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Aah, grasshopper! The margarita's not about who, it's more about what.Cinco de Mayo - the celebration of Mexico's 1862 victory over the French at Peubla is only two days away, is that what prompts this question?Get me the blue bottle from the bar. The good citizens of Tequila roast Jalisco agaves in stone ovens - Casa Noble's triple distilled - with vanilla, green pepper and lemon grass attributes. The art of the taste of a fine margarita is subtle. We'll need the juice of some yellow Key limes - a fuller flavour than your Persian limes; Curaçao triple sec, a shaker and ice.Sit down, I'll tell you the story of the margarita.In the history of cocktails, social gatherings and parties, every social butterfly anxious for a reputation claims to be the original inventor of any trend of the day. The margarita's not immune. Cocktails are not quite a U.S. invention, although the culture certainly took to the idea, often substituting sweet ingredients for the more traditionally sour and bitter drinks. The story of cocktails is as much about tales of trade and technology as social trends.PUNCHES AND BITTERSIt all began in India with the spice trade and punch. Sailors returning from voyages with the British East India Company imported the idea of chilled alchoholic mixes of lemon, sugar and tea. The fashionable cool drinks quickly replaced mulled wines popular in the 1600s - punches were popular for hundreds of years.Image: The British East India Company - The Story of IndiaIn the 1700s, the rum trade in the Caribbean brought the world digestive bitters and rum punches. By the 1800s, Angostura Bitters from Venezuela and Peychaud's Bitters from New Orleans were Europe's favourite mixers.It was the ice trade of the 1800s that really created the love of iced drinks and mixes of fruit, punch and fortified wines. The oldest written recipe for a cocktail dates to the 1850s - the Sazerac (absinthe, rye, bitters and sugar) is part of the character of New Orleans to this day.SOURS AND FRUITSBy 1862, Jerry Thomas published the "Bartender's Guide." Cocktails were mixed from fruits and spices. "Sours" were cocktails favouring bitters, "slings" were sugary and fruity. 1888 saw the first wax-sealed paper drinking straws.With the early nineteen hundreds came the invention of the crushed ice machine. Railroads and the 1906 refrigerator made ice easily available. Cold cocktails really took hold - the Manhattan of the eighteen-eighties, the Daquiri and the Martini of the nineteen noughties, the Gin Gimlet of the 1910s.It was in the twenties, during the thirteen years of the application of the eighteenth Amendment from 1920-1933, the citizens of the U.S. were forced to be inventive with citrus juice or sweeteners, triple sec, cordial, sugar syrups - anything that could help with the taste of poor quality moonshine - "The Daisy" was served over ice. Then, the Depression came, the demand for jobs and taxes lead to the end of Prohibition.WOWSERS AND DAISIESDuring the thirties, the Daisy really took hold, with any combination of spirits and fruits. Increased travel, expatriates in Europe, refugees from Prohibition spread the fashion for the new cocktails. In London, Harry Craddock's publication, "The Savoy Cocktail Book" became the first Bible of Bartenders. It's still in print today. In 1930, the book had a recipe for a "Tequila Daisy."The Tequila Daisy was mixed with soda water. The "Daisy" school of cocktail mixers says the Daisy was ubiquitous in the U.S. and Mexico.Image: First Edition, The Savoy Cocktail Book, 1930.The "Sidecar" school of thought holds the margarita was a variation on the Brandy Daisy, or Sidecar. Given the popularity of triple sec and tequila in London, they claim the cocktail was originally known as the "Picador," as featured in the 1937 Café Royal Cocktail Book.Image: First Edition, The Café Royal Cocktail Book, 1937.THE MARGARITA2 oz tequila1 oz fresh lime juice1 oz CointreauSplash of soda (optional)lime garnishShake tequila, lime, Cointreau, and simple with ice until well chilled. Double strain into a chilled cocktail glass or over ice in a rocks glass, optionally half-rimmed with coarse salt. Optionally splash with soda. Garnish with lime.—Margarita - the Tequila DaisyHOTELS AND RACONTEURSIt seems the Margarita had its roots in the Tequila Daisy and the Picador. Later, we get the marketeers, socialites, trendsetters and celebrities spreading the word and making dubious claims, while popularising an "invention" that had already been common on both sides of the Atlantic.1936: James Graham, owner and editor of the Moville, Iowa, Mail, took his wife to southern California for a bit of sightseeing. While there, as many do, the Grahams took a little side jaunt to Tijuana, Mexico, where—again, as many do—they found themselves in the grip of a sudden thirst for something alcoholic. Four years earlier, the choice of drinking establishments would have been a tough one: during Prohibition, Tijuana had some 150 of them. But in 1936, with Americans fully able to tipple at home, the city was down to a mere nine or ten bars. An Irishman by the name of Madden ran one of the survivors, and that’s where the Iowans headed. The couple’s taxi driver had mentioned Madden’s drink-mixing skills and told them of his fame as the creator of a thing known as the “Tequila Daisy.”“As a newspaperman seeking information,” Graham wrote in the lengthy report of his trip that he ran in his paper (bear in mind that Moville had a population of around 975), “I entered the joint and told Mr. Madden my curiosity was aroused regarding The Daisy.” Mr. Madden was not the most talkative of men, but eventually he was persuaded to admit that the drink’s creation was a mistake. “In mixing a drink, I grabbed the wrong bottle and the customer was so delighted that he called for another and spread the good news far and wide.”Why are we bothering with Iowa newspapermen and Irish barkeepers on Cinco de Mayo? Because, you see, the word for “daisy” in Spanish is “margarita,” and there are few cocktails more popular than the Margarita, or more obscure in their origin. Graham never said what was in Madden’s Daisy, or (truth be told) ever actually admitted to trying one. But if you take a Brandy Daisy, a standard bar drink of the pre-Prohibition era, and accidentally reach for the tequila instead of the brandy—well, you be the judge.