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Allelic frequency distributions of the 15 STR loci for Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) and Iranian Shia Muslims are given as Supplementary materials(Supplementary Tables S2 and S3, respectively). The population-wise descriptive statistics for six Muslim populations are given in Supplementary Table S4. The combined matching probability ranges from 1 in 4.556 × 1015in Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) to 1 in 2.886 × 1017 in Indian Sunni Muslims (Table 1). The combined power of exclusion is 0.9999 in all studied populations (Table 1). In each of the six Muslim populations the combined power of discrimination value is >0.9999 (Table 1). The GD ranges from 0.783±0.397 in Indian Shia to 0.814±0.410 in Mappla Muslims (Table 1). The average heterozygosity values were found with a narrow range between 0.703 in Iranian Shia and 0.780 in Mappla Muslims (Table 1). The loci in each population that are found to depart from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium even after applying Bonferroni adjustment for number of loci tested (α=0.05/15 or 0.0033) are listed in Table 1.Table 1 Summary of Statistical parameters of population genetics interestTable 1 Summary of Statistical parameters of population genetics interestJournal of Human Genetics ISSN 1435-232X (online)https://www.nature.com/articles/jhg200938/tables/1The phylogenetic relationship among the Indian Muslims was inferred by the neighbor-joining (NJ) method with Nei's DAgenetic distance. The NJ tree (Supplementary Figure S1a) explicitly portrayed the segregation of almost all the six Muslim populations with varied range of bootstrap values. In the PCA plot (Supplementary Figure S1b), it is notable that Dawoodi Bohra (TN) and Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) are placed more distantly than in the NJ tree and they are separated out from the other studied groups. However, similar segregation pattern was observed in both PCA plot (Supplementary Figure S1b) and NJ tree (Supplementary Figure S1a). When the genetic structure among Indian Muslims was examined, the analysis of molecular variance yielded no statistically significant results for any group distinctions based on sect (Shia and Sunni), geography (north India, south India and west India) or other criteria investigated (Supplementary Table S5).Inter-population STR diversityOwing to the lack of population data, including entire set of 15 STRs, the comparative analyses were performed with the commonly available 13 CODIS core STR loci from the worldwide data set. With this subset of 13 STR markers, we analyzed relationships among Indian Muslims, non-Muslims and populations from Middle East, Europe and East Asia.Genetic affinities and admixture of Indian Muslims with other populationsIndian non-Muslim populationsTo test for any genetic differences of statistical significance, exact test of population differentiation was performed between Indian Muslim populations and their corresponding geographically closest neighboring Hindu religious (including several caste and tribal populations) populations. This pair-wise comparison test values are tabulated in Table 2. Indian Shia showed significant differences with Thakur at 10 of 13 loci and with Khatri, Kurmi and Thakur at locus D5S818. A similar trend was observed for Indian Sunni as well that significantly differed at 8 of 13 loci with Thakur and at loci D5S818 and FGA with Khatri, Kurmi and Thakur. Remarkably, Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) showed most significant difference with both of their geographically closest neighboring populations, Patel and Gujarati at 12 of 13 loci, whereas Iranian Shia was found with significant difference from Andhra Brahmins, Kappu Naidu, Raju, Kamma Chaudhary and Kappu Reddy at TPOX and also from Andhra Brahmin, Komati, Raju and Kamma Chaudhary at locus D13S317. Dawoodi Bohra (TN) showed significant differences with their neighboring populations at 11 of 13 loci particularly the locus FGA showed significant differences with all their geographically closest neighboring populations, likewise locus CSF1PO also showed significant differences with all neighboring populations except Paraiyar. Mappla showed least significant difference with all their neighboring populations except Irular tribe at loci D7S820, TPOX, D13S317 and D16S539.Table 2 Population differentiation tests between Indian Muslims and their neighboring non-Muslim populations based on 13 autosomal STR markersTable 2 Population differentiation tests between Indian Muslims and their neighboring non-Muslim populations based on 13 autosomal STR markersJournal of Human Genetics ISSN 1435-232X (online)https://www.nature.com/articles/jhg200938/tables/2To ascertain the genetic relationships between Indian Muslims and non-Muslims, NJ tree was generated based on Nei's genetic distance (DA). The phylogenetic relationships of the Indian Muslims and non-Muslims, inferred from the STR diversity, are shown in Supplementary Figure S2. In the consensus NJ tree, clusters depicting geographic regions (south, north and west) were observed. Exceptions were Yadav, Teli and Kurmi populations from northern region of India located among the south Indian cluster. The two groups from the western India (Gujarati and Patel) and northern India (Khatri and Thakur) bifurcated separately to the extreme bounds (bootstrap value=100 and 79%, respectively) from Kanyakubj Brahmin with a bootstrap value of 25%. Worthwhile stating was the cluster formed by the five Muslim populations (Indian Shia, Indian Sunni, Dawoodi Bohra (TN), Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) and Iranian Shia) in the proximity of likely north Indian cluster. Within this cluster, Indian Shia and Indian Sunni bifurcated (bootstrap=15%) together initially and then Dawoodi Bohra (TN) and Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) set apart from each other with a 67% incidence, whereas Iranian Shia split (bootstrap=40%) midway between these two Muslim groups. As expected, Mappla Muslim was located in the south Indian population cluster.The PCA plot displayed the DAgenetic distances between populations in three-dimensional space (Figure 2a) consistent with the overall topology of the NJ tree. In the PC analysis, to get an apparent picture of populations cluster, two populations from western India (Gujarati and Patel) and two populations from northern India (Thakur and Khatri) were excluded as they set distant from other Indian populations in the combined plot. The Iranian Shia, Dawoodi Bohra (TN) and Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) were outliers, whereas Indian Shia and Indian Sunni grouped in the close proximity of Kanyakubj Brahmin and Mappla lie in the south Indian population cluster. Therefore, the PCA plot essentially mirrored the STR diversity pattern represented in the NJ dendrogram.Figure 2(a) Three-dimensional PCA plot depicting relationships between Indian Muslims and non-Muslims based on Nei's DAgenetic distances generated from the 13 CODIS core STR markers. Population codes: shm, Indian Shia; sum, Indian Sunni; kur, Kurmi; brh, Kanyakubj Brahmin; tli, Teli; yad, Yadav; gdb, Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ); irs, Iranian Shia; abr, Andhra Brahmin; kmt, Komati; knd, Kappu Naidu; raj, Raju; kch, Kamma Chaudhary; krd, Kapu Reddy; tdb, Dawoodi Bohra (TN); mpl, Mappla; gdr, Gounder; iru, Irular; ckr, Chakkiliyar; tkr, Tanjore Kallar; van, Vanniyar; pal, Pallar; par, Paraiyar. (b) Three-dimensional PCA plot portraying relationships between Indian Muslims, non-Muslims and populations from Middle East, East Asia and Europe. Population codes: shm, Indian Shia, sum, Indian Sunni, gdb, Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ), irs, Iranian Shia, tdb, Dawoodi Bohra (TN) and mpl, Mappla.Journal of Human Genetics( a ) Three-dimensional PCA plot depicting relationships between Indian Muslims and non-Muslims based on Nei's D A genetic distances generated from the 13 CODIS core STR markers. Population codes: shm, Indian Shia; sum, Indian Sunni; kur, Kurmi; brh, Kanyakubj Brahmin; tli, Teli; yad, Yadav; gdb, Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ); irs, Iranian Shia; abr, Andhra Brahmin; kmt, Komati; knd, Kappu Naidu; raj, Raju; kch, Kamma Chaudhary; krd, Kapu Reddy; tdb, Dawoodi Bohra (TN); mpl, Mappla; gdr, Gounder; iru, Irular; ckr, Chakkiliyar; tkr, Tanjore Kallar; van, Vanniyar; pal, Pallar; par, Paraiyar. ( b ) Three-dimensional PCA plot portraying relationships between Indian Muslims, non-Muslims and populations from Middle East, East Asia and Europe. Population codes: shm, Indian Shia, sum, Indian Sunni, gdb, Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ), irs, Iranian Shia, tdb, Dawoodi Bohra (TN) and mpl, Mappla.https://www.nature.com/articles/jhg200938/figures/2Populations of Middle East, Europe and East AsiaGenetic variance for Indian Muslims, Indian non-Muslims and populations from Middle East, Europe and East Asia was tested with the subset of 13 STR loci. The coefficient of gene differentiation (Gst), total GD (Ht) and GD within population (Hs) for overall 13 loci are 0.028, 0.807 and 0.785, respectively (Supplementary Table S6).Phylogenetic analyses were conducted on the published worldwide data20, 21, 22,23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49 based on Nei's DAgenetic distance. The topological arrangement of the populations within the worldwide consensus NJ tree (Figure 3) followed partitioning along the major geographical lines, as expected. Four distinct groups of populations can be identified, namely the South Asia, Middle East, East Asia and Europe clusters (Figure 3). Interestingly, Dawoodi Bohra (TN) and Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) bifurcated (bootstrap value=46%) in central position to the close proximity of Middle East and European population cluster, whereas Indian Shia and Indian Sunni bifurcated in the opposing end of the South Asian population cluster with a low bootstrap value of 11% and the adjoining Kanyakubj Brahmin split from the South Asian cluster next to the East Asian population group with a low incidence of 10%. Notably, Iranian Shia positioned in the Middle Eastern population cluster in the close propinquity of Georgia and European population cluster. We observed a strong parallelism existing between the NJ dendrogram (Figure 3) and the three-dimensional PCA plot (Figure 2b). Figure 2b depicted clearly, four distinct clusters representing South Asia, Europe, Middle East and East Asia. The placements of Iranian Shia among the Middle East group, Dawoodi Bohras (GUJ and TN) near the Middle Eastern and European group, Mappla among the South Asian group, Indian Shia and Indian Sunni near the South Asian group mirrored unequivocally the phylogenetic relationships derived from the NJ method.Figure 3Neighbor-joining (NJ) tree based on Nei's DAgenetic distances between Indian Muslims, non-Muslims and populations from Middle East, East Asia and Europe generated from the 13 CODIS core STR markers.Journal of Human GeneticsNeighbor-joining (NJ) tree based on Nei's D A genetic distances between Indian Muslims, non-Muslims and populations from Middle East, East Asia and Europe generated from the 13 CODIS core STR markers.https://www.nature.com/articles/jhg200938/figures/3The genetic admixture estimates from the weighted least squares by gene identity method for Indian Muslim populations are shown in Table 3. On the basis of allele frequencies, we calculated the admixture proportions with three putative parental populations, including (i) the geographically closest Indian Hindu religious (including several caste and tribal populations) populations, and a pool of populations from (ii) Arabia and (iii) Iran. The admixture proportions varied markedly among populations (Supplementary Figure S3). In Indian Shia, Indian Sunni, and Dawoodi Bohra (TN) Muslims 50–56% contributions were from the closest Hindu parental populations, while 44–49% from Iranian and 0–3% from Arabian gene pools with correlation coefficients (R2) of 0.922, 0.997 and 0.867, respectively (Table 3). Exceptionally, Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) and Iranian Shia Muslims showed major contributions (47 and 46%, respectively) from Iran followed by Arabia (30 and 42%, respectively), whereas there was least contribution from the closest Hindu parental populations (23 and 12%, respectively) with significant R2 values of 0.949 and 0.979, respectively. Reflecting the phylogenetic analyses, Mappla Muslims acquire major contribution from the closest Hindu parental population's gene pool (77%) and relatively lower proportions from Iran (15%) and Arabia (8%) with R2=0.939.Table 3 Admixture proportions (±s.e.) based on 13 autosomal STR markersTable 3 Admixture proportions (±s.e.) based on 13 autosomal STR markersJournal of Human Genetics ISSN 1435-232X (online)https://www.nature.com/articles/jhg200938/tables/3DiscussionA number of molecular genetic marker studies reported, so far, with contemporary Indian populations focused only on geographic, ethnic and linguistic affiliations.61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66 This study throws light on religious grounds for clear understanding of genetic diversity patterns in Indian Muslims. According to historians and anthropologists, the augmentation of Islamic faith in India could be through two discrete ways (i) military invasions that flourished Muslim kingdoms and subsequent migration of mercenaries, businessmen and political emissaries from Middle Eastern countries, Iran and Arabia followed by admixture with the local population; (ii) cultural diffusion as a result of absorption and dominance that resulted in a sizeable population embracing Islam.7, 8, 9, 10 In this perspective, genetic status and relationships of Indian Muslims distributed throughout the country are not yet well studied. We therefore sought out to study a compilation of six Muslim populations from three different geographical regions of India (Figure 1) that witnessed several conquests and immigrations.7, 8, 9, 10 For this we chose a battery of 13 autosomal STR markers that are commonly available for several worldwide populations.One of the prominent facets observed from the microsatellite diversity analyses in each of the six Indian Muslim populations is the genetic singularity that subsisted at least for the set of microsatellite markers analyzed in this study. Remarkably, of 15 STR loci analyzed, 11 loci in Dawoodi Bohra (TN), Mappla, Indian Shia and Indian Sunni, 9 loci in Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) and 12 loci in Iranian Shia showed lower observed heterozygosity (Ho) values than the expected heterozygosity (He) values (Supplementary Table S4). This is the indicative of a relevant heterozygosity deficit. Consanguineous marriage is widely practiced among Indian Muslims. It is conspicuous that such marriage preference varies by sect, that is, Sunni (60.9%) versus Shia (43.4%) versus Dawoodi Bohra (41.1%) and according to clan affiliation.12, 13 The scientific fact that homozygosity at genetic loci increases distinctly in populations practicing consanguinity seem to be reflected in the comparatively low observed heterozygosity (Ho) values for most of the STR loci analyzed in six Indian Muslim populations (Supplementary Table S4). Thus, the departures of Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium expectations detected in each of the six Muslim populations appear to be due to excess of homozygotes over heterzygotes, which most likely to be the consequence of high consanguinity rates reported for this populations.12, 13The austere endogamy revealed by the STR diversity in each of the Indian Muslim populations mirrored in the phylogenetic analyses. In the three-dimensional PCA plot and NJ dendrogram (Supplementary Figures S1a and S1b), all the six Muslim populations showed distinct separations from each other, reflecting a high level of genetic separation. Exceptionally, Shia and Sunni populations from northern region of India jointly isolated from other Muslims, suggesting genetic affinity among them.To increase the resolution of genetic analyses of Indian Muslims, we performed inter-population comparisons, first with geographically closest Hindu religious (including several caste and tribal populations) populations and second, populations from Middle East, Europe and East Asia.In the NJ tree (Supplementary Figure S2) derived from the genetic distances between Indian Muslims and their geographically closest Hindu religious (including several caste and tribal populations) populations, all the Muslim populations except Mappla clustered out separately with a couple of bifurcations (one in the beginning of the branch with Indian Shia-Indian Sunni and the second in the other end with Dawoodi Bohras TN-GUJ) and a split (between these two groups with Iranian Shia) in the close vicinity of north and west Indian branches. In agreement with our recent reports,18 Mappla Muslims displayed close genetic affinity with the south Indian populations. The regional inter-population relationships in the PCA analysis reiterated most of the depictions inferred from the regional NJ tree; that is, downward diagonal dispersion of Dawoodi Bohra of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, isolation of Iranian Shia in the right transverse position of Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ), location of grouped Indian Shia and Indian Sunni close to Kanyakubj Brahmins and placement of Mappla in the South Indian cluster (Figure 2a). This was also evident from the pair-wise genetic differentiation tests, in which Dawoodi Bohras (TN and GUJ) and Iranian Shia showed most significant genetic difference from their geographically close Hindu religious (including several caste and tribal populations) populations analyzed, whereas this significant genetic differentiation was least between Mappla, Indian Shia, Indian Sunni and their corresponding pairs of analyzed populations (Table 2). Coupling of Indian Shia and Indian Sunni close to Kanyakubj Brahmins was in congruent with previous reports based on mtDNA17 and the separate set of microsatellite data analyses.16The array of populations in the worldwide NJ tree (Figure 3) and three-dimensional PCA plot (Figure 2b) exemplified Dawoodi Bohras (TN and GUJ) in an intermediary genetic position, especially relative to the Middle Eastern and European population clusters. As expected, Iranian Shia (recent immigrants from Iran) joined the Middle East population cluster. Likewise in the regional phylogeny, Mappla was found in the South Asian cluster, especially among the south Indian populations. Admixture estimates strongly supports three emerging scenarios from the overall microsatellite diversity based phylogenetic outcome: (i) comparatively high level of genetic contributions from Iran to Iranian Shia and Dawoodi Bohra (GUJ) (ii) almost parallel contributions from local neighboring Hindu populations and Iran populations to Dawoodi Bohra (TN), Indian Shia and Indian Sunni (iii) major genetic contributions from local neighboring Hindu religious (including several caste and tribal populations) populations to Mappla Muslims. There is notable genetic variation between different Indian Muslim populations, some being very similar to local Indian populations and others being similar to outside populations, so that when they are all grouped according to their sect and geographical location in analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) analyses, group difference was statistically insignificant (Supplementary Table S5).Summarizing, the findings of our extensive analyses on population affinities and admixture contributions showed the traceable level of gene flow from Western Asia into India in congruent with the earlier reports.61, 67, 68In per view of our present study, attention-grabbing feature is the genetic signals of Middle East in some of the contemporary Indian Muslims. This could be attributed to various Islamic advents from Middle East, particularly Iran and Arabia, during the expansion of Islamic faith into the Indian subcontinent. Further, deep insight into the Middle East genetic signatures in Indian Muslims could be evolved from Y-chromosome (paternal) and mtDNA (maternal) markers.we indian muslims are bhumiputera of India and now genetics have proved.

