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From Carnegie Mellon University's School of Drama:http://www.drama.cmu.edu/250/notable-alumniSTEVEN BOCHCO (BFA '69)Bochco, the son of a concert violinist father and a painter mother, began writing for television after graduating from Carnegie Tech (now Carnegie-Mellon University; B.F.A., 1966), where he studied theatre. He worked as a scriptwriter, story editor, and producer for Universal Studios (1966–78) and for Mary Tyler Moore's MTM Enterprises (1978–85) before forming his own production company in 1987. He co-wrote and produced such successful television dramas as HILL STREET BLUES (1981–86), L.A. LAW (1986–94), and NYPD BLUE (from 1993), winning numerous Emmy Awards for his scripts.JAMES CROMWELL (BFA '64)James Cromwell made his first television performance in a 1974 episode of THE ROCKFORD FILES. A few weeks later, he began a recurring role as Stretch Cunningham on ALL IN THE FAMILY. Some of his most notable roles were in BABE (1995), for which he earned Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor, STAR TRECK: FIRST CONTACT (1996), L.A. CONFIDENTIAL (1997), THE GREEN MILE (1999), THE SUM OF ALL FEARS (2002), and in the television series SIX FEET UNDER(2003–2005). He has been nominated for an Oscar, three Emmy Awards, and four Screen Actors Guild Awards during his career.IRIS DART (BFA '66)Iris Dart began her entertainment career first as an actor before her career began writing novels and Broadway productions. She is best known for writing the novel BEACHES, which was made into a major motion picture starring Bette Midler. She also wrote sketches for Cher's variety show in the 1970s and recently wrote THE PEOPLE IN THE PICTURE, a musical which premiered in 2011 and garnered her a Drama Desk nomination. She is currently working on a musical adaption of her novel BEACHESTED DANSON (BFA '72)In 1982, Ted Danson was cast in a role as ex-baseball player and bartender Sam Malone on the hit sitcom CHEERS. The show ran from 1982 to 1993, with Danson receiving 11 consecutive Emmy and nine Golden Globes nominations, ultimately winning two Emmys and two Golden Globe Awards from those nominations. Danson has also been featured in numerous films such as THREE MEN AND A BABY. He also appeared in THE ONION FIELD, CREEPSHOW, BODY HEAT, LITTLE TREASURE, JUST BETWEEN FRIENDS, MADE IN AMERICA, and SAVING PRIVATE RYAN. Currently, Danson is starring in CSI: CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION and was in the comedy series, BORED TO DEATH, playing George.JOSH GAD (BFA '03)Josh Gad is a film, television, and stage-actor. He played the role of Ryan Church in the television series BACK TO YOU. Gad has also appeared in episodes of ER and NUMB3RS. His film appearances include THE ROCKER, CROSSING OVER, 21 and LOVE AND OTHER DRUGS. He appeared on Broadway in the role of William Barfeé in THE 25TH ANNUAL PUTNAM COUNTY SPELLING BEE. Gad currently plays Elder Cunningham in the Broadway musical THE BOOK OF MORMON. The show opened at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre on March 24, 2011. Gad was nominated for the 2011 Tony Award for Best Leading Actor in a Musical.CHARLES HAID (BFA '68)Charles Haid is a notable actor, producer and director, best known for his role as Officer Renko on HILL STREET BLUES. Since graduating from CMU with his BFA in directing, he has directed for THIRD WATCH, NYPD BLUE, BOSTON LEGAL, THE CLOSER, DOOGIE HOWSER M.D., L.A. LAW and NIP/TUCK. His directing of the ER episode "Into That Good Night" in 1995 garnered him a DGA award. He has also been nominated for three other DGA awards. He was also the Associate Producer of GODSPELL worldwide and served on the California Arts Council. He currently sits on the board of the California State Summer School for the Arts.MEGAN HILTY (BFA '04)Megan Hilty is perhaps best known as Ivy Lynn in the hit TV show SMASH, produced by Steven Speilberg. After graduating from Carnegie Mellon University’ School of Drama, she moved to New York City and made her Broadway debut in the show WICKED as a standby for GLINDA, before taking the lead role in 2005. In addition to her stage work, Hilty has made guest appearances on various television shows including THE CLOSER, THE SUITE LIFE OF ZACK AND CODY, UGLY BETTY, CSI, DESPERATE HOUSEWIVES, and SHARK. She can also be heard as the voice of Rosetta in the PIxie Hollow Games and the singing voice of Snow White in the animated feature film SHREK THE THIRD. She is a member of the Actors Equity Association, and is a recipient of the National Society of Arts and Letters Award for Excellence in Musical Theater.HOLLY HUNTER (BFA '80)After graduating from Carnegie Mellon University’s School of Drama, Holly Hunter went to New York City where she landed roles in a number of plays, including CRIMES OF THE HEART and THE MISS FIRECRACKER CONTEST. In 1982 the actress went to Los Angeles. She landed her first starring role in the movie' RAISING ARIZONA (1987), a part that is