—Behind the Drink: The Margarita1936: One oasis for the rich and famous was the Agua Caliente Race Track, which opened in 1929. Danny Negrete, who worked at the track in 1944, is also credited with creating the drink at the Garci Crespo Hotel in 1936 for his sister-in-law, Margarita, as a wedding present. Or it could have been named for Margarita Cansino (later known as Rita Hayworth) who as a teenager in the early 1930s would perform at, guess where, the Caliente.—Once upon a time in Mexico: The origin of the Margarita - ImbibeImage: Margaret Cansino/Rita Hayworth, 1930s1938: Carlos "Danny" Herrera developed the drink at his Tijuana-area restaurant, Rancho La Gloria, around 1938. As the legend goes, Herrera dreamed up the cocktail for one of his customers, an aspiring actress named Marjorie King who was allergic to all hard alcohol other than tequila. To make the liquor more palatable to his fussy client, he combined the elements of a traditional tequila shot—a lick of salt and a wedge of lime—and turned them into a refreshing drink.1945: According to The Complete Book of Spirits by Anthony Dias Blue, though, the first importer of Jose Cuervo in the United States advertised with the tagline, "Margarita: it's more than a girl's name."1948: Margarita Sames, a wealthy Dallas socialite who claimed she whipped up the drink for friends at her Acapulco vacation home in 1948. Among her well-connected guests was Tommy Hilton, who eventually added the drink to the bar menu at his hotel chain.1971: In contrast to the fuzzy genesis of the cocktail, the origin of a machine that helped simplify the making of one of its many forms is well documented. In 2005, Smithsonian's National Museum of American History acquired the world's first frozen margarita machine, invented by Dallas restaurateur Mariano Martinez.—The Smithsonian Institute♪ ♫ "Wasting away in Margaritaville..." ♫ ♪1977: Jimmy Buffet, the great preacher of drinking hymns released that iconic song.Daisys? Spanish? Women named Margarita? The origins of the moniker for the cocktail "Margarita" are lost, somewhere in the bitters, sours, fruits and spices at the dawn of the twentieth century. Noone knows. The drink remains.Cheers!

New Orleans, Louisiana, USANew Orleans’ distinct cuisine is inspired by the city’s multifaceted heritage. The melting pot of flavors unique to the city takes notes from Native Americans, French settlers, Africans, Southern American culture, and Caribbean, Creole, and Cajun spices. Four distinct dishes are the Po-Boy, an overstuffed sandwich of fried shrimp, oysters, catfish, soft-shell crab, or roast beef smothered in gravy and served on French bread; gumbo, a stew of West African vegetables like okra all served over rice; jambalaya, a spicy Cajun or Creole mix of seafoods, meats, vegetables, and rice; and beignets, donut-like squares of deep-fried dough dusted with powdered sugar.Tokyo, JapanTokyo has more than 220 Michelin-starred restaurants, the most of any city in the world. Mixing generations-old techniques with extremely modern styles, Tokyo chefs are experts at blending old and new to create world-class dishes. From soba dishes at humble noodle shops to high-end, pricey sushi, quality carries through to all price levels in Tokyo. Another reason Tokyo’s food is so great is the city’s dedication to using the freshest, most seasonal vegetables. To its favor, the city is situated in a land that produces fantastic, in-demand ingredients year round.Lyon, FranceParis stands out for drawing in tourists to sample fine French cuisine, but it is Lyon that has been internationally recognized as one of the best food cities. Fine regional cuisine and produce surround the city from nearby Charolais, Savoy, Dombes, and other locations, and high-quality wines come from neighboring Beaujolais and the Rhone Valley. The cuisine is defined by its simplicity and rich, heavy qualities. Bouchons, family-run bistros that have become integral to the Lyon food scene, are known for their distinctive homemade cuisine, atmosphere, and décor.San Sebastián, SpainPintxos, a style of eating similar to tapas, rules Northern Spain. Traditionally, pintxos are small snacks served on skewers that are eaten with drinks in a social atmosphere, but they are not shared like tapas. In San Sebastián chefs have started experimenting with pintxos,and instead of customers choosing from readily provided options at the bar, chefs are preparing the dishes to-order. This new way of eating pintxos means each dish is freshly and extravagantly made, like a small gourmet meal. The city is generally known for its high-quality everyday food and is one of the best spots to order fresh seafood.Marrakesh, MoroccoThe Jemaa el-Fna in Marrakesh is a typical city square by day, but in the evening the space transforms into a festival-like atmosphere. Storytellers, snake charmers, and tarot card readers flock to the square to perform, and a few hours later food stalls take their places, and the smell of fresh street-food fills the moonlit air. Dishes like shish kebabs, mechoui(slow-roasted lamb), fried eggplant, and couscous are popular and cheap from the food stalls. Large barrels filled with spices like saffron and turmeric and huge bowls of piled-up olives are colorful giants that are standard sights in Marrakesh’s markets. Outside the city walls, away from the rush of the markets, fine dining in extravagant restaurants can be found where visitors can try a traditional Moroccan tagine.Louisville, Kentucky, USALouisville is becoming a new epicenter for food lovers in the United States. The city is on the rise, and its culinary scene has rapidly evolved to include fine dining at casual and classy establishments alike. Going out for a burger has transformed into a gourmet experience, and Southern cooking has been molded into a culinary affair by blending traditional recipes with unique ingredients that emphasize fresh, seasonal, and local produce. These high-quality eateries are quirky and affordable, and they signal the start of a budding culinary capital that fully departs from Kentucky’s well-known fast food chain.Georgetown, MalaysiaAs the capital of the state of Penang in Malaysia, Georgetown is home to some of the finest street food in the world, or hawker food as the locals call it. Many vendors use the same recipes that have been used for generations with hints of Chinese and Indian fusion. The most famous dish is called car koay teow, and it is made of flat rice noodles stir fried with prawns, cockles, scrambled egg, bean sprouts, strips of fish cake, and chili paste.Florence, ItalyFlorence is known worldwide for its art, history, architecture, fashion, and