is a very powerful multivariate tool for the dimensionreduction of huge data set. Most of the social science research using PCA terminates with thefirst component only. But only the first principal component may not be adequate to summa-rize substantial information of the data set. In this process, a good amount of valuable infor-mation may be lost. Therefore plotting of PRIN2 against PRIN1 would be an alternative solu-tion to the problem. Because, any point on the two-dimensional plot (PRIN2 vs. PRIN1) for aparticular unit will summarize the total information content of first two principal compo-nents. In other words, any point on this plot explains a cumulative variation of the first twocomponents. Thus it is possible to identify regional disparities/trends on the plot amongunits. This procedure can also detect the outlier existing among units.14The abbreviation used for the name of individual states in the graphs (and Map as well) isas follows: Punjab - PU, Rajasthan - RA, Himachal Pradesh - HP, Haryana - HA, UttarPradesh - UP, Madhya Pradesh - MP, Bihar - BI, West Bengal - WB, Orissa -OR, Assam - AS,Maharashtra - MA, Gujarat - GU, Andhra Pradesh - AP, Karnataka - KA, Tamil Nadu - TN,Kerala - KE.although they contain all the better performing states of India. On the otherhand, the least performing cluster of states, comprising Bihar, Rajasthan andUttar Pradesh, lies on one side, and the cluster containing Orissa and Assamlies on the other side of the X-axis.This particular phenomenon needs to be examined more specifically. Anystrategic planning focussing on the least performing states may not lead to338 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYNote: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component ScoresGRAPH 2. TWO-DIMENSIONAL PLOT OF PRINCIPAL COMPONENT SCORES OF STATES FORCOMMON MINIMUM NEEDSNote: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component ScoresGRAPH 1. TWO-DIMENSIONAL PLOT OF PRINCIPAL COMPONENT SCORES OF STATES FORECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTthe same results because they do not belong to the same cluster, in the sensethat reasons for poor performance of these states are attributed to differentfactors, although these states are marked with a very low level of develop-ment. Instead, separate planning strategies have to be urgently outlined andimplemented for states belonging to different clusters. The variables, whichcharacterize two separate clusters, are to be studied properly and the issuesrelated to their different characteristics have to be addressed quickly. Here,in the case of CMN, enrollment ratio turned out to be the important variablefor the segregation of the states into two different clusters.The first two principal components, in respect to health development,together explain 79.8 percent of the variation in the data. It can be observedfrom Graph 3 that the state of Kerala made significant progress from otherstates of India in the area of health development. This validates our com-mon perception about Kerala. In fact, this state is marked as an outlier as inthe case of economic development. There is noticeable vertical distancebetween Kerala and Punjab although both states are marked with high lev-els of health development. Therefore, the composition of the planning port-folio in terms of the variables resulting into higher level of health develop-ment need not be same for different states. Kerala has the highest level ofhealth infrastructure facilities such as hospital beds, hospitals, etc., whereasPunjab is marked with a higher number of health workers like doctors,nurses, etc. Punjab, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, andKarnataka formed a separate cluster in the first quadrant. The cluster on theSOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA339Note: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component ScoresGRAPH 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL PLOT OF PRINCIPAL COMPONENT SCORES OF STATES FORHEALTHextreme negative side of the plot consists of Uttar Pradesh, MadhyaPradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan. The significant differences between thesetwo extremities are due to a large gap in both health infrastructure andhealth services.In respect to communication, the first two principal components jointlycaptures 90.0 percent variation of the data. It is observed from Graph 4 thatHimachal Pradesh and Maharashtra are in two different quadrants of thepositive side of the X-axis, and their distance between them is significantlyhigh although both the states had relatively higher ranks in communicationand mass media. Punjab, Gujarat and Kerala were closer to Maharashtrathan Himachal Pradesh. All other economically low developed states suchas Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Assam liein the vicinity of a unit circle in the negative side of the Y-axis. This indicatesthat these states recorded very little differences in respect to communica-tion. Himachal Pradesh by itself formed a single entry outlier class and isfar distanced from other states in India.The composite indices of overall development of individual states havebeen calculated on the basis of the first principal component scores, estimat-ed in each sector of development process. One point of caution may be stat-ed that the macro level findings derived here need not throw any furtherlight in the complexity of the developmental process. The first two principalcomponents, in respect of overall development of states, cumulatively340 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYNote: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component ScoresGRAPH 4. TWO-DIMENSIONAL PLOT OF PRINCIPAL COMPONENT SCORES OF STATES FORCOMMUNICATIONexplain 90.7 percent variation of the data. A two-dimensional plot of thefirst two principal components score is depicted in Graph 5.Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana formed a homogeneous clusterand are positioned in the higher level of overall development. On the otherhand, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Gujarat were clubbed to another clus-ter. Kerala, in one upper corner of the first quadrant, again turned out to bean outlier. The overall development pattern of the cluster comprising ofMadhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan were totally different fromthat of the cluster comprising of Bihar, Orissa and Assam. However, allthese states are marked with very low levels of overall development.The development process in India is different than that of other Asiancountries for several reasons. The development in India has a spatial dimen-sion and the issues of development in India has been highly politicized andresulted in very little success. The entire development plan of any countrymust find its roots on a social base. For example, countries like South Korea,Hong Kong, Taiwan and also post-reform China have all been well ahead ofIndia in many ‘social’ respects that have made it easier for them to make useof the economic opportunities offered by the expansion of markets. Thesecountries have not only experienced very high economic growth, but alsohave managed to raise the quality of life through other means (even in theabsence of economic growth), such as public support for general health careand basic education (See Sen and Dreze, 1998). Adult literacy rates of select-SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA341Note: PRIN1 = 1stPrincipal Component Scores PRIN2 = 2ndPrincipal Component ScoresGRAPH 5. TWO-DIMENSIONAL PLOT OF PRINCIPAL COMPONENT SCORES OF STATES FOROVERALL DEVELOPMENTed Asian countries, such as India, South Korea, Hong Kong, Thailand andChina are presented in Table 12. It is seen that India’s present literacy rate ismuch lower than what these countries had achieved many years ago, evenprior to the initiation of market-based economic transformation. Therefore,one of the major bottlenecks of India’s development process has been theslow progress in the field of basic education. The adult literacy rate of Indiain 1992 stood at 50, while the same for China was recorded at 80. The eco-nomic liberalization of India currently underway has to be viewed on thebackground of poverty, deprivation, illiteracy and inequality existingamong the masses. And therefore, the development pattern of India’s maynot be directly comparable with that of other Asian countries, like SouthKorea, Hong Kong, Taiwan and China, which have established a verystrong social development base on which processes of economic reformshave resulted in high economic growth and overall development.CONCLUSIONIn general, development can be viewed as a multi-dimensional phenome-non. Here a composite index of development is constructed using fourbroadly accepted components: (a) economic production and economic con-dition or in other words level of economic development; (b) common mini-mum needs; (c) health and health-related services and (d) communication.The findings of the analysis support the general perception about thestates. The factors, which are found out to be more important for the overalldevelopment process, relate to basic needs like education, availability offood, minimum purchasing power and facilities like safe drinking water,health care infrastructure, etc. It is also found that enrollment ratio cannotbe raised unless minimum needs of the common people are satisfied.Therefore, true development requires government action to improve ele-342 DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETYTABLE 12. ADULT LITERACY RATES IN SELECTED ASIAN COUNTRIESCountry 1960 1980 1992India 28 36 50South Korea 71 93 97Hong Kong 70 90 100Thailand 68 86 94China NA 69 80Source: The Amartya Sen & Jean Dreze Omnibus, India: Economic Development And SocialOpportunity, eds., pp.38, 1998.mentary education, safe drinking water facilities and health care, and toremove barriers against sections of societies, especially women.The states in India are marked with wide disparity in socio-economicdevelopment. Some states are better-off in terms of economic development,while states like Kerala, and Tamil Nadu have recorded remarkable socialprogress. The role of social development such as literacy (and particularly offemale literacy) in promoting basic capabilities emerges as the prerequisiteto overall development. Entitlements to basic commodities and services alsodiffer significantly among states. These results clearly emphasize the role ofwell-functioning public actions in improving the overall living conditions ofthe people. The disparity in entitlement of basic necessities among statesmainly emanates from the scope and quality of a wide range of public ser-vices such as schooling facilities, basic health care and public food distribu-tion system. Indeed, Kerala’s success may be attributed to the role of publicaction in promoting a range of social opportunities relating to elementaryeducation, status of women in society and provisions for health care andother services. The condition of BOUMAR states, on the other hand, is theresult of incessant public neglect of the same opportunities. Thus the overallresults clearly stress that economic reforms alone are not sufficient for over-all development unless it is accompanied by social and political commit-ments. Faster development requires government action to improve elemen-tary education, especially for the younger generation. 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