said to have been written with her in mind. She gained stardom in 1987 when she played the driven TV news producer Jane Craig in James L. Brooks' BROADCAST NEWS (1987). In 1993 she earned an Academy Award and worldwide acclaim with her performance as a mute bride to a New Zealand planter in THE PIANO (1993).CHERRY JONES (BFA '78)Cherry Jones is well known for her role as President Allison Taylor on the Fox series 24, for which she won an Emmy Award. She also starred in the TV series AWAKE as Dr. Judith Evans. Most of her career has been in the theatre, on Broadway, including her Tony-winning lead performances in Lincoln Center's 1995 productionof THE HEIRESS and John Patrick Shanley's play DOUBT, a role which earned her the 2005 Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Play. Her screen credits include CRADLE WILL ROCK, THE PERFECT STORM, SIGNS, OCEANS TWELVE, THE VILLAGE, AMELIA, THE BEAVER, NEW YEAR'S EVE and THE DIVINE SECRETS OF THE YA-YA SISTERHOOD.JUDITH LIGHT (BFA '70)Judith Light made her professional debut in RICHARD III at the California Shakespeare Festival in 1970, before moving to Broadway to star in A DOLL'S HOUSE in 1975. In 1980, Light her first Daytime Emmy Award for "Lead Actress in a Daytime Drama Series for her role as Karen Wolek in the Daytime Series ONE LIFE TO LIVE. After this success on daytime, she landed the role of assertive advertising executive Angela Bower on the ABC sitcom WHO'S THE BOSS co-starring Tony Danza. Light has also had reoccurring roles on NBC's, LAW & ORDER: SPECIAL VICTIMS UNIT and UGLY BETTY. She recently won a Tony Award for her performance in the Broadway production of OTHER DESERT CITIES by Jon Robin Baitz.JOE MANGANIELLO (BFA '00)After graduating from Carnegie Mellon’s School of Drama, Joe Manganiello moved to Los Angeles to pursue acting. He made his film debut as Eugene "Flash" Thompson inthe 2002 adaptation of the Marvel comic-book series SPIDERMAN, and had recurring roles in television on ER, HOW I MET YOUR MOTHER and ONE TREE HILL, among others. He has received both critical and popular praise for his role as werewolf Alcide Herveaux on the HBO television series TRUE BLOOD. He also starred in the film adaptation of the best selling book WHAT TO EXPECT WHEN YOU'RE EXPECTING as well as MAGIC MIKE.ROB MARSHALL (BFA '82)Rob Marshall is an award winning theatre director, film director, and choreographer. He debuted in the film industry with the Emmy Award-wining TV adaptation of the musical ANNIE by Charles Strouse and Martin Charnin. After that he went on to direct the adaptation of the Kander and Ebb musical CHICAGO in 2002 for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Director. He is a six-time Tony Award nominee, Golden Globe nominee and four-time Emmy winner.Marshall then went on to direct PIRATES OF THE CARIBBEAN: ON STRANGER TIDES , the fourth chapter of Disney's Pirates of the Caribbean film series starring Johnny Depp, Ian McShane, Penélope Cruz and Geoffrey Rush.PATINA MILLER (BFA '06)In 2007, Patina Miller was cast in ALL MY CHILDREN and appeared in 30 episodes of the daytime soap opera. She performed in a Central Park production of HAIR in the summer of 2008 and was featured in the musical ROMANTIC POETRY. Miller is currently reprising the role of Deloris Van Cartier in the Broadway production of SISTER ACT, which began performances on March 24, 201. Miller is also making her Broadway debut in this production. For this role she has won a Theatre World Award and was also nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical, the Outer Critics Circle Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical, the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance, and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical.MING-NA (BFA '86)Ming Na is known for voicing Fa Mulan in the MULAN films and the KINGDOM HEARTS video game series, and as Dr. Jing-Mei "Deb" Chen on the NBC Medical drama series ER. She was a regular on other notable TV shows such as AS THE WORLD TURNS,VANISHED, and THE BATMAN. She was also the series lead in her own show, INCONCEIVABLE. She was cast as a regular in the STARGATE UNIVERSE television series.COTE DE PABLO (BFA '00)Cote de Pablo is best known for her role as Special Agent Ziva David in the TV series NCIS. She has also been seen in THE JURY, THE EDUCATION OF MAX BICKFORD and THE $TREET. She also appeared in the New York Public Theater production of Shakespeare's MEASURE FOR MEASURE.JOHN PASQUIN (BFA '69)After earning an MFA from Carnegie Mellon University, John Pasquin began directing Broadway theatre plays in the early 1980s. Later he moved on to television, directing episodes of the series FAMILY TIES, GROWING PAINS, ALICE, NEWHART and ROSEANNE. His producing debut came in 1991 with the sitcom HOME IMPROVEMENT starring Tim Allen, also directing a number of episodes of the series. He also directed Allen in the films, THE SANTA CLAUSE (1994), JUNGLE 2 JUNGLE (1997) and JOE SOMEBODY (2001). In 2005, He directed the