also its distinctive cuisine. The rustic food has been largely unchanged over the years, and it dates back to ancient civilizations. Specialties of thick-crusted, salt-less bread and saucy pastas grew out of the traditions of simple peasant eating. Today, the same dishes are made into fine-dining meals. Florence is rich with fantastic local produce like world-class olive oil, mellow cheeses, and grilled meats. Popular dishes are thick, hearty soups, Chianti wine, and roasted or wine-braised game like boar, deer, and rabbit.London, UKThe capital city is exploding with new restaurants with each seeming to be more chic and nuanced than the last. No set style of cuisine has claimed the limelight, but rather a changing mentality has Londoners looking for the most unique experience and high-quality, unusual ingredients. The newest hotspot is constantly changing, and pop-up restaurants make it even more difficult to track down the best dining. From molecular gastronomy to posh fast food and rooftop bars to labyrinthine speakeasies, London’s cuisine culture is keeping foodies on their toes.Santiago, ChileSantiago chefs have gained worldwide attention for their purely Chilean cuisine. Menus feature hyper-seasonal and rare, local ingredients that take advantage of all Chile has to offer. Some fine examples of Chilean dishes are scallops stewed in a traditional sauce of chickpeas and tomatoes, tomato and pepper pebre (Chilean salsa), and a braised beef stew. Leche asada, a dessert of baked custard with caramel sauce is a tasty end to any meal.Copenhagen, DenmarkFood is a serious venture in the Scandinavian culinary capital, a city with one of the best-ranked restaurants in the world, Noma. Many of the city’s restaurants fill their reservations months in advance, but eating well doesn’t have to take weeks of planning. Budget eaters can take advantage of great food like Copenhagen’s smørrebrød, an open-faced sandwich piled with fish, meat, or vegetables or Danish-style hot dogs from Harry’s Place, a humble hot dog shop that has been voted the best eatery in the city by locals. Copenhagen is known for fearless experimentation with food, unconventional ingredients, and artful displays.San Diego, California, USAIn the typical Southern Californian style, San Diego has an exciting but relaxed vibe that runs through to its cuisine. Although L.A. and San Francisco are the better-known food destinations in California, San Diego is gaining traction as one of the best in the nation with more and more local restaurants serving fine Mexican and seafood dishes. The city has large numbers of farms that make farm-to-table an obvious choice. Baja cuisine—vibrant and flavorful dishes featuring fresh seafood, chiles, tomatoes, and citrus from the region of Mexico just south of California—is particularly popular.Ho Chi Minh City, VietnamThis lively city is known for excellent street food, atmospheric fine dining establishments, and everything in between. When France colonized Ho Chi Minh City, a combination of French styles and Vietnamese flavor led to a delicious creation—the bánh mì. The word only means ‘bread’ in Vietnamese, but foreigners know it as the sandwich served on French bread and made with meat—steamed or roasted pork belly, grilled chicken, or Vietnamese sausage—pate, sliced cucumber, coriander, pickled carrots, and other vegetables. Other traditional dishes include pho, a noodle soup with meat and vegetables;op la, eggs prepared with slices of meat and onion; and bún riêu, a tomato and crab-based broth with noodles and meat or tofu.Buenos Aires, ArgentinaBuenos Aires used to be known for serving only cheap steaks, pizza, and pasta, but recently it has grown into a top eating and drinking destination. You’ll still find the quintessential grass-fed beef and wines from Salta and Patagonia, but a new food-loving generation has taken over to reinvent those traditional dishes. Porteños, people who live in Buenos Aires, know their street food. A dish commonly found from street food vendors is choripan: a split chorizo sausage on a sandwich topped with chimichurri sauce. Empanadas stuffed with meat or vegetables are another beloved food-stall find.Vancouver, British Columbia, CanadaVancouver is located on Canada’s west coast and the region has some of the best agricultural land with the longest growing climate. Farm-to-table dining was perfected in Vancouver before taking over the food industry. The city has become a huge force in the food truck business with popular trucks selling tacos, Indian cuisine, and even egg-centric dishes. Vancouver is also a huge destination for authentic Asian dining and sustainably-caught seafood. With such a large focus on sustainability and local eating, Vancouver has effortlessly attracted great chefs to its shores.Kailash Sweets & SnacksBologna, ItalySpaghetti with meat sauce may not seem like a radical dish these days, but Bologna is where the traditional Bolognese got its start. The authentic dish is actually served with the flat tagliatelle pasta, not spaghetti. The city is also famous for its tortellini served in warm, rich broth, and mortadella, the city’s well-known wide sausage.

The most mysterious country is Peru.PeruParacas CandelabraThe Paracas Candelabra, also called the Candelabra of the Andes, is a well-known prehistoric geoglyph found on the northern face of the Paracas Peninsula at Pisco Bay in Peru. Pottery found nearby has been radio carbon dated to 200 BCE, the time of the Paracas culture. The design is cut two feet (0.61 m) into the soil, with stones possibly from a later date placed around it. The figure is 595 feet (181 meters) tall, large enough to be seen 12 miles (19.3 km) at sea.A variety of popular myths have arisen about the geoglyph: one attributes it to José de San Martín, a 19th-century leader in the fight for independence; another suggests it is a Masonic symbol (see Freemasonry); and yet another that sailors created it as a sign which they could view at sea for landfall. Some believe it represents the motif known as a Mesoamerican world tree.HistoryAlthough the exact age of the Candelabra geoglyph is unknown, archaeologists have found pottery around the site dating to around 200 BCE. This pottery likely belonged to the Paracas people. It is not known if they constructed the geoglyph.The purpose of the Candelabra's creation is also unknown. It is thought most likely to represent the trident, a lightning rod of the god Viracocha. He was long an important figure in indigenous mythology throughout South