The answer is Haplogroup E of (Y-DNA).Yuya’s —DNA along with the rest of the ‘Amarna mummies’ is based on partial Y-chromosomal information on the amount of autosomal half-alleles.Yuya has equal amounts of foreign ancestryYuya was a Egyptian courtier during the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (circa 1390 BC). He was married to Tjuyu, an Egyptian noblewoman associated with the royal family, who held high offices in the governmental and religious hierarchies. Their daughter, Tiye became the Great Royal Wife of Amenhotep III.Yuya’s origins remain unclear, but HIS CORPSE STOOD OUT FROM THE OTHER EGYPTIANS. The study of his mummy showed that Yuya had been a man of taller than average stature and the anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith considered that his appearance was NOT TYPICALLY EGYPTIAN. Yuya and Tjuyu weren't royals, but their daughter Tiye married King Amenhotep III.While Yuya lived in Upper Egypt, an area that was predominantly native Egyptian, he could have been an assimilated descendant of Asiatic immigrants or slaves who rose to become a member of the local nobility at Akhmin. Yuya is believed to have died around 1374 BC in his mid 50s.Note: In Ancient Egypt we find a title courtier translated as high steward or great overseer of the house.YUYA Y-STR DATA SET RESULTSI’ve run the data sets from the Zahi Hawass; Yehia Z. Gad, Somaia Ismail, et al. study through popaffiliator2 (results below). Of all of the ‘Amarna Mummies’, Yuya has the least amount of (so-called sub Saharan ancestry), and carries significant amounts of both Eurasian and Asian ancestry.YUYA’S Y-STR DATA SETSAs it was released to the public ten (10) years ago. Yuya’s STRs appear on the second (2nd) row.Source: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/articlepdf/185393/joc05008_638_647.pdfYou can verify the results of the Amarna mummies yourself, with the study’s data sets above. You can also access the rest of the family's data sets here:(https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/articlepdf/185393/joc05008_638_647.pdf)And with the Popaffiliator2 you can calculate the individual population affiliation assignment yourself..Here: (http://cracs.fc.up.pt/popaffiliator/index.php)About PopAffiliatorQuestion: What does popAffiliator do?Answer: Predicts an individual’s affiliation to a major population group based on information from a small set of autosomal STRs. The output will indicate the probability of assignment to the major population groups.Question: How accurate are the results?Answer: The accuracy of individual population affiliation assignment is approximately 86%. The probabilities are computed using a machine learning model built as described in:Pereira et. al. PopAffiliator: online calculator for individual affiliation to a major population group based on 17 autosomal STR genotype profile. International Journal of Legal Medicine. 2010. (in press)WHAT ARE STRS AND HOW DO THEY WORK?Short Tandem Repeats (STRs)The human genome is full of repeated DNA sequences. Short Tandem Repeats are the most common type of DNA profiling today for criminal cases STR or short tandem repeats occur when a pattern of two or more nucleotides are repeated and the repeated sequences are directly adjacent to each other. The pattern can range in length from 2 to 16 base pairs (bp) and is typically in the non-coding intron region. These sequences repeat a variable number of times in different individuals. Such regions are called "variable number short tandem repeats," and they are the basis of STR analysis. A collection of these can give nearly irrefutable evidence statistically of a person's identity because the likelihood of two unrelated people having the same number of repeated sequences in these regions becomes increasingly small as more regions are analyzed.Y-STRY-STRs are derived solely from the male sex-determining Y chromosome. Profiles based on Y-STRs are statistically weaker because only males have a Y chromosome and all males inherit their’s from their fathers, so all males in any paternal line have nearly identical Y chromosomes. Given enough Y-STRs, which scientists call loci, a Y-STR profile can offer substantial power to discriminate between individuals, but this type of profile is certainly not as powerful as an autosomal STR profile.Quote:“..autosomal STRs in standard DNA profiling, this approach is most suitable to trace close relatives (parents, children, and siblings)”.Citation Sources: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5418305/(Forensic use of Y-chromosome DNA: a general overview)**EFFICACY AND CLEAR ADVANTAGES OF USING Y STR DNA MARKERS**Quote:“STRs have PROVEN TO HAVE SEVERAL BENEFITS that make them ESPECIALLY SUITABLE FOR HUMAN IDENTIFICATION”.“STRs have become POPULAR DNA MARKERS BECAUSE THEY ARE EASILY AMPLIFIED by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) without the problem of differential amplification; that is, the PCR products for STRs are generally similar in amount, MAKING ANALYSIS EASIER”.“STRs AS THE MOST EFFECTIVE METHOD FOR HUMAN IDENTIFICATION PURPOSES”.“The smaller size of STR ALLELES MAKE STR MARKERS BETTER CANDIDATES FOR USE IN FORENSIC APPLICATIONS, IN WHICH DEGRADED DNA IS COMMON. PCR AMPLIFICATION OF DEGRADED DNA SAMPLES CAN BE BETTER ACCOMPLISHED with smaller target product sizes”.“STR alleles also have LOWER MUTATION RATES, which MAKES THE DATA MORE STABLE AND PREDICTABLE”.Citation Source: Forensic DNA Testing System (Forensic DNA Testing System).Quote:“…STRs with higher power of discrimination are chosen for human identification in forensic cases on a regular basis. It is used to identify victim, perpetrator, missing persons, and others”.“Beginning in 1996, the FBI Laboratory launched a nationwide forensic science effort to establish core STR loci for inclusion within the national database known as CODIS (Combined DNA Index System). The 13 CODIS loci are CSF1PO, FGA, TH01, TPOX, VWA, D3S1358, D5S818, D7S820, D8S1179, D13S317, D16S539, D18S51 and D21S11. These loci are nationally and internationally recognized as the standard for human identification”.Citation Source: https://ucr.fbi.gov/lab/biometric-analysis/codis/expanded-fbi-str-2015-final-6-16-15.pdf(https://ucr.fbi.gov/lab/biometric-analysis/codis/expanded-fbi-str-2015-final-6-16-15.pdf)CODIS (Combined DNA Index System)The Combined DNA Index System is the generic term used to describe the FBI’s program of support for criminal justice DNA databases as well as the software used to run these databases. The DNA database was created and maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Law enforcement agencies around the world also utilize the system. Personal genomic companies such as DNA Tribes and DNA Consultants use the very same system.Walter Smyth wrote this response in 2018, a full eight (8) years, 96 months or 2,029 days give or take, after the data from Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family was released to the public. It was one of the most highly anticipated results to date. However, when the results were released, it was done so with very little fanfare. Apparently, the results weren’t to the liking of the general ‘Eurocentered’ public and media. If we recall, the Abusir el-Meleq results were celebrated and garnered front page headlines across western media outlets worldwide. The misleading results even went viral.Apparently, you were aware that Tutankhamun’s Family and the Amarna Mummies are one in the same Walter. If you don’t know that much, why do even bother to speak on the topic?Design:From September 2007 to October 2009, royal mummies underwent detailed anthropological, radiological, and genetic studies as part of the King Tutankhamun Family Project. Mummies distinct from Tutankhamun's immediate lineage served as the genetic and morphological reference. To authenticate DNA results, analytical steps were repeated and independently replicated in a second ancient DNA laboratory staffed by a separate group of personnel. Eleven royal mummies dating from circa 1410-1324 BC and suspected of being kindred of Tutankhamun and 5 royal mummies dating to an earlier period, circa 1550-1479 BC, were examinedObjectives:To introduce a new approach to molecular and medical Egyptology, to determine familial relationships among 11 royal mummies of the New Kingdom, and to search for pathological features attributable to possible murder, consanguinity, inherited disorders, and infectious diseases.Results:Genetic fingerprinting allowed the construction of a 5-generation pedigree of Tutankhamun's immediate lineage. The KV55 mummy and KV35YL were identified as the parents of Tutankhamun.CONCLUSION: USING A MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENTIFIC APPROACH, we showed the feasibility of gathering data on Pharaonic kinship and diseases and speculated about individual causes of death.Citation Source: Ancestry and pathology in King Tutankhamun's family.The Tell El-Amarna royal mummies (1,300 BC), Ramesses III and Unknown man (believed to be