sequel to MISS CONGENIALITY (2000).BILLY PORTER (BFA '91)Porter is a Broadway performer and pop vocalist best known for his portrayal of the Teen Angel in the 1994revival of GREASE!. Other plays he has been in include GHETTO SUPERSTAR and TOP DOG/ UNDERDOG at City Theatre, Jesus Christ Superstar and DREAMGIRLS at Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera.ZACHARY QUINTO (BFA '99)Zachary Quinto first appeared on television in the series THE OTHERS, and as a guest star on shows including CSI, TOUCHED BY AN ANGEL, CHARMED, SIX FEET UNDER, LIZZIE MCGUIRE, and DRAGNET. In 2003, he landed a recurring role ascomputer expert Adam Kaufman on the Fox series 24. In 2006, Quinto played the best friend of Tori Spelling on her VH1 series, So NOTORIOUS. Later that year, he joined the cast of HEROES as Gabriel Gray, or the serial killer SYLER. Most recently he played young Spock in the J. J. Abrams revamp of the film franchise STAR TREK. He is also a producer with fellow alums in the comany Before the Door (named after a CMU Drama acting exercise). Their company produced the oscar-nominated film MARGIN CALL.GEORGE ROMERO (BFA '60)George Romero is a film director, screenwriter, and editor best known for his gruesome and satirical horror films about zombie apocalypses. After graduating in, he began his career shooting short films and commercials. He, along with nine friends, formed Image Ten Productions in the late 1960s, and produced NIGHT OF THE LIVING DEAD (1968). The movie, directed, which he directed and co-wrote, became a cult classic and a defining moment for modern horror cinema. Recently, Romero has directed DIARY OF THE DEAD and SURVIVAL OF THE DEAD, and is featured in a downloadable feature in the popular video game, CALL OF DUTY: BLACK OPS.ANNE ROTH (BFA '53)Anne Roth is a revered costume designer for film and Broadway theatre. She began her career as a scenery painter for the Pittsburgh Opera. Roth won the Academy Award for Best Costume Design for THE ENGLISH PATIENT and was nominated for PLACES IN THE HEART, THE TALENTED MR. RIPLEY, and THE HOURS. Her more than one hundred screen credits include WORLD OF ORIENT, MIDNIGHT COWBODY, KLUTE, THE DAY OF LOCUST (for which she won the BAFTA Award for Best Costume Design), WORKING GIRL, and THE BIRDCAGE. Her most recent work can be seen in the HBO miniseries MILDRED PIERCE.LAURA SAN GIACOMO (BFA '84)Laura San Giacomo is a notable actor of film, theatre and television. After graduating from CMU, she quickly landed roles in the TV series SPENSER: FOR HIRE, CRIME STORY, THE EQUALIZER and ALL MY CHILDREN before gaining her role as Kit De Luca oppossite Julia Roberts in PRETTY WOMAN. She also has appeared in the films QUIGLEY DOWN UNDER, ONCE AROUND, UNDER SUSPICIAN, NINA TAKES A LOVER. She starred in the sitcom JUST SHOOT ME and was recently seen on TV in SAVING GRACE opposite fellow CMU alum, Holly Hunter.STEPHEN SCHWARTZ (BFA '68)Songwriter Stephen Schwartz began his career writing music and lyrics for Broadway Musicals such as GODSPELL, PIPPEN, and THE MAGIC SHOW. His credits include: Three Academy Awards, four Grammy Awards, and four Drama Desk Awards. He has been inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame and Theatre Hall of Fame. He has written lyrics for the film scores for Pocahontas, THE HUNCHBACK OF NOTRE DAME, songs for THE PRINCE OF EGYPT. Schwartz's musical WICKED is a hit on Broadway, on tour, and internationally. www.stephenschwartz.comJOHN SHAFFNER (BFA'76) AND JOE STEWART (BFA'77)The team of John Shaffner and Joe Stewart are among the most productive and recognized designers in Hollywood. Their work includes: comedy series, special events, award shows, game shows, talk shows, telethons, music/variety series/specials, and live theatrical productions. They have been awarded four Emmys and 23 Primetime andDaytime Emmy nominations, as well as nominations for the Cable Ace and Art Directors Guild Award. They are also recipients of the Carnegie Mellon Alumni Merit Awards. John and Joe own Production Design by Shaffner/Stewart, and John also serves as chair and CEO of the Academy of the Television Arts and Sciences, which makes him ex-officio trustee of the American Film Institute. They have designed specials for numerous people and organizations, including: David Copperfield, the American Music Awards, the Jerry Lewis Telethon, Willie Nelson, Michael Jackson, and Perry Como. They have designed the sets for "George Lopez," "What I Like About You," "Two and a Half Men," "Friends," "The Drew Carey Show," "Dharma and Greg," and "Veronica’s Closet." They have also designed theatrical productions,including sets for the New York Shakespeare Festival.BLAIR UNDERWOOD (BFA '88)Blair Underwood, a notable television and film actor, has gained critical acclaim throughout his career, receiving numerous Golden Globe Award nominations, three NAACP Image Awards and a Grammy Award. He starred as attorney Jonathan Rollins in the hit TV series LA LAW in the 1980s. He has appeared