America, both before and during the time of the Inca Empire. It has also been suggested that the Candelabra was built as a sign to sailors, as it is visible from far at sea. It may be a symbolic representation of the hallucinogenic plant called Jimsonweed.Nazca LinesThe Nazca Lines /ˈnæzkɑː/ are a group of very large geoglyphs made in the soil of the Nazca Desert in southern Peru. They were created between 500 BCE and 500 CE by people making depressions or shallow incisions in the desert floor, removing pebbles and leaving differently colored dirt exposed.Most lines run straight across the landscape, but there are also figurative designs of animals and plants. The individual figurative geoglyph designs measure between 0.4 and 1.1 km (.2 and .7 mi) across. The combined length of all the lines is over 1,300 km (800 mi), and the group cover an area of about 50 km2 (19 sq mi). The lines are typically 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) deep. They were made by removing the top layer of reddish-brown iron oxide-coated pebbles to reveal a yellow-grey subsoil. The width of the lines varies considerably, but over half are slightly over one-third meter (just over 1 foot) wide. In some places they may be only 30.5 cm (1 ft) wide, and in others reach 1.8 m (6 feet) wide.Some of the Nazca lines form shapes that are best seen from the air (~500 m, 1,500 ft), though they are also visible from the surrounding foothills and other high places. The shapes are usually made from one continuous line. The largest ones are about 370 m (1,200 ft) long. Because of its isolation and the dry, windless, stable climate of the plateau, the lines have mostly been preserved naturally. Extremely rare changes in weather may temporarily alter the general designs. As of 2012, the lines are said to have been deteriorating because of an influx of squatters inhabiting the lands.The figures vary in complexity. Hundreds are simple lines and geometric shapes; more than 70 are zoomorphic designs, including a hummingbird, spider, fish, condor, heron, monkey, lizard, dog, cat, and a human. Other shapes include trees and flowers. Scholars differ in interpreting the purpose of the designs, but in general, they ascribe religious significance to them. They were designated in 1994 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.LocationThe high, arid plateau stretches more than 80 km (50 mi) between the towns of Nazca and Palpa on the Pampas de Jumana, approximately 400 km (250 mi) south of Lima. The main PE-1S Panamericana Sur runs parallel to it. The main concentration of designs is in a 10 by 4 km (6 mi by 2 mi) rectangle, south of San Miguel de la Pascana hamlet. In this area, the most notable geoglyphs are visible.Although some local geoglyphs resemble Paracas motifs, scholars believe the Nazca Lines were created by the Nazca culture.RediscoveryThe first published mention of the Nazca Lines was by Pedro Cieza de León in his book of 1553, and he described them as trail markers.In 1586, Luis Monzón reported having seen ancient ruins in Peru, including the remains of "roads".Although the lines were partially visible from nearby hills, the first to report them in the 20th century were Peruvian military and civilian pilots. In 1927 Peruvian archaeologist Toribio Mejía Xesspe spotted them while he was hiking through the foothills. He discussed them at a conference in Lima in 1939.Paul Kosok, an American historian from Long Island University in New York, is credited as the first scholar to study the Nazca Lines in depth. While in Peru in 1940–41 to study ancient irrigation systems, he flew over the lines and realized that one was in the shape of a bird. Another chance observation helped him see how lines converged on the horizon at the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. He began to study how the lines might have been created, as well as to try to determine their purpose. He was joined by archaeologist Richard P. Schaedel from the United States, and Maria Reiche, a German mathematician and archaeologist from Lima, to try to determine the purpose of the Nazca Lines. They proposed that the figures were designed as astronomical markers on the horizon to show where the sun and other celestial bodies rose on significant dates. Archaeologists, historians, and mathematicians have all tried to determine the purpose of the lines.Determining how they were made has been easier than determining why they were made. Scholars have theorized that the Nazca people could have used simple tools and surveying equipment to construct the lines. Archaeological surveys have found wooden stakes in the ground at the end of some lines, which supports this theory. One such stake was carbon-dated and was the basis for establishing the age of the design complex.Joe Nickell, an American investigator of the paranormal, religious artifacts, and folk mysteries, reproduced the figures in the early 21st century by using the same tools and technology that would have been available to the Nazca people. In so doing, he refuted the 1969 hypothesis of Erich von Däniken, who suggested that "ancient astronauts" had constructed these works. Scientific American characterized Nickell's work as "remarkable in its exactness" when compared to the existing lines. With careful planning and simple technologies, Nickell proved that a small team of people could recreate even the largest figures within days, without any aerial assistance.Most of the lines are formed on the ground by a shallow trench, with a depth between 10 and 15 cm (4 and 6 in). Such trenches were made by removing for a portion of the design, the reddish-brown, iron oxide-coated pebbles that cover the surface of the Nazca Desert. When this gravel is removed, the light-colored clay earth exposed in the bottom of the trench contrasts sharply in color and tone with the surrounding land surface, producing visible lines. This sub-layer contains high amounts of lime. With moisture from morning mist, it hardens to form a protective layer that shields the lines from winds, thereby preventing erosion.The Nazca used this technique to "draw" several hundred simple, but huge, curvilinear animal and human figures. In total, the earthwork project is huge and complex: the area encompassing the lines is nearly 450 km2 (170 sq mi), and the largest figures can span nearly 370 m (1,200 ft). Some figures have been measured: the hummingbird is 93 m (305 ft) long, the condor is 134 m (440 ft), the monkey is 93 by 58 m (305 by 190 ft), and the spider is 47 m (154 