Ramesses’ son, Pentawer) fall under Haplogroup is E1b1a.LEAD RESEARCHERS “ANCESTRY AND PATHOLOGY IN KING TUTANKHAMEN’S FAMILY”Controversial and disgraced “archaeologist” Zahi HawassThe questions and criticisms surrounding the study’s results are as much an indictment against Zahi Hawass as they are about the results. In the world of Egyptology, Hawass is seen as a self-serving, self-absorbed, self-promoting narcissistic despot, and there exist great distrust for him (in the scientific community), his methods and motives over the years. The former “Director General of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities” has been implicated in theft of ancient artifacts and mired by allegations of impropriety, corruption and was even convicted (along with two of his colleagues) of bribery. To many Egyptians Hawass was viewed as a bombastic government servant who frequently indulged in cronyism to further his own reputation and lining his pockets.An Egyptian official who chose to speak under the condition of anonymity:“Egyptology has been held hostage to the whims of one single tinpot bureaucrat by the name of Zahi Hawass”.Source: Anonymous Egyptian officialIt is common knowledge within Egyptology circles that the often combative Hawass was infamous for claiming credit for digs he had absolutely nothing to do with. He frequently withheld evidence such as the DNA results and haplogroups of Egyptians mummies. For example, Hawass has refused to release the mtDNA results for King Tut’s generational family.Quote:“WHEN THE RESULTS THREATEN EGYPT’S SELF-IMAGE, he hides behind 'national security', and expels Egyptologists from Egypt when he disagrees with their ideas”.Source: Anonymous Egyptian official.All of the research was led and conducted mostly by Egyptian scientists (at Zahi Hawass’ request). Hawass along with Yehia Z. Gad and Somaia Ismail from the National Research Center in Cairo were the lead scientists.Drs Hawass, Gad, Zink, and Pusch had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.YEHIA Z. GAD AND SOMAIA ISMAIL WERE THE LEAD SCIENTISTSYehia Z Gad of National Research Center, Egypt, CairoSomaia Ismail of National Research Center, Egypt, CairoCARSTEN PUSCH AND ALBERT ZINK OVERSAW THE RESEARCHAlbert Zink, Ph.D. Director of the Institute for Mummy Studies and the Iceman in Bolzano, Italy. Fields of Research (biological and biomolecular anthropology; nanotechnologies; paleopathology forensic studies).Carsten M. Pusch, Ph.D. Institute of Anthropology and Human Genetics, Eberhardt-Karls-University, Tubingen, Germany.THE OTHER SCIENTIST (et al.): Rabab Khairat, MSc; Dina Fathalla, MSc; Naglaa Hasan, MSc; Amal Ahmed, BPharm; Hisham Elleithy, MA; Markus Ball, MSc; Fawzi Gaballah, PhD; Sally Wasef, MSc; Mohamed Fateen, MD; Hany Amer, PhD; Paul Gostner, MD; Ashraf Selim, MD.RESPONSIBILITIESAuthor Contributions: Drs Hawass, Gad, Zink, and Pusch had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.Study concept and design: Hawass, Gad, Zink, Pusch. Acquisition of data: Hawass, Gad, Ismail, Khairat, Fathalla, Hasan, Ahmed, Elleithy, Gaballah, Wasef, Fateen, Amer, Gostner, Selim, Zink.Analysis and interpretation of data: Hawass, Gad, Ismail, Khairat, Fathalla, Hasan, Ball, Wasef, Fateen, Amer, Gostner, Selim, Zink, Pusch.Drafting of the manuscript: Hawass, Gad, Zink, Pusch. Critical revision of the manuscript for important in- tellectual content: Hawass, Gad, Ismail, Khairat, Fathalla, Hasan, Ahmed, Elleithy, Ball, Gaballah, Wasef, Fateen, Amer, Gostner, Selim, Zink, Pusch. Statistical analysis: Ball, Gostner, Zink, Pusch. Administrative, technical, or material support: Hawass, Gad, Ismail, Hasan, Ahmed, Elleithy, Ball, Gaballah, Fateen, Amer, Selim, Zink, Pusch.Study supervision: Gad, Ismail, Zink, Pusch.Initially, Zahi Hawass treated the idea of DNA testing with much skepticism. Hawass was reported as saying:Quote:"From what I understand, it is not always accurate and it cannot always be done with complete success when dealing with mummies. UNTIL WE KNOW FOR SURE THAT IT IS ACCURATE, WE WILL NOT USE IT IN OUR RESEARCH".Citation Source: The Tutankhamun ExhibitionIn December 2000, a team from Cairo's Ein Shams University and Waseda University in Japan were given permission to take tissue samples. However, the Egyptian Government withdrew permission at the last moment. The Supreme Council of Antiquities turned down the tests on the grounds that it was unlikely to produce results and it could damage the already fragile mummy. Hawass is also on record as saying that DNA analysis would not lead to anything and therefore the tests were out of the question.Apparently, that changed seven years later in 2007. Here, Hawass explains the reason for the change in his thinking..Quote:“In the past I had been against genetic studies of royal mummies. The chance of obtaining workable samples while avoiding contamination from modern DNA seemed too small to justify disturbing these sacred remains. But in 2008 several geneticists convinced me that the field had advanced far enough to give us a good chance of getting useful results. We set up TWO STATE-OF-THE-ART DNA-SEQUENCING LABS, one in the basement of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and the other at the Faculty of Medicine at Cairo University”.Citation Source: King Tut’s Family SecretsFast forward to June 2008..FIVE (5) MILLION DOLLARS WAS DEDICATED TO BUILDING TWO STATE-OF-THE-ART FACILITIES, BUILT SPECIFICALLY FOR THE TESTING OF HAPSHEPSUT AND THE ROYAL ARMANA MUMMIES:A dedicated (5 million dollar) ancient DNA laboratory was established (built) in the basement of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo to test the DNA of the ancients. A second laboratory also exclusively dedicated to work with ancient DNA was established at the Faculty of Medicine, at Cairo University. A subset of the data generated in the Egyptian Museum laboratory was INDEPENDENTLY REPLICATED IN A SEPARATE LABORATORY BY ANOTHER RESEARCH TEAM (these data sets are indicated in the manuscript).Applied Biosystems Helps Build Egypt's First Laboratory for Ancient DNA AnalysisQuote:FOSTER CITY, Calif.--(BUSINESS WIRE)--Applied Biosystems (NYSE:ABI), an Applera Corporation business, today announced its collaboration with the Discovery Channel and Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities in ESTABLISHING THE FIRST LABORATORY IN EGYPT DEDICATED TO TESTING ANCIENT DNA SAMPLES. The laboratory, which is located in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, began testing samples from ancient royal mummies from the 18th Dynasty in April as part of a project to identify the mummy of Hatshepsut, Egypt’s most famous female pharaoh.The primary purpose of the new DNA laboratory is to assist in the identification of this and other mummies that have been removed from their original tombs, and to clarify familial relationships within and between Egypt’s ancient dynasties. This is the first time DNA testing has been used to try to identify an ancient Egyptian pharaoh. DNA testing, combined with other forensic techniques, holds the potential to bring closure to unsolved mysteries and help Egypt fill in gaps in its significant history.“By providing this technology to Egypt, Applied Biosystems is helping to advance science and bring our dead pharaohs back to life,” said Dr. Zahi Hawass, Secretary General of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities. “A basement that was once a maze of artifacts is now a cutting-edge scientific lab, the first of its kind dedicated to revealing the mysteries of our mummies.”Applied Biosystems provided the Supreme Council of Antiquities with DNA analysis instrument systems, reagents, software, and training. This included an Applied Biosystems 9700 Thermocycler for DNA amplification and a 3130 Genetic Analyzer for DNA analysis, as well as forensic testing reagents including its newest advance in human identification technology, the AmpFℓSTR® MiniFiler™ PCR Amplification Kit. The MiniFiler kit is the world’s first commercially available reagent kit for generating genetic profiles from aged, compromised, or damaged DNA samples.“The analysis of ancient and degraded DNA samples provides significant challenges, but we are excited to bring our latest advances in genetic analysis to this and similar future projects in Egypt,” said Nicola Oldroyd, a senior forensic specialist at Applied Biosystems. “Initial results are very promising as both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA have been retrieved and amplified for these mummies. That in itself is a major accomplishment for the first project in a brand new lab. We are optimistic that the Egyptian scientific team now has everything in place to ultimately be successful in this project and future endeavors.”Citation Source: Applied Biosystems Helps Build Egypt's First Laboratory for Ancient DNA AnalysisFAUX CONCERNS RAISED BY EUROCENTRICS REGARDING CONTAMINATIONQuote:“To obtain workable samples, the geneticists extracted tissue from several different locations in each mummy, always from deep within the bone, where there was no chance the specimen would be contaminated by the DNA of previous archaeologists—or of the Egyptian priests who had performed the mummification. Extreme care was also taken to avoid any contamination by the researchers themselves. After the samples were extracted, the DNA had to be separated from unwanted substances, including the unguents and resins the priests had used to preserve the bodies. Since the embalming material varied with each mummy, so did the steps needed to purify the DNA. In each case the fragile material could be destroyed at every step”.Citation Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2010/09/tut-dna/Quote:“Regarding potential DNA contamination, it’s a red herring. Dr. Carsten M. Pusch of Germany's University of Tubingen (Division of Molecular Genetics) says the team took their samples from deep inside the mummies' bones, where modern contamination could not haveoriginated.When asked how the DNA could have survived, both Pusch and (Albert) Zink agree that DNA from a body simply buried in the sand would probably not survive from ancient Egyptian times. But they argue that in the royal mummies, the embalming process used by the Egyptians must have acted to preserve the DNA. This included drying out the body with a naturally-occurring mixture of salts called natron.” The Egyptians really knew how to preserve a body,” says Zink. “The worst thing for DNA is humidity”. They got rid of the humidity very fast, and then protected the body from the re-entry of humidity, by covering it with oil, wax and bandages." Pusch also believes that the embalming materials may themselves be acting to protect the DNA. “Nobody has thought about the components of the resin”. They also TESTED WITHIN THE BONES FOR ORIGINAL DNA, AS IT WOULD’VE BEEN DIFFICULT TO IMPOSSIBLE FOR HANDLERS TO GET INSIDE THE BONE IN AREAS IT HADN’T PENETRATED”.Citation Source: Is pharaoh DNA for real?, Jo Marchant, 20. January 2011.Samples checked for contamination by scientists:Quote:“DNA TYPING OF ALL LAB TEAM MEMBERS WAS PERFORMED (Y.Z.G., S.I., R.K., D.F., N.H., A.A., S.W., M.F.), AND RECORDS WERE USED FOR COMPARISON WITH THE DATA GENERATED IN OUR ANCIENT DNA STUDIES. IDENTICAL “MODERN-ANCIENT” DATA SETS WERE CONSIDERED AS NON AUTHENTIC AND WERE OMITTED FROM OUR STUDY. NO CONTEMPORARY UNKNOWN DNA SAMPLE WAS ALLOWED IN THE LABORATORIES. FOR EACH MUMMY, PCR EXPERIMENTS WERE REPEATED UP TO 30 TIMES USING VARIOUS BONE SAMPLES FROM DIFFERENT BODY AREAS (online interactive feature). MICROSATELLITES WERE MONITORED FOR SLIPPAGE, AND GENOTYPES WERE DETERMINED BY MAJORITY RULE”.Citation Source: Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun's FamilyThe results were independently replicated in the second laboratory:A dedicated (5 million dollar) ancient DNA laboratory was established (built) in the basement of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo to test the ancients. A SECOND LABORATORY ALSO EXCLUSIVELY DEDICATED TO WORK WITH ANCIENT DNA WAS ESTABLISHED AT THE Faculty OF MEDICINE, AT CAIRO UNIVERSITY. A SUBSET OF THE DATA GENERATED IN THE EGYPTIAN MUSEUM LABORATORY WAS INDEPENDENTLY REPLICATED IN A SEPARATE LABORATORY BY ANOTHER RESEARCH TEAM (these data sets are indicated in the manuscript)”.Applied Biosystems Helps Build Egypt's First Laboratory for Ancient DNA AnalysisContrary to Eurocentric lies, JAMA has only ever published ONE (1) letter critiquing the Hawass et al. results:The critique that was published in JAMA was written by Eline D. Lorenzen, formerly of the Centre for GeoGenetics, now a biologist at the University of California Berkeley and Eske Willerslev, Director of the Centre for GeoGenetics in Denmark expressed their concerns with the viability of the DNA and accuracy of the tests results which can be surmised in two brief sentences:Quote:“We question the reliability of the genetic data presented in this study and therefore the validity of the authors' conclusions. Furthermore, we urge a more critical assessment of the ancient DNA data in the context of DNA degradation and contamination”.Citation Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44695383_King_Tutankhamun's_Family_and_Demise.A reply from Yehia Z. Gad, Ashraf Selim, and Carsten Pusch was directed towards the concerns of Drs Eline D. Lorenzen’s and Eske.In Reply:“Drs Lorenzen and Willerslev are INCORRECT REGARDING INSUFFICIENT CONTAMINATION PREVENTION AND QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES during our study. In addition, authentic, adequately preserved DNA can indeed be obtained from Egyptian mummy tissue, but requires specifically adapted extraction protocols.Source: King Tutankhamun’s Family and Demise—Reply, Yehia Z. Gad, MD; Ashraf Selim, MD; Carsten M. Pusch, PhDThe following aspects SUBSTANTIATE AUTHENTICITY.(1) All generally accepted criteria for ancient DNA authentication were strictly adhered to before, during, and after genetic analysis experiments, as described in our article.(2) Putative contamination by people handling the mummies before the sampling and during the experiments was monitored.(3) All female mummies were negative for Y-chromosomal markers.(4) All male mummies showed homozygous (ie, hemizygous) Y-chromosomal profiles.(5) The profiles and haplotypes of the whole set of mummies showed individual differences and therefore could not have originated from the same source of putative contaminant DNA.(6) The combination of nuclear data (Y- and autosomal chromosome–related markers) complemented each other.(7) Reproducible genotypes were obtained from different biopsies and extractions per mummy.(8) Subsets of the data were independently replicated in a second, separate ancient DNA laboratory staffed by a separate group of personnel, who reconfirmed the authenticity of the results.(9) DNA isolated from Egyptian mummies was highly informative when processed with next generation sequencing”.Source: King Tutankhamun’s Family and Demise—ReplyA study or article submitted to a scientific journal can be eligible for peer review by other expert scientists. In this instance, the study by Zahi Hawass; Yehia Z. Gad, Somaia Ismail, et al. “The Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun's Family”, was released on February 17, 2010.EUROCENTRICS HAVE BEEN STELLAR WITH THEIR DISINFORMATION CAMPAIGNS AGAINST DNA TRIBES AND DNA CONSULTANTSThe following must be understood, because the disinformation has been very effective:Contrary to popular belief, DNA TRIBES RESULTS ARE NOT ELIGIBLE FOR PEER REVIEW as Walter Smyth, Rita Maria Bargash formerly known as Rita de Maria and Majed Ahmed (Quora pseudo-egytologist and current incarnation, Lee Thomas) suggests. DNA TRIBES, USED DATA SETS FROM PEER REVIEW STUDIES, AND THEREFORE WOULD NOT BE SUBJECT TO PEER REVIEW BY ANY SCIENTISTS. IT’S ALREADY BEEN EXECUTED.Personal genomic companies such as DNA Tribes and DNA Consultants WERE NOT RESPONSIBLE FOR THE EXTRACTION OF DNA FROM ANY OF THE MUMMY SAMPLES. NOR WERE THEY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PERFORMANCE OF ANY LAB WORK. Genomic companies use peer review DNA data to process information and match it to existing populations in the database.To have to make the argument is just further evidence of the gross ignorance and sheer negligence that people speaking on this topic demonstrate regularly. DNA Tribes and DNA Consultants for that matter, were unfairly targeted and defamed by angry Eurocentrics for the results they published (which was produced by processing the DNA data into the PopAffiliator2). DNA Tribes not only confirmed the results from Zahi Hawass; Yehia Z. Gad, Somaia Ismail, et al., but because of their extensive database (the most extensive at the time with approximately 560,000 individuals from 1,200+ populations around the world, including 950+ indigenous populations), were able to point directly to ancestral regions of the Amarna mummies. This is what angered the Eurocentrics and why they continue to attack what they don’t know. Personal genomic companies basically are over-glorified data processing companies.A PEER REVIEW PUBLISHED IN THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY STUDY CONFIRMS THE FINDINGS OF ZAHI HAWASS, YEHIA Z. GAD, SOMALIA ISMAIL, ET AL.PEER REVIEW PUBLISHED IN THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY:The aim of this study is to review all available evidence for the identification of some of the most famous ancient Egyptian royal mummies. This overview of all methods used may help to identify more conclusive evidence for identification.Michael E. HabichtQuote:“For centuries, ancient Egyptian Royal mummies have drawn the attention both of the general public and scientists. Many royal mummies from the New Kingdom have survived. The discoveries of the bodies of these ancient rulers have always sparked much attention, yet not all identifications are clear even nowadays. This study presents a meta-analysis to demonstrate the difficulties in identifying ancient Egyptian royal mummies. Various methods and pitfalls in the identification of the Pharaohs are reassessed since new scientific methods can be used, such as ancient DNA-profiling and CT-scanning. While the ancestors of Tutankhamun have been identified, some identities are still highly controversial (e.g., the mystery of the KV-55 skeleton, recently most likely identified as the genetic father of Tutankhamun). The meta-analysis confirms the suggested identity of some mummies (e.g., Amenhotep III, Thutmosis IV, and Queen Tjye)”.Citation Source: Identifications of ancient Egyptian royal mummies from the 18th Dynasty reconsidered, M.E. Habicht A.S. Bouwman F.J. Rühli, 25 January 2016.Identifications of ancient Egyptian royal mummies from the 18th Dynasty reconsideredCONCLUSIONSQuote:“All presented methods (archaeology, blood group testing, facial resemblance, inscriptions) lead to the same conclusion, supporting the presented genetic results of Hawass et al. (2010)”.Citation Source: Identifications of ancient Egyptian royal mummies from the 18th Dynasty reconsidered, M.E. Habicht A.S. Bouwman F.J. Rühli, 25 January 2016.Citation resource: Identifications of ancient Egyptian royal mummies from the 18th Dynasty reconsideredIdentifications of ancient Egyptian royal mummies from the 18th Dynasty reconsidered.CREDIBLE PEER REVIEW SCIENTISTS (Jean-Philippe Gourdine, S.O.Y. Keita, Jean-Luc Gourdine and Alain Anselin) ran STR tests on the Armana mummies and replicated the results of the genetic tests performed by Zahi Hawass; Yehia Gad, Somaia Ismail, et al., Michael Habict, A.S. Bouwman, F.J. Ruhli, DNA Tribes and DNA Consultants, all