in films such as JUST CAUSE (1995), SET IT OFF (1996) and DEEP IMPACT(1998).In recent years, he has appeared on DIRTY SEXY MONEY and IN TREATMENT and was in NBC's THE EVENT. In 1989, Underwood co-founded Artists for a New South Africa, a non-profit organization dedicated to democracy and equality in South Africa. In 2012, he made his Broadway debut in A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE.PAULA WAGNER (BFA '69)Paula Wagner launched Cruise/Wagner Productions (C/W) with her former CAA client Tom Cruise. C/W's first film, MISSION: IMPOSSIBLE was an international hit. Wagner went on to produce WITHOUT LIMITS, SHATTERED GLASS, NARC, THE OTHERS, VANILLA SKY, and THE LAST SAMURAI, MISSION: IMPOSSIBLE II, MISSION IMPOSSIBLE III, and Steven Spielberg's WAR OF THE WORLDS for which she was the executive producer. Wagner has received numerous awards and recognitions for her contributions to entertainment. She serves as a trustee at Carnegie Mellon University, her alma mater, as well as an associate professor in the Heinz College.JOHN WELLS (BFA '70)John Wells is one of the most prolific writers, directors and producers for television, film and the stage. Over the past two decades, Wells has been a creative force behind some of primetime's biggest hit series, including ER, THE WEST WING, THIRD WATCH and CHINA BEACH. He is currently Executive Producer of the hit TNT crime drama, SOUTHLAND, and the upcoming Showtime show SHAMELESS. The Carnegie Mellon School of Drama has named our Directing Program after him in honor of his commitment to excellence and the university.PATRICK WILSON (BFA '95)Patrick Wilson is a Tony-nominated veteran of the Broadway stage. Since 1996, Wilson has spent years singing lead roles in major Broadway musicals. In 2003 he appreared in the HBO mini-series ANGELS IN AMERICA. Wilson has appeared in more than 18 feature films, including THE ALAMO, THE PHANTOM OF THE OPERA, WATCHMEN, THE A-TEAM, THE LEDGE, AND INSIDIOUS.

While you can go onto the web and research how the art and science of Navigation developed over the years, I can give you a picture of what happened from the 1960s.For years we've had a number of radio and radar aids to help pilots on over-water flights or in conditions of poor land visibility. They are a great help, but they suffer from limitations.The Boeing 707, launched in 1959, was, from the outset, designed for trans-oceanic travel. Therefore, it had to have some means of independent navigation for those parts of the routes which were not covered by ground-based navigation devices.On many routes, it also carried a human “Navigator” as a crew member.It carried a Marconi Doppler radar, a device which would send out radar beams to the ground in a Janus-like pattern (named after the Greek god who could look forward and backward simultaneously). Four beams were used, two aimed forward and two behind, and from that, the system calculated exact ground speed and angle-of-drift information. This, in conjunction with the compass heading, determined independently by a magnetic compass on board, would determine your course. This could be used by the pilots without the assistance of the navigator.Before Doppler radar was developed, a flyer had no way of knowing his exact ground speed and angle of drift. He did know his approximate airspeed, which is literally the speed of the air moving past his airplane. If the air were dead calm, an airspeed indication would give him a reasonably good idea of how fast he was actually going. But the air is never completely still. It is really an ocean of gas with currents flowing in many different directions at varying speeds. It can change speed and direction in an instant.Doppler Radar Charts the Airlanes, May 1959 Popular ElectronicsOn an Atlantic crossing a quite small error in navigation can add perhaps 300 miles to the length of the journey, and large amounts to the cost in extra fuel consumed.Theoretically, of course, there should be no marked deviations from a planned course now that captains have long-range radio aids as well as celestial navigation at their service; yet on occasions, the aids are affected by sunspots and other radiation influences, and there are times when the heavenly bodies cannot be seen.The risk of errors in dead reckoning may then be serious. This risk is of special importance in those areas where radio aids are non-existent, or are not so well maintained as those in Europe and America.Many instances of errors in dead reckoning, usually the result of drift, are on record and many more have never been reported.In the 1960s, Qantas and Air India recently began using Marconi Doppler equipment on some of their long non-stop stages; and Pan-American Airways shortly began flying with the help of the Sperry inertial navigation system. Both promised unusual accuracy, probably with a margin of error of only two or three miles on an ocean flight. Super VC10s of of BOAC, fitted with the system, went into operation on the Atlantic run soon."Self-contained" is