ft). The extremely dry, windless, and constant climate of the Nazca region has preserved the lines well. This desert is one of the driest on Earth and maintains a temperature near 25 °C (77 °F) year round. The lack of wind has helped keep the lines uncovered and visible.The discovery of two new small figures was announced in early 2011 by a Japanese team from Yamagata University. One of these resembles a human head and is dated to the early period of Nazca culture or earlier. The other, undated, is an animal. The team has been conducting fieldwork there since 2006, and by 2012 has found approximately 100 new geoglyphs. In March 2012, the university announced that it would open a new research center at the site in September 2012, related to a longterm project to study the area for the next 15 years.A June 2019 article in Smithsonian magazine describes recent work by a multi-disciplinary team of Japanese researchers who identified/re-identified some of the birds depicted. They note that birds are the animals most frequently depicted in the Nasca geoglyphs. The team believes that some of the bird images that previous researchers assumed to be indigenous species more closely resemble exotic birds found in non-desert habitats. They speculated that "The reason exotic birds were depicted in the geoglyphs instead of indigenous birds is closely related to the purpose of the etching process."The discovery of 143 new geoglyphs on the Nasca Pampa and in the surrounding area was announced in 2019 by Yamagata University and IBM Japan. One of these was found by using machine-learning-based methods.Lines forming the shape of a cat were discovered on a hill in 2020. The figure is on a steep slope prone to erosion, explaining why it had not previously been discovered until archaeologists carefully revealed the image. Drones are revealing sites for further research.PurposeNazca Lines seen from SPOT SatelliteAnthropologists, ethnologists, and archaeologists have studied the ancient Nazca culture to try to determine the purpose of the lines and figures. One hypothesis is that the Nazca people created them to be seen by deities in the sky.Paul Kosok and Maria Reiche advanced a purpose related to astronomy and cosmology, as has been common in monuments of other ancient cultures: the lines were intended to act as a kind of observatory, to point to the places on the distant horizon where the sun and other celestial bodies rose or set at the solstices. Many prehistoric indigenous cultures in the Americas and elsewhere constructed earthworks that combined such astronomical sighting with their religious cosmology, as did the late Mississippian culture at Cahokia and other sites in present-day United States. Another example is Stonehenge in England. Newgrange in Ireland has tombs that are oriented to admit light at the winter solstice.Gerald Hawkins and Anthony Aveni, experts in archaeoastronomy, concluded in 1990 that the evidence was insufficient to support such an astronomical explanation.Maria Reiche asserted that some or all of the figures represented constellations. By 1998, Phyllis B. Pitluga, a protégé of Reiche and senior astronomer at the Adler Planetarium in Chicago, had concluded that the animal figures were "representations of heavenly shapes." According to The New York Times, Pitluga "contends they are not shapes of constellations, but of what might be called counter constellations, the irregularly-shaped dark patches within the twinkling expanse of the Milky Way." Anthony Aveni criticized her work for failing to account for all the details.[citation needed]Alberto Rossell Castro (1977) proposed a multi-functional interpretation of the geoglyphs. He classified them into three groups: the first appeared to be tracks connected to irrigation and field division, the second are lines that are axes connected with mounds and cairns, and the third was linked to astronomical interpretations.In 1985, archaeologist Johan Reinhard published archaeological, ethnographic, and historical data demonstrating that worship of mountains and other water sources predominated in Nazca religion and economy from ancient to recent times. He theorized that the lines and figures were part of religious practices involving the worship of deities associated with the availability of water, which directly related to the success and productivity of crops. He interpreted the lines as sacred paths leading to places where these deities could be worshiped. The figures were symbols representing animals and objects meant to invoke the aid of the deities in supplying water. The precise meanings of many of the individual geoglyphs remain unknown.Henri Stierlin, a Swiss art historian specializing in Egypt and the Middle East, published a book in 1983 linking the Nazca Lines to the production of ancient textiles that archeologists have found wrapping mummies of the Paracas culture. He contended that the people may have used the lines and trapezes as giant, primitive looms to fabricate the extremely long strings and wide pieces of textiles typical of the area. According to his theory, the figurative patterns (smaller and less common) were meant only for ritualistic purposes. This theory is not widely accepted, although scholars have noted similarities in patterns between the textiles and the Nazca Lines. They interpret these similarities as arising from the common culture.The first systematic field study of the geoglyphs was made by Markus Reindel and Johny Cuadrado Island. Since 1996, they have documented and excavated more than 650 sites. They compared the iconography of the lines to ceramics of the cultures. As archeologists, they believe that the figurative motifs of geoglyphs can be dated to having been made between 600 and 200 BCE.Based on the results of geophysical investigations and the observation of geological faults, Johnson argued that some geoglyphs followed the paths of aquifers from which aqueducts (or puquios) collected water.Nicola Masini and Giuseppe Orefici have conducted research in Pampa de Atarco, about 10 km (6 mi) south of Pampa de Nasca, which they believe reveals a spatial, functional and religious relationship between these geoglyphs and the temples of Cahuachi. In particular, using remote sensing techniques (from satellite to drone based remote sensing), they investigated and found "five groups of geoglyphs, each of them characterized by a specific motif and shape, and associated with a distinct function." They identified a ceremonial one, characterized by meandering motifs. Another