found the ethnic group (affinity) probability to be SSA (sub Saharan African) using popaffiliator 1 http://cracs.fc.up.pt/.The popaffiliator ethnic group probability tests run by peer review scientists Keita, JP Gourdine, JL Gourdine and Anselin, show the Armana mummies regional ancestral breakdown at over 90% sub-Saharan for all of the mummies, with the exception of (3). KV35 (Amenhotep III) tests 71% sub-Saharan, 21% Eurasian and 6.3% Asian. KV35YLc is believed to be Nefertiti who tests at 68% sub-Saharan, 31% Eurasian and .05% Asian. KV55 Akhenaten (or Smenkhare) tests 41.7% sub-Saharan and 41.5% Eurasian and 16% Asian.Missing values=16Note: Of the 34 values expected, 16 were provided, meaning 16 were usable (47.058823529412%). In other words, only ~47% of the required STRs were provided. If more STRs are provided the reliability percentages will go up…..but based upon what is provided the result is accurate to greater than 90%. So, at the very least, we know the Armana family is 47% so-called sub-Saharan. Keep in mind, each geographic population i.e. “race” has STR profiles that are UNIQUE to them. So, results can’t be “faked” or “wrong” as has been moronically suggested by Quora’s pseudo-Egyptologist Majed Ahmed, Rita de Maria, and Walter Smyth.Conclusion“The paleolithic past has to be distinguished from the biocultural emergence in the Holocene of any society, including Europe. Egypt long before the pyramids was culturally and linguistically African as evidenced by numerous studies based on standard research which accept Egypt’s place in the Nile corridor as having local origins. The symbolism found in the Badarian or Naqadan graves, etc. nor the pyramids were brought from Asia (Near East). THE EGYPTIAN NEOLITHIC CANNOT BE SHOWN AS AN ENTITY TO HAVE COME FROM ASIA, although some domesticates were borrowed on local terms into a system of indigenous foraging in the Fayum. HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS SHOWS ANCIENT EGYPTIAN TO BE AFROASIATIC WITH BORROWINGS FROM OTHER AFRICAN LANGUAGE PHYLA. Archaeological data would seem to indicate an early integration of the eastern delta, in northern Egypt, by early Upper Egyptian rulers since Iry Hor from Abydos (~3,250 BC), who already wrote royal inscriptions in Egyptian in a script and symbolic system that used African flora and fauna. This region of Egypt, and northern Egypt had long had social intercourse with the Near East. THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS IN “ORIGIN” WERE NOT SETTLED COLONISTS AKIN TO THE EUROPEAN COLONISTS IN AFRICA. SCHUENEMANN ET AL. STUDY IS BEST SEEN AS A CONTRIBUTION TO UNDERSTANDING A LOCAL POPULATION HISTORY IN NORTHERN EGYPT AS OPPOSED TO A POPULATION HISTORY OF ALL EGYPT FROM ITS INCEPTION”.Citation Source: https://osf.io/ecwf3/Quote:“Other DNA data show substantial African affinity: “Results that are likely reliable are from studies that analyzed short tandem repeats (STRs) from Amarna royal mummies (1,300 BC), and of Ramesses III (1,200 BC); Ramesses III had the Y chromosome haplogroup E1b1a, an old African lineage. Our analysis of STRs from Amarna and Ramesside royal mummies with popAffiliator based on the same published data indicates a 41.7% to 93.9% probability of SSA affinities; most of the individuals had a greater probability of affiliation with “SSA” which is not the only way to be “African”- a point worth repeating.”Source: Ancient Egyptian Genomes from northern Egypt: Further discussion, Jean-Philippe, Shomarka Keita, Jean-Luc Gourdine, Alain Anselin, August 16th, 2018.https://osf.io/ecwf3/King Tut’s great-grandparents, Yuya and Thuya, have also been identified beyond doubt, while different opinions appear to circulate about the identity of almost all the other mummies.THUYAQuote:“One of the autosomal ancestry markers prominent in the Royal Egyptian families of the New Kingdom, this not-so-rare gene is Central African in origin and was passed to Thuya from her forebears, Queens of Upper and Lower Egypt and High Priestesses of Hathor, the Mother Goddess. Thuya passed it to her grandson Akhenaten and great-grandson Tutankhamun, among others, AS DOCUMENTED IN A FORENSIC STUDY OF THE AMARNA MUMMIES BY ZAHI HAWASS ET AL., head of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Cairo, in 2010. Today, its highest incidence is in Somalians at nearly 50%. It is found in 40% of Muslim Egyptians. On average, 1 in 3 Africans or African-Americans carries it. It crops up in high concentrations in many places around the world such as the Basque region (41%) and in Melungeons (31%, similar to Middle Easterners), but is present at only low levels in East and South Asia, as well as Native America. Its lowest frequency is in the Chukchi of Siberia (3%)”.Citation Source: The Thuya Gene - DNA ConsultantsThe Thuya Gene IS SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN with a low frequency in North Africa and the Old Near East and spotty distribution elsewhere except it is uniformly low in India and points east.Source: The Thuya Gene - DNA Consultants“Take the THUYA GENE, for instance. Like most of the other Rare Genes from History, it has an African origin in deep time. But it experienced its greatest expansion in ancient Egypt, where it was carried by the queens of Upper and Lower Egypt and High Priestesses of the temples. It was reported in the profile of Queen Thuya’s mummy, and we can see that she passed it to her children, grandchildren and descendants. King Tut was a great-grandson and has it, according to the new forensic evidence”.“Today, as many as one-fourth of all people on earth would test positive for the Thuya Gene. It is twice as common in Somalia as outside Africa and is found in 40% of Muslim Egyptians”.Citation Source: Rare Genes from Ancient DNA - DNA ConsultantsDNA Consultants results are also confirmed by DNA Tribes resultshttp://www.dnatribes.com/dnatribes-digest-2012-01-01.pdfWITH REGARD TO THE LEGITIMACY OF DNA TRIBES RESULTSMLI (Match Likelihood Index) score measures how common or frequent your DNA profile is in that population as compared to the world overall. MLI SCORES LOCATE THE ETHNIC GROUPS AND REGIONS WHERE YOUR DNA PROFILE IS MOST COMMON. TribeScores compares your MLI scores to members of each ethnic group and world region.removed sections, now in the Louvre Museum, Paris, France.Amenhotep III, Akhenaten (or possibly Smenkhare) and King Tutankhamen display identical ancestral origins (below). And as you can clearly see… they originate from tropical Africa which explains the ancient Egyptians tropical “SUPER NEGROID” body plans. I should add Levantine, Mediterranean and Arabian people have cold adapted body plans (not tropical). The percentage amounts are the only difference.Quote:“A new strain of ETHIOPIAN blood appears in this line through the NUBIAN QUEEN, METUMA, about 1400, B. C. HER SON, AMENHOTEP III, the Amenophis of the Greeks, covered the banks of the Nile with monuments remarkable for their grandeur and perfection”.Source: The History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, Vol. I., Preface, by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, 1928, (p. 103).Note: According to E.A. Wallis Budge, Ahmenhotep’s mother was a Ethiopian.Charles Darwin (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.Darwin makes a reference to this statue on his Descent of Man:Quote(s):“When I looked at the statue of Amunoph III (Amenhotep III), I agreed with two officers of the establishment, both competent judges, that he had a STRONGLY MARKED NEGRO TYPE OF FEATURES." THE FEATURES OF AKHENATON (Amennhotep IV), ARE EVEN MORE NEGROID THAN THOSE OF HIS ILLUSTRIOUS PREDECESSOR. THAT THE EARLIEST EGYPTIANS WERE AFRICAN ETHIOPIANS (NILOTIC NEGROES), IS OBVIOUS TO ALL UNBIASED STUDENTS OF ORIENTAL HISTORY”.Source: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, (1871).Temple of Amenhotep IV - EgyptAmenhotep IIIAkhenaten or SmenkhareTutankhamenQuote:“Southern Egypt, from which the genesis of Ancient Egypt civilization sprang, lies in the tropical zone. The Tropic of Cancer passes through Egypt at 23°26′N 25°0′E. The rest of Egypt lies in the subtropical or arid tropic zone, NOT the cold-climate zones of EUROPE OR ASIA”.Source: (Thompson and Perry, 1997; Griffiths, 1976).Humans from Southwest Asia do not exhibit tropically adapted body shapes (Crognier 1981; Eveleth and Tanner 1976; Schreider 1975).THE TROPICAL ZONEGene flow into the Nubian area during the Neolithic was not from reputed "wandering Caucasoids" but from tropical, Sub-Saharan types.Quote:“The peoples of ancient Egypt, in the aforementioned tropical and semi-tropical/arid tropic zones show clear limb proportion characteristics of tropically adapted people, and MORE closely RESEMBLE OTHER TROPICALLY ADAPTED AFRICANS ON THE CONTINENT, THAN EUROPEANS OR MIDDLE EASTERNERS”.Source: (Raxter and Ruff 2008, Zakrewski 2003, 2007; Holliday et al, 2003, Kemp, 2005).Quote:The great ancient Nile Valley civilization arose from the ’DARKER’ MORE TROPICAL SOUTH, NOT the COLD CLIMATE OR COOL CLIMATE MEDITERRANEAN, EUROPE OR ASIA.Source: (Clark, 1982; Shaw 1976, 2003; Bard, 2004; Vogel, 1997; Kemp 2005).Quote:SEVERAL STRANDS OF CULTURE FROM RELIGION TO MATERIAL LIVING PUT THE EGYPTIANS CLOSER TO NEARBY AFRICANS THAN TO COLD-CLIMATE MEDITERRANEANS, EUROPEANS OR ASIATICS.Source: (Keita, 1996, 2004; Yurco 1989, 1996; Williams, 1980; Britannia 1984; Wilkinson 1999; Wendorf, 2001).Quote:“ANOTHER RELIABLE SOURCE OF SKELETAL DATA IS LIMB PROPORTIONS, WHICH TENDS TO VARY WITH DIFFERENT CLIMATIC BELTS. THE EARLY NILE VALLEY POPULATIONS POSSESSED MORE TROPICAL BODY PROPORTIONS, SUGGESTING THAT THE EGYPTIAN NILE VALLEY WAS NOT PRIMARILY SETTLED BY COLD-ADAPTED PEOPLES, SUCH AS EUROPEANS.A 2003 paper appeared in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology by Dr Sonia Zakrzewski entitled 'Variation in Ancient Egyptian Stature and Body Proportions', where she confirmed the results of previous studies, indicating that THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS HAD TROPICALLY ADAPTED BODY PLANS”. The raw values suggest that Egyptians had the ‘super-Negroid’ body plan described by Robins (1983).The values for the brachial and crural indices show that the distal segments of each limb are longer relative to the proximal segments than in many ‘African’ populations”.Citation Source: S.O.Y. Keita & A. J. Boyce. Egypt in Africa, (1996), pp. 25-27.Cold adapted vs Tropically adaptedQuote:“Allen’s rule is a biological rule that says the limbs of endotherms are shorter in cold climates and longer in hot climates.Limb length affects the body’s surface area, which helps with thermoregulation. Shorter limbs help to conserve heat, while longer limbs help to dissipate heat”.Information Source: Holliday, Trenton W.; Hilton, Charles E. (2010-06-01). "Body proportions of circumpolar peoples as evidenced from skeletal data: Ipiutak and Tigara (Point Hope) versus Kodiak Island Inuit". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 142 (2): 287–302.Quote:“An attempt has been made to estimate male and female Egyptian stature from long bone length using Trotter & Gleser negro stature formulae, previous work by the authors having shown that these rather than white formulae give more consistent results with male dynastic material... When consistency has been achieved in this way, Predynastic proportions are founded to be such that distal segments of the limbs are even longer in relation to the proximal segments than they are in modern negroes. Such proportions are termed "super-negroid".“Robins (1983) and Robins & Shute (1983) have shown that more consistent results are obtained from ancient Egyptian male skeletons if Trotter & Gleser formulae for negro are used, rather than those for whites which have always been applied in the past..their physical proportions were more like modern negroes than those of modern whites, with limbs that were relatively long compared with the trunk, and distal segments that were long compared with the proximal segments. If ancient Egyptian males had what may be termed negroid proportions, it seems reasonable that females did likewise”.Citation Source: (Robins G, Shute CCD. 1986. Predynastic Egyptian stature and physical proportions. Hum Evol 1:313–324. Ruff CB. 1994.).Barry John Kemp, CBE, FBA is an English archaeologist and Egyptologist. He is Professor Emeritus of Egyptology at the University of Cambridge and directing excavations at Amarna in Egypt. His widely renowned book Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation is a core text of Egyptology and many Ancient History courses.Quote:“Population variability in Lower (northern) Egypt. As regards predynastic population, peoples of Lower or northern Egypt show a range of variability and types. SWEEPING CLASSIFICATIONS SUCH AS CAUCASOIDS OR A "MEDITERRANEAN RACE" DEPICTED UNDER OLDER ARYAN RACE MODELS ARE THUS PROBLEMATIC FOR THIS REGION. A number of influences were present from surrounding populations. According to one history populations around sites such as Merimda, Maadi and Wadi Digla have quite different characteristics from sample populations from early Palestine and Byblos, “SUGGESTED A LACK OF COMMON ANCESTORS OVER A LONG TIME. If there was a south-north cline variation along the Nile valley it did not, from this limited evidence, continue smoothly on into southern Palestine. THE LIMB-LENGTH PROPORTIONS OF MALES FROM THE EGYPTIAN SITES GROUP THEM WITH AFRICANS RATHER THAN WITH EUROPEANS”.Source: Ancient Egypt Anatomy of a Civilisation (Paperback) by Barry Kemp (Author) Publisher: Routledge; 2 edition (December 12, 2005); see also Zakrzewski, S.R. (2003). "Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 121 (3): 219-229.Professor Trenton Holliday, Ph.D., Professor & Department Chair Anthropology, School of Liberal Arts, Tulane University, [email protected] received his B.A. in anthropology from Louisiana State University in 1988, and his M.A. (1991) and Ph.D. (1995) in anthropology from the University of New Mexico. A paleoanthropologist, he studies fossil hominins from a host of different time periods. He is particularly interested in the origins of modern humans (Homo sapiens), a topic which is intimately tied to the question of the fate of the Neandertals (H. neanderthalensis). He is also interested in late Australopithecus and the origins of the genus Homo, and in interspecific hybridization among extant mammals and its implications for human evolution. Professor Holliday teaches courses in human evolution, functional morphology, and modern human adaptation and variation.Quote(s):“What we can say, however, is that in the Holocene, HUMANS FROM SOUTHWEST ASIA DO NOT EXHIBIT TROPICALLY ADAPTED BODY SHAPE (Crognier 1981; Eveleth and Tanner 1976; Schreider 1975). In addition, while Levantine winters today are generally characterized as mild (Henkin et al. 1998), they are nonetheless quite often cold, with frequent snowfall—for example, the winter of 1992 was particularly cold and snowy in Israel (Vishnevetsky and Steinberger 19%). GIVEN THAT THE HOLOCENE IS A WARM PHASE, YET RECENT LEVANTINE HUMANS DO NOT EXHIBIT A TROPICALLY ADAPTED MORPHOLOGY, there is little reason to assume that in the (generally colder) Pleistocene epoch, natural selection alone could result in tropically adapted morphology in the region”.“Thus, the discovery of TROPICAL ADAPTED hominids in the region would therefore likely indicate population dispersal from the TROPICS, AND THE MOST LOGICAL GEOGRAPHIC SOURCE FOR SUCH AN INFLUX IS AFRICA. In this regard, Trinkaus (1981, 1984, 1995) and have argued that the high brachial and crural indices, narrow biiliac breadths, and small relative femoral head sizes of the Qafzeh-Skhul hominids suggest an influx of African genes associated with the emergence of modern humans in the region”.Source: Trenton Holliday (2000) Evolution at the Crossroads: Modern Human Emergence in Western Asia. American Anthropologist. New Series, Vol. 102, No. 1, 54-68.Research studies: Evolution at the Crossroads: Modern Human Emergence in Western Asiahttps://www.researchgate.net/pub...Climatic influences on human body size and proportions: Ecological adaptations and secular trends https://www.researchgate.net/pub...Near Eastern Late Archaic HumansMorphological adaptation to climate in modern and fossil hominidsStature estimation in ancient Egyptians: A new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of statureNote: Humans from Southwest Asia do not exhibit tropically adapted body shapes (Crognier 1981; Eveleth and Tanner 1976; Schreider 1975). In other words Asiatics, in other words Eurasians, in other words Near Eastern, in other words “CAUCASIANS, DO NOT EXHIBIT TROPICALLY ADAPTED BODIES LIKE THAT OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS”. In other words, it is impossible for the Egyptians to have originated from a group (Asiatics) that was not a tropically adapted like divergent.Quote:Where is the research/study that “shows” Yuya and Thuya were naturally fair-haired? You did not cite it, nor did you provide a link to the study. When was the study conducted, when was it released and who is the author?As for the article you attached, it’s much ado about nothing Mr. Smyth. It’s what is referred to as ‘click bait’. This “new” research confirms that blondes were “living” in Egypt during the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods. Ok.. where’s the news in that? Greeks and Romans invaded and occupied ancient Egypt and it's never been back in the hands of the autochthonous Egyptians. Large numbers of Greeks and later Romans emigrated to Egypt, as attested to in countless history books. No one would argue there weren’t blondes in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt. Eurocentrics will take any crumbs offered to them and magnify the absolutely insignificant to epic proportions. It’s the equivalent of making a big deal about discovering the skeleton of a European (‘white’) from the 1700s buried in North America. As usual, the headline is hyperbolic and an exaggeration of what is actually being stated. Nowhere does it state that the “blondes” were Dynastic Egyptians.Janet Davey, Monash University, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Post-Doc. Studies Egyptology, Ancient Egyptian Religion, and Education. Forensic Egyptologist.“Moreover, Davey SUGGEST THAT THERE WERE BLONDES LIVING IN EGYPT DURING THE GRAECO-ROMAN PERIOD (332 BC – 395 AD)”.Citation Source: Some ancient Egyptians were natural blondes.Excerpt from a Michael Broussard Dr. Davey interview:[Excerpt]Quote:“Don’t misunderstand.. no one is saying that all Egyptians were blue-eyed and blond people. HOWEVER, IT ALL TIES IN TOGETHER WITH THE CONTEXT OF THE TIME PERIOD ALL THESE FAIR-HAIRED MUMMIES CAN BE TRACED BACK TO. DAVEY NOTE THAT FAIR-HAIRED MUMMIES ARE, ACTUALLY, VERY RARE AND THAT SHE’S ONLY SEEN A LIMITED NUMBER IN HER ENTIRE CAREER. This actually fueled the theories that aimed to explain the color change by blaming it on natron and other substances”.“ALL OF THE FAIR-HAIRED MUMMIES UNEARTHED DATE BACK TO A TIME WHEN EGYPT WAS HEAVILY DOMINATED BY EXTERIOR INFLUENCES. Take the mummies of Fag el-Gamous for example – THEY DATE TO THE TIME OF ROMAN OCCUPATION. SINCE INTERACTIONS WITH GREEKS, ROMANS, AND OTHER FOREIGN CIVILIZATIONS, it was very possible that there was an addition to the pool of Egyptian genes”.“Whether it was as soldiers, or as slaves, MANY EUROPEAN-ROOTED NATIONS STARTED INTERACTING WITH EGYPTIANS DURING THE HEAVILY INTERNATIONALIZED PERIOD OF THE GRECO-ROMAN ERA. Some historians estimate that Scandinavian travelers are included as well”.