the key word in considering these aids.Every other navigational aid depends on some sort of transmission from the ground which is received and interpreted in the aeroplane. If either part of the system fails in the course of flight, the aid is not available.Risk of failure cannot be removed by putting all the apparatus in the aeroplane, but it is halved at least and will be reduced still further if, as with Pan-Am, two sets are fitted in each liner.A further advantage in providing each liner with its own independent guidance is that the maintenance of the whole system is in the hands of the user.Doppler OperationBoth Doppler and IND detect and measure movements by the aeroplane and feed their observations into a computer for resolution into terms of distance travelled along a specified course.Doppler does this by sending downwards impulses of a known frequency and measuring the change in that frequency as the impulses are reflected back. The change can be interpreted as distance. This Doppler "shift" is proportional to the speed of the aeroplane over the ground, and because the shift is greatest along the line of motion of the aeroplane, actual direction can be determined and the angle of drift discovered.In the Marconi system, four beams are sent out from the aeroplane's aerial, two to port and starboard aimed ahead, and two similarly aimed towards the rear. This arrangement is used as a means of aligning the aerial so that it matches exactly the flight path of the aeroplane.To this end the shift in all four beams is compared and the aerial is moved automatically about the axes of yaw and pitch by a servo mechanism, until the Doppler shift from each beam is the same. The alignment is with the flight path; the difference between this and the axis of the aeroplane, or the direction in which it is pointing, is the drift angle.Over a number of years this system was under trial and development; the development has been based on experience.One improvement concerns the difference in the reflection of the beams from land and from sea. The effect of the waves on a conical beam is to produce a different shift in the front of the beam from that at the back. This was found to cause an error equal to should he pass beyond his set destination.In this event, the direction bar on the instrument dial reverses itself through 180 degrees and points towards the rear.The Doppler system is similarly supplied with a summary of the computer's conclusions displayed on the instrument panel. They show the track angle, the distance to go and any across-track error as distance in nautical miles.The system can be coupled up with the autopilot and left to control it. It can also be set up for two successive stages and an automatic change-over from one to the next takes place at the appropriate point.The 707 also had LORAN equipment. Long-Range Radio Navigation was a widely used over-water navigation system. It depends on a number of transmitters scattered around the world which send out arc-shaped signals. A plane receives these signals as distinctive blips on a radar-type scope. With the help of special charts, the intersecting blips from neighboring Loran transmitters are interpreted by a trained navigator.The enormous distances and lack of useful navigation points in the Pacific Ocean led to widespread use of LORAN for both ships and aircraft during the Pacific War. In particular, the accuracy offered by LORAN allowed aircraft to reduce the amount of extra fuel they would otherwise have to carry to ensure they could find their base after a long mission. This reduced fuel load allowed the bombload to be increased. By the end of World War II there were 72 LORAN stations, with over 75,000 receivers in use.Loran-A was dismantled starting in the 1970s; it remained active in North America until 1980 and the rest of the world until 1985. A Japanese chain remained on the air until 9 May 1997, and a Chinese chain was still listed as active as of 2000. In accordance with the 2010 DHS Appropriations Act, the U.S. Coast Guard terminated the transmission of all U.S. LORAN-C signals on 08 Feb 2010.It is possible for the navigator to locate his plane on an intersection and determine the direction of flight. By timing the flying time from one intersection to another, he can also compute his true surface speed.And, of course, the navigator had his trusty sextant, which he would use to “shoot” some stars through a hole made in the ceiling in the cockpit through which he would do the sighting from his sextant.No GPS! No INS! And yet navigation was conducted: accurately, perfectly, and safely!And then came the 747 in the late 60s; Doppler was gone; LORAN was gone. Instead, they each had three INS (Inertial Navigation System) units.All the navigators went to MacDonalds, where they were trained to ask, “Would you like fries with that, Sir?”In a few years, the Flight Engineers followed them.ATC, meanwhile, has been around a long time. Here is a fascinating story of the development of ATC in the US:May, 1939:NOT so long ago the writer was a passenger aboard an airline transport, flying to Newark from Cleveland. The weather was a bit soupy and we were flying on top the stuff. According to our watches, we should have been on the ground at Newark about 20 minutes ago. But we were going around in circles.A crotchety old man in the adjoining seat kept mumbling to himself about appointments. He was going to be late, he said to all who cared to listen. He looked out the window and saw banks of clouds under him. He was getting madder by the minute.