is related to calendrical purpose, as proved by the presence of radial centers aligned along the directions of winter solstice and equinox sunset. As have earlier scholars, the two Italians believe that the geoglyphs were the venues of events linked to the agriculture calendar. These also served to strengthen social cohesion among various groups of pilgrims, sharing common ancestors and religious beliefs.Alternative explanationsSatellite picture of an area containing lines: north is to the right (coordinates: 14°43′S 75°08′W)Other theories were that the geometric lines could indicate water flow or irrigation schemes, or be a part of rituals to "summon" water. The spiders, birds, and plants may be fertility symbols. It also has been theorized that the lines could act as an astronomical calendar.Phyllis Pitluga, senior astronomer at the Adler Planetarium and a protégé of Reiche, performed computer-aided studies of star alignments. She asserted the giant spider figure is an anamorphic diagram of the constellation Orion. She further suggested that three of the straight lines leading to the figure were used to track the changing declinations of the three stars of Orion's Belt. In a critique of her analysis, Dr. Anthony F. Aveni noted she did not account for the other 12 lines of the figure.Machu PicchuMachu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel, located in the Eastern Cordillera of southern Peru, on a 2,430-metre (7,970 ft) mountain ridge. It is located in the Machupicchu District within Urubamba Province above the Sacred Valley, which is 80 kilometres (50 mi) northwest of Cuzco. The Urubamba River flows past it, cutting through the Cordillera and creating a canyon with a tropical mountain climate.Quick Facts: Location, Coordinates ...For most speakers of English or Spanish, the first 'c' in Picchu is silent. In English, the name is pronounced /ˌmɑːtʃuː piːtʃuː/ or /ˌmɑːtʃuː piːktʃuː/, in Spanish as [ˈmatʃu ˈpitʃu] or [ˈmatʃu ˈpiktʃu], and in Quechua (Machu Pikchu) as [ˈmatʃʊ ˈpɪktʃʊ].Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was constructed as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti (1438–1472). Often mistakenly referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas", it is the most familiar icon of Inca civilization. The Incas built the estate around 1450 but abandoned it a century later at the time of the Spanish conquest. Although known locally, it was not known to the Spanish during the colonial period and remained unknown to the outside world until American historian Hiram Bingham brought it to international attention in 1911.Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls. Its three primary structures are the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. Most of the outlying buildings have been reconstructed in order to give tourists a better idea of how they originally appeared. By 1976, 30% of Machu Picchu had been restored and restoration continues.Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historic Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide internet poll.EtymologyIn the Quechua language, machu means "old" or "old person", while pikchu means either "portion of coca being chewed" or "pyramid, pointed multi-sided solid; cone". Thus the name of the site is sometimes interpreted as "old mountain".HistoryMachu Picchu is believed (by Richard L. Burger) to be built starting 1450–1460.[page needed] Construction appears to date from two great Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui (1438–1471) and Túpac Inca Yupanqui (1472–1493).:xxxvi There is a consensus among archaeologists that Pachacutec ordered the construction of the royal estate for himself, most likely after a successful military campaign. Though Machu Picchu is considered to be a "royal" estate, surprisingly, it would not have been passed down in the line of succession. Rather it was used for 80 years before being abandoned, seemingly because of the Spanish Conquests in other parts of the Inca Empire.[page needed] It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travelers before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area.Daily life in Machu PicchuDuring its use as a royal estate, it is estimated that about 750 people lived there, with most serving as support staff (yanaconas, yana)[page needed] who lived there permanently. Though the estate belonged to Pachacutec, religious specialists and temporary specialized workers (mayocs) lived there as well, most likely for the ruler's well-being and enjoyment. During the harsher season, staff dropped down to around a hundred servants and a few religious specialists focused on maintenance alone.Studies show that according to their skeletal remains, most people who lived there were immigrants from diverse backgrounds. They lacked the chemical markers and osteological markers they would have if they had been living there their whole lives. Instead, there was bone damage from various species of water parasites indigenous to different areas of Peru. There were also varying osteological stressors and varying chemical densities suggesting varying long-term diets characteristic of specific regions that were spaced apart. These diets are composed of varying levels of maize, potatoes, grains, legumes, and fish, but the overall most recent short-term diet for these people was composed of less fish and more corn. This suggests that several of the immigrants were from more coastal areas and moved to Machu Picchu where corn was a larger portion of food intake. Most skeletal remains found at the site had lower levels of arthritis and bone fractures than those found in most sites of the Inca Empire. Inca individuals who had arthritis and bone fractures were typically those who performed heavy physical labor (such as the Mit'a) or served in the Inca military.AgriculturAnimals are also suspected to have migrated to Machu Picchu as there were several bones found that were not native to the area. Most animal bones found were from llamas and alpacas. These animals naturally live at altitudes of 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) rather than the 2,400 metres (7,900 ft) elevation of Machu Picchu. Most likely, these animals were brought in from the Puna region for meat consumption and for their pelts. Guinea pigs were also found at the site in special burial caves, suggesting that they were at least used for funerary rituals,[page needed] as it was common throughout the Inca Empire to use them for sacrifices and meat. Six dogs were also