“Regardless, the conclusion is thatTHE RESULT OF THE INTERRACIAL MIXES CREATED A NEW BRANCH OF EGYPTIAN PEOPLE WHICH CARRIED OUT THE FAIR-HAIRED GENES OF VARIOUS GREEKS, ROMANS, MACEDONIANS, OR SCANDINAVIANS”.[End excerpt]Citation Source: Michael Broussard, The Myth Of Blonde And Ginger Egyptians: What’s The Explanation?Note: Fair-haired mummies are, actually, very rareThis is much ado about nothing.Joann Fletcher (born 30 August 1966) is an Egyptologist and an honorary visiting professor in the department of archaeology at University of York where she specializes in the a Ptolemaic period in ancient Egypt. She has published a number of books and academic articles, including on Cleopatra, and made numerous television and radio appearances. In 2003, she controversially claimed to have identified the mummy of Queen Nefertiti.I’d understand if you took offense to this quote agent Smyth:Quote:“Fletcher (2002) in Egyptian Hair and Wigs, gives an example of what she calls “DISTURBING ATTEMPTS TO USE HAIR TO PROVE ASSUMPTIONS OF RACE AND GENDER” involving 18th century European researcher Flinder’s Petrie, who sought, when feasible, to use excavation reports to prove his theories of Aegean (Caucasians) settlers flowing into Egypt. SUCH DISTURBING ATTEMPTS CONTINUE TODAY IN THE USE OF HAIR FOR RACE CATEGORY OR PERCENTAGE CLAIMS INVOLVING THE ANCIENT PEOPLES, SUCH AS THE "RACIAL" ANALYSIS SEEN ON A GREAT NUMBER OF INTERNET BLOGS AND WEBSITES, SOME THINLY DISGUISED FRONTS FOR NEO-NAZI GROUPS OR SYMPATHIZERS”.Source: Joanne Fletcher (PDF) An Ancient Egyptian Wig: Construction and Reconstruction, 2017.Note: The internet blogs and websites Joanne Fletcher is referencing are the likes of Forum Biodiversity, Historum, Eurogenes, Final Crusades, Dieneke’s Anthropology Blog, Davidski, theApricity, Anthrogenenica, Anthroscape and the defunct apologist’s site, Mathilda’s BlogYuya and wife Thuya, King Tutankhamun’s great-grandparents died between the ages of 50–60. So, the likes of Walter Smyth actually believe that at 50 and 60, Yuya and Thuya sported were “natural blonds”? Lol. The hair in these photographs is not even blonde, but gold in color. These “hues” are not ‘natural’ and is likely the result of henna dye (a common ancient Egyptian practice).Quote:"The current colour of the hair is brown with reddish highlights, a common observation on many mummies, and probably originated through POST-MORTEM ALTERATION (Aufderheide, 2003; Wilson et al., 2001). SUN-EXPOSURE, BACTERIAL REACTION, AND EMBALMING METHODS ARE SOME OF THE FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT THE ORIGINAL HAIR COLOR. As a result, HAIR THAT WAS ORIGINALLY BLACK OR BROWN EXHIBITS REDDISH, ORANGE OR EVEN BLOND COLOR DUE TO POST MORTEN ALTERATIONS. All human hair, however, does not turn red over archaeological time-scales (Wilson, 2001). BASED ON THE HISTOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE UNSTAINED HAIR SAMPLES, THE LIMITED FUNGAL INFLUENCE, AND THE MACROSCOPIC VIEW, IT CAN BE ASSUMED THAT THE ORIGINAL HAIR COLOR WAS BROWN. Similar cases of hair preservation have been reported in studies of both mummified and non-mummified human remains (Aufderheide, 2003; Brothwell and Dobney, 1986; Lubec et al., 1987; White, 1993; Wilson et al., 2002, 2007b)."Citation Source: C. Papageorgopoulou et al. 2008. Indications of embalming in Roman Greece by physical, chemical and histological analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science.Andrew Wilson and his colleagues at the University of Bradford have found that the chemistry of hair may change after centuries in the ground:Quote:“But in analyses of hair from 13 corpses, Wilson found that over time cavities appear in the shafts of the hair, allowing material to leak out and letting in foreign matters such as mineral salts and microorganisms”.Although the tough, outer shaft of ancient hair is robust, says Wilson, there is substantial decay of the cortex, the softer material inside.Examining hair with a sensitive chemical technique called Fourier transform Raman spectroscopy, Wilson discovered that the strong bonds in the keratin --- the protein that makes up the hair --- were often weakened.'This increased porosity raises the possibility of contamination,' he says. The team found hair that had been invaded by threads of fungus and in one case with iron salts from an iron coffin. This doesn’t show that isotopic signatures were changed, but they do reveal changes in the nature of the hair. “My hunch is that it would affect isotopic ratios,” says Wilson”.Citation Source: Hair today… Andy CoghlandQuote(s):“The reader must assume, as apparently do the authors, that the "coarseness" or "fineness" of hair can readily distinguish races and that hair is dichotomized into these categories. Problematically, however, virtually all who have studied hair morphology in relation to race since the 1920’s to the present have rejected such a characterization .. Hausman, as early as 1925, stated thatit is "not possible to identify individuals from samples of their hair, basing identification upon histological similarities in the structure of scales and medullas, since these may differ in hairs from the same head or in different parts of the same hair". Rook (1975) pointed out nearly 50 years later out that NEGROID AND CAUCASOID HAIR ARE “CHEMICALLY INDISTINGUISHABLE”.Citation Source: Tom Mieczkowsk, T. (2000). The Further Mismeasure: The Curious Use of Racial Categorizations in the Interpretation of Hair Analyses. Intl J Drug Testing 2000; vol 2.Quote:“Two British anthropologists, Brothwell and Spearman, have found evidence of cortex keratin oxidation in ancient Egyptian hair. They held that the mummification process was responsible, because of the strong alkaline substance used. THIS RESULTED IN THE YELLOWING AND BROWNING OF HAIR AS WELL AS THE STRAIGHTENING EFFECT. THIS MEANS THAT THE VISUAL APPEARANCE OF THE HAIR ON MUMMIES CANNOT DISGUISE THEIR RACIAL AFFINITIES”.Reference: ScienceDirectQuote:Hair studies of mummies note that color is often influenced by environmental factors at burial sites. Brothwell and Spearman (1963) point out that reddish-brown ancient color hair is usually the result of partial oxidation of the melanin pigment. Other causes of hair color "blonding" involve natron and its alkaline in the mummification process. Color also varies due to the Egyptian practice of dyeing hair with henna. Other samples show individuals lightening the hair using vegetable colorants. Thus variations in hair color among mummies do not necessarily suggest the presence of blond or red-haired Europeans or Near Easterners flitting about Egypt before being mummified, but the influence of environmental factors.Information Referenced: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256381670_Preliminary_note_on_the_ultrastructure_of_the_hair_from_an_Egyptian_mummy_using_the_Scanning_Electron_MicroscopeQuote:“Potential change to hair color can be explained more scientifically by examining the chemistry of melanin which is responsible for hair color in life. All hair contains a mixture in varying concentration of both black-brown eumelanin and red-yellow phaeomelanin pigments, which are susceptible to differential chemical change under certain extreme burial conditions (for example wet reducing conditions, or dry oxidising conditions). Importantly, phaeomelanin is much more stable to environmental conditions than eumelanin, hence THE REACTIONS OCCURRING IN THE BURIAL ENVIRONMENT FAVOR THE PRESERVATION OF PHAEOMELANIN, REVEALING AND ENHANCING the RED/YELLOW COLOR OF HAIRS CONTAINING THIS PIGMENT. Color changes occur slowly under dry oxidising conditions, such as in the burials in sand at Hierakonpolis. Whether the conditions within the wood and plaster coffin contributed to accelerated color change, or whether this individual naturally had more phaeomelanin pigmentation in his hair is hard to say without further analysis”.Citation Source: www.archaeology.org/interactive/hierakonpolis/field/hair.htmlQuote:“Strouhal (1971) microscopically examined some hair which had been preserved on a Badarian skull. The analysis was interpreted as suggesting a stereotypical tropical African-European hybrid (mulatto). However, THIS HAIR IS GROSSLY NO DIFFERENT FROM THAT OF FULANI, SOME KANURI, OR SOMALI AND DOES NOT REQUIRE A GENE FLOW EXPLANATION ANY MORE THAN CURLY HAIR IN GREECE NECESSARILY DOES. EXTREMELY "WOOLLY" HAIR IS NOT THE ONLY KIND NATIVE TO TROPICAL AFRICA”.Source: S.O.Y. Keita. (1993). "Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships," History in Africa 20 (1993) 129-54).Strouhal thus concluded:Quote:The red hair, on the contrary, seems represented, at least by some individuals, in all known races, whether equatorial or boreal... From what precedes, WE ARRIVE AT THE CONCLUSION THAT THE COLOR OF THE HAIR ALONE IS INSUFFICIENT TO CHARACTERISE A RACE.. p 73–74Source: Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 6 (1877), pp. 71-92 titled On the Human Hair as a Race Character.NOTE: About 1 to 2 percent of the human population has red hair. Redheads have genes to thank for their tresses. Research shows red hair usually results from a mutation in a gene called MC1R, which codes for the melanocortin-1 receptor. The pigment found in red hair that gives it red is called pheomelanin.On Ramesses IIThe analysis on Rameses II also did not show classic “European” red hair but hair of a light red to yellowish tinge. Black haired or dark-skinned populations are quite capable of producing such yellowish-red color variants on their own, as can be seen in today's east and northeast Africa (see child's photo below). Nor is such color variation unusual to Africa. Native dark-skinned populations in Australia, Melanesia and Madagascar routinely produce people with blond or reddish hair. As noted above, ultra diverse Africa is the original source of such variation.