“There's no blankety-blank reason for this,” he fumed. “If I wanted a nice slow trip I'd have come by train. We should be in by now. Why the blankety-blank-blank don't we land!”The stewardess tried to calm him, but he wouldn't listen. Just then we flew over a hole in the clouds. As we flitted over it, we saw another airplane between us and the cloud below us.The stewardess pointed it out.“Would you rather we take a chance on crashing into another ship on the level below?” she asked. “You know, we're not the only ship circling the airport, waiting for an okay to come in.”“What do you mean, okay to come in?” asked the old crab, half-way interested. “Who gives you the okay and what's it all about?”Which brings us into the point of our story.Three years ago the old gentleman would have had a real reason to crab. He wouldn't have been flying at all in such weather because flights would have been grounded at their point of origin.At that time most planes and pilots flew “contact”, or visual flying. It was the transition from this contact to complete instrument flight which made the lads-who-give-the-okay a necessity—and also the reason for the plane circling in an apparently aimless manner over the airport.Airways Traffic Control, now a regularly constituted section of the Civil Aeronautics Authority, is one of the newest and most important contributions to safety in air. Its establishment has not been an easy job.The writer, by chance, was in practically at the birth of this new department.It started as a vague idea in the mind of Earl F. Ward, at that time a vice president of American Airlines. Earl, a practical airman himself, had plenty of vision. He saw, through glasses focused on the future of aviation, that contact flying was going out. New developments in radio and other instruments, he rightly conjectured, would make it possible for the airline pilot to operate his plane through heavy clouds where there was no visibility.Scheduled airline traffic was growing in leaps and bounds. Ward feared crashes in mid-air between planes depending wholly on their instruments. He tried to dope out a system which paralleled the railroad's block system so that planes could be controlled from the ground by an agency which kept a tight check on all planes coming in or going out.Ward took his idea to Lieutenant Dick Aldworth, superintendent of Newark airport, and asked for space in the administration building to work out his plan. Together he, Aldworth and Ponton (“Bon-Bon”) d'Arcy, veteran pilot, built a huge map of the United States, wired it, spotted it with little lights and other gadgets, marked out the airways and experimented.The airlines took notice. They combined and pooled resources for Ward and his cohorts to work out a plan. Ward resigned his job with American Airlines to devote all his time to his baby. Hours meant nothing to Ward. He worked day and night on his plan and eventually evolved a system which worked out fairly well. A tiny room in the administration building was assigned him and the first Airway Traffic Control station was born. This was in 1935.Because the airlines were behind it, they assigned men to assist Ward and to learn the business of regulating air traffic. The first men were not all pilots. Traffic men, radio men and dispatchers tried out. Some of them made the grade, others flunked.Some of the old-timers objected to this absolute control. Arguments against its practicability arose but Ward, confident his idea was a good one, kept plugging.In spite of these objections, Ward plodded on.Because the little cubbyhole of an office was sponsored by the airlines, their pilots were compelled to follow orders. They were instructed to observe the “westward-even” and “eastward-odd” altitudes, but this alone was not enough. Through their company ground stations their positions were relayed to Ward's little tower and instructions sent back to the pilots via company radio. The ATC never was and is not now in actual contact with the ship itself.By this time (early 1936) Ward had trained enough men to start a second station at Chicago. Ships were routed from that point to Newark and were compelled to stay at the altitudes and routes directed.The expense of maintaining this bureau still rested with the airlines.Ward felt it was important enough to be official and spoke to the Secretary of Commerce in Washington. After the usual red tape the air cleared and Airway