recovered from the site. Due to their placements among the human remains, it is believed that they served as companions of the dead.AgricultureMuch of the farming done at Machu Picchu was done on its hundreds of man-made terraces. These terraces were a work of considerable engineering, built to ensure good drainage and soil fertility while also protecting the mountain itself from erosion and landslides. However, the terraces were not perfect, as studies of the land show that there were landslides that happened during the construction of Machu Picchu. Still visible are places where the terraces were shifted by landslides and then stabilized by the Inca as they continued to build around the area.It is estimated that the area around the site has received more than 1,800 mm (71 in) of rain per year since AD 1450, which was more than needed to support crop growth there. Because of the large amount of rainfall at Machu Picchu, it was found that irrigation was not needed for the terraces. The terraces received so much rain that they were built by Incan engineers specifically to allow for ample drainage of the extra water. Excavation and soil analyses done by Kenneth Wright in the 1990s showed that the terraces were built in layers, with a bottom layer of larger stones covered by loose gravel. On top of the gravel was a layer of mixed sand and gravel packed together, with rich topsoil covering all of that. It was shown that the topsoil was probably moved from the valley floor to the terraces because it was much better than the soil higher up the mountain.[page needed]However, it has been found that the terrace farming area makes up only about 4.9 ha (12 acres) of land, and a study of the soil around the terraces showed that what was grown there was mostly corn and potatoes, which was not enough to support the 750+ people living at Machu Picchu. This explains why when studies were done on the food that the Inca ate at Machu Picchu, it was found that most of what they ate was imported from the surrounding valleys and farther afield.EncountersEven though Machu Picchu was located only about 80 kilometers (50 mi) from the Inca capital in Cusco, the Spanish never found it and so did not plunder or destroy it, as they did many other sites.:xxx The conquistadors had notes of a place called Piccho, although no record of a Spanish visit exists. Unlike other locations, sacred rocks often defaced by the conquistadors remain untouched at Machu Picchu.Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have been discovered and plundered in 1867 by a German businessman, Augusto Berns. Some evidence indicates that the German engineer J. M. von Hassel arrived earlier. Maps show references to Machu Picchu as early as 1874.In 1911 American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham traveled the region looking for the old Inca capital and was led to Machu Picchu by a villager, Melchor Arteaga. Bingham found the name Agustín Lizárraga and the date 1902 written in charcoal on one of the walls. Though Bingham was not the first to visit the ruins, he was considered the scientific discoverer who brought Machu Picchu to international attention. Bingham organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation.:xxx–xxxi[non-primary source needed]In 1981, Peru declared an area of 325.92 square kilometres (125.84 sq mi) surrounding Machu Picchu a "historic sanctuary". In addition to the ruins, the sanctuary includes a large portion of the adjoining region, rich with the flora and fauna of the Peruvian Yungas and Central Andean wet puna ecoregions.In 1983, UNESCO designated Machu Picchu a World Heritage site, describing it as "an absolute masterpiece of architecture and a unique testimony to the Inca civilization".First American expeditionBingham was a lecturer at Yale University, although not a trained archaeologist. In 1909, returning from the Pan-American Scientific Congress in Santiago, he travelled through Peru and was invited to explore the Inca ruins at Choqquequirau in the Apurímac Valley. He organized the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition in part to search for the Inca capital, which was thought to be the city of Vitcos. He consulted Carlos Romero, one of the chief historians in Lima who showed him helpful references and Father Antonio de la Calancha’s Chronicle of the Augustinians. In particular, Ramos thought Vitcos was "near a great white rock over a spring of fresh water." Back in Cusco again, Bingham asked planters about the places mentioned by Calancha, particularly along the Urubamba River. According to Bingham, "one old prospector said there were interesting ruins at Machu Picchu," though his statements "were given no importance by the leading citizens." Only later did Bingham learn that Charles Wiener also heard of the ruins at Huayna Picchu and Machu Picchu, but was unable to reach them.Armed with this information the expedition went down the Urubamba River. En route, Bingham asked local people to show them Inca ruins, especially any place described as having a white rock over a spring.:137[non-primary source needed]At Mandor Pampa, Bingham asked farmer and innkeeper Melchor Arteaga if he knew of any nearby ruins. Arteaga said he knew of excellent ruins on the top of Huayna Picchu. The next day, 24 July, Arteaga led Bingham and Sergeant Carrasco across the river on a log bridge and up the Huayna Picchu mountain. At the top of the mountain, they came across a small hut occupied by a couple of Quechua, Richard and Alvarez, who were farming some of the original Machu Picchu agricultural terraces that they had cleared four years earlier. Alvarez's 11-year-old son, Pablito, led Bingham along the ridge to the main ruins.The ruins were mostly covered with vegetation except for the cleared agricultural terraces and clearings used by the farmers as vegetable gardens. Because of the vegetation, Bingham was not able to observe the full extent of the site. He took preliminary notes, measurements, and photographs, noting the fine quality of Inca stonework of several principal buildings. Bingham was unclear about the original purpose of the ruins, but decided that there was no indication that it matched the description of Vitcos.:141, 186–187[non-primary source needed]The expedition continued down the Urubamba and up the Vilcabamba Rivers examining all the ruins they could find. Guided by locals, Bingham rediscovered and correctly identified the site of the old Inca capital, Vitcos (then called Rosaspata), and the nearby temple of