Traffic Control became a part of the Bureau of Air Commerce, with Ward as its chief.It soon was pointed out that this bureau, in congested traffic areas, had become a necessity for safety in flight because of the vast increase of air traffic under conditions of reduced or no visibility where protection from collision must come from without the ship.In other words, through ground control.Most of Ward's operators now were men with airline experience, either pilots or dispatchers, men who could put themselves in the position of the man aloft and think with him.The Bureau of Air Commerce, by direction of the Secretary of Commerce, acquired experimental airway traffic control stations previously established by the scheduled airlines at Newark, Cleveland and Chicago.In July, 1936, similar stations were equipped and started at Pittsburgh, Detroit, Washington, Los Angeles and Oakland.These stations originally operated during periods of greatest traffic density, generally from early morning until about midnight. These stations, it is admitted now even by most of the diehards, have increased the protection and efficiency of operation of scheduled as well as private and public aircraft.And, at the larger airports such as Newark, Chicago and other points, men are on duty 24 hours of the day.Getting back to the early days, the success of these frankly experimental control units, even with the limited means of communication, was such as to create an immediate demand from the flying public for an expansion of the system to afford greater protection at all danger points.There now are approximately 11 additional fulltime or “primary” stations, operating 24 hours, with continuous service at all points within their control areas, in order to have uninterrupted protection in the more congested areas.At some of the less congested areas continuous airway personnel is not required, yet there are periods of dangerous congestion. At these points, the services of communications personnel in handling traffic control during generally quiet hours is supplemented by trained men during those periods when traffic is heaviest.“The need for complete airway traffic control coverage,” Ward said, “can best be demonstrated by the fact that at least two major airlines are already planning one-stop straight-line flights, coast to coast, and the Army frequently makes nonstop straight-line flights from March Field, California, to Langley Field, Va. The attendant problem of fitting these flights into the many local traffic patterns through which they must pass demands a complete control system as non-stop flights, commercial or military, are now possible between almost any two points in the United States. Too much stress cannot be attached to its importance as a vital factor in safety.”Another important function of the ATC teletype network, which connects with all sections of the CAA, Weather Bureau and airlines, are requests and authorizations for shutting down radio aids to navigation for periods of routine inspection, repair and servicing to forestall equipment failure. These periods run for some 15 minutes daily and, one day each month, are off for eight consecutive hours.Aircraft may be flying one radio range course and using a cross leg of another radio range station for position fixing. The communications at the other station, possibly 150 miles away, cannot know when aircraft are determining their positions by using their facilities when that plane may be many miles away and following different airways from which the range is located. The necessity for approval from the ATC before “letting down” is obvious.Direct telephone systems are maintained between the Airways Traffic Control and each airline ground station, in addition to one which connects with the airport traffic control tower. Every conversation held by ATC operators over these systems is automatically recorded on wax cylinders, similar to those used by the ordinary office dictaphone. These are listed and filed for reference so that there never can be an argument as to the instructions given and received.That is another of Ward's efficiency methods. He believes in keeping a verbal or written record of every transaction in which the control figures.Due to his knowledge of all aircraft movements in a given area, an airway control station operator is in a position to determine the necessity for continuous service of any of the given radio aids for navigation in its control area at any time. His is an important trust.At the present writing there are some 95 men employed by the Airway Traffic Control system in various parts of the country. Of these it is safe to say 60 per cent are men who have been pilots. The others have held or still hold private licenses and are experienced in radio meteorology or dispatching.Of the 11 Airway Traffic Control centers operating at major airports in the United States nine managers are members of the original group which trained in that cubby-hole at Newark Airport.Ward himself is chief, assisted by Glen A. Gilbert and John Huber. At Oakland we meet “Bon-Bon” d'Arcy; at Pittsburgh the head man is H. H. MacFarlane. Rod Sturtevant, former United Air Lines pilot, holds the reins at Burbank and Homer Cole is the boss at Cleveland. At Newark Emerson R. Mehrling, pioneer aircraft radio expert, is in charge; Bob Eccles swings the whip at Chicago; C. J. Stock at St. Louis; Ted Westlake at Salt Lake City and H. R. Copeland at Detroit. The other two who trained at Chicago are L. E. Warren, chief at Washington, and C. T. Talpo, in charge at Fort Worth.New stations are being considered and it is not improbable that new points will be operating before this opus reaches your hand. Recently—as a matter of fact, just about a month ago—there were 11 passenger planes milling about in the soup over Newark. They were piled up 11 high, each one a thousand feet above the other. Each was assigned its altitude by Airways Traffic Control and told to hold to it until notified it was their turn to come in. The ships were spaced at approximately 15 minute intervals, alternating with departing planes. As each ship was given its okay to come in and it made its way through the soup to the ground, the ship directly above was instructed to drop a thousand feet to the level recently vacated by the ship which had just made a landing. And so on, all the way up the line; each ship dropping a thousand feet.This process is known as “laddering down.” At times, congestion became too heavy and there seemed a possibility of too much gas consumption by the ships above. Those on the topmost rung were advised to continue on to Floyd Bennett airport in New York, or even to Camden, N. J.Because the situation was controlled by level-headed, experienced men on the ground, things were at all times in hand. Naturally, all planes were safely landed in due course of time.Let's take a theoretical flight from Cleveland to Newark. Before departing the pilot of our ship has submitted his flight plan to the company ground station at Cleveland which, in turn, puts it before the Cleveland Airways Traffic Control office for approval. Cleveland okays it to 25 miles east of Mercer, Ohio, at the same time TXing the complete plan to Mercer, Bellefonte, Allentown and Newark, whose jurisdiction we will be under when we reach Mercer.Newark thereupon estimates the plane's arrival time over Mercer, sends a PX to that point, telling them to work the flight—if it is a private, itinerant or military plane—giving approved altitudes. If it is a scheduled airliner, the instructions are issued from the company dispatcher at the Newark ground station. For clarity, we will assume this ship is receiving instructions all along the line.An approved altitude of, let us say, 9,000 feet to Bellefonte is given, with instructions to contact that station on crossing. There he is told to continue at the given altitude over Allentown. At Allentown he is told, because of traffic, to descend to 7,000 feet.Flights take odd altitudes going east. Then he is told to continue at that altitude until he is over New Brunswick where he is instructed to drop to 3,000 feet. At New Brunswick he is informed he will be the third ship into Newark, there being two other ships ahead of him, one from the west and another from Boston.Ship No. 1 is told to cross the Mitchel intersection, near New Rochelle, N. Y., at 2,000 feet. This ship is estimated in at 11 o'clock. He reports his position over the Newark radio range station at Elizabeth and is told to hold at 1,000 until advised the field is clear to land.In the meantime, Ship No. is told to cross New Brunswick at 2,000 feet and hold that altitude until No. 1 is cleared in and landed.At approximately 11:13 No. 1 is on the ground and No. 2 from the south is told to report at 1,000 feet and land.Our plane has followed suit, dropping from 3,000 to 2,000 having received the report that No. 2 has reached 1,000.Over the Newark station our ship circles, apparently in an aimless manner, until the radio informs the pilot No. 2 is safely on the ground.When the second ship has landed, Airway Traffic Control clears our ship and we set down safely through the stuff to a clear field.Thus there is no chance of three ships tangling wing-tips in the overcast, a condition that might easily prevail if there was no Airway Traffic Control on the ground to play the traffic cop.Certainly, it annoyed the crotchety old man on the Cleveland-Newark plane. How was he to know all this? Who had the time, inclination or patience to explain it to him? And the chances are he would not have listened if they had.The next time you come in by airplane and the ship starts circling and circling for what seems to you to be an indeterminably long time, just relax. Take out a cigarette, read a magazine and wait. There's nothing else you can do about it anyway.If you should happen to be a co-passenger of the crotchety old gent or his counterpart, incidentally, take time out and tell him what it’s all about. END