Chuquipalta. He then crossed a pass and into the Pampaconas Valley where he found more ruins heavily buried in the jungle undergrowth at Espíritu Pampa, which he named "Trombone Pampa". As was the case with Machu Picchu, the site was so heavily overgrown that Bingham could only note a few of the buildings. In 1964, Gene Savoy further explored the ruins at Espiritu Pampa and revealed the full extent of the site, identifying it as Vilcabamba Viejo, where the Incas fled after the Spanish drove them from Vitcos.:xxxv[non-primary source needed]Bingham returned to Machu Picchu in 1912 under the sponsorship of Yale University and National Geographic again and with the full support of Peruvian President Leguia. The expedition undertook a four-month clearing of the site with local labour, which was expedited with the support of the Prefect of Cuzco. Excavation started in 1912 with further excavation undertaken in 1914 and 1915. Bingham focused on Machu Picchu because of its fine Inca stonework and well-preserved nature, which had lain undisturbed since the site was abandoned. None of Bingham's several hypotheses explaining the site held up. During his studies, he carried various artifacts back to Yale. One prominent artifact was a set of 15th-century, ceremonial Incan knives made from bismuth bronze; they are the earliest known artifact containing this alloy.Although local institutions initially welcomed the exploration, they soon accused Bingham of legal and cultural malpractice. Rumors arose that the team was stealing artifacts and smuggling them out of Peru through Bolivia. (In fact, Bingham removed many artifacts, but openly and legally; they were deposited in the Yale University Museum. Bingham was abiding by the 1852 Civil Code of Peru; the code stated that "archaeological finds generally belonged to the discoverer, except when they had been discovered on private land." (Batievsky 100) ) Local press perpetuated the accusations, claiming that the excavation harmed the site and deprived local archaeologists of knowledge about their own history. Landowners began to demand rent from the excavators. By the time Bingham and his team left Machu Picchu, locals had formed coalitions to defend their ownership of Machu Picchu and its cultural remains, while Bingham claimed the artifacts ought to be studied by experts in American institutions.Human sacrifice and mysticismLittle information describes human sacrifices at Machu Picchu, though many sacrifices were never given a proper burial, and their skeletal remains succumbed to the elements. However, there is evidence that retainers were sacrificed to accompany a deceased noble in the afterlife.:107, 119 Animal, liquid and dirt sacrifices to the gods were more common, made at the Altar of the Condor. The tradition is upheld by members of the New Age Andean religion.:263GeographyMachu Picchu lies in the southern hemisphere, 13.164 degrees south of the equator. It is 80 kilometres (50 miles) northwest of Cusco, on the crest of the mountain Machu Picchu, located about 2,430 metres (7,970 feet) above mean sea level, over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) lower than Cusco, which has an elevation of 3,400 metres (11,200 ft). As such, it had a milder climate than the Inca capital. It is one of the most important archaeological sites in South America, one of the most visited tourist attractions in Latin America and the most visited in Peru.Machu Picchu features wet humid summers and dry frosty winters, with the majority of the annual rain falling from October through to March.Machu Picchu is situated above a bow of the Urubamba River, which surrounds the site on three sides, where cliffs drop vertically for 450 metres (1,480 ft) to the river at their base. The area is subject to morning mists rising from the river. The location of the city was a military secret, and its deep precipices and steep mountains provided natural defenses. The Inca Bridge, an Inca grass rope bridge, across the Urubamba River in the Pongo de Mainique, provided a secret entrance for the Inca army. Another Inca bridge was built to the west of Machu Picchu, the tree-trunk bridge, at a location where a gap occurs in the cliff that measures 6 metres (20 ft).The city sits in a saddle between the two mountains Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu, with a commanding view down two valleys and a nearly impassable mountain at its back. It has a water supply from springs that cannot be blocked easily. The hillsides leading to it were terraced, to provide more farmland to grow crops and to steepen the slopes that invaders would have to ascend. The terraces reduced soil erosion and protected against landslides. Two high-altitude routes from Machu Picchu cross the mountains back to Cusco, one through the Sun Gate, and the other across the Inca bridge. Both could be blocked easily, should invaders approach along them.Machu Picchu and other sites in the area are built over earthquake faults. This may not be a coincidence, according to 2019 research: "One simple answer, researchers now suggest, is that that’s where building materials for the site — large amounts of already fractured rock — were readily available."SiteThe site is roughly divided into an urban sector and an agricultural sector, and into an upper town and a lower town. The temples are in the upper town, the warehouses in the lower.The architecture is adapted to the mountains. Approximately 200 buildings are arranged on wide parallel terraces around an east–west central square. The various compounds, called kanchas, are long and narrow in order to exploit the terrain. Sophisticated channeling systems provided irrigation for the fields. Stone stairways set in the walls allowed access to the different levels across the site. The eastern section of the city was probably residential. The western, separated by the square, was for religious and ceremonial purposes. This section contains the Torreón, the massive tower which may have been used as an observatory.Located in the first zone are the primary archaeological treasures: the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun and the Room of the Three Windows. These were dedicated to Inti, their sun god and greatest deity.The Popular District, or Residential District, is the place where the lower-class people lived. It includes storage buildings and simple houses.The royalty area, a sector for the nobility, is a group of houses located in rows over a slope; the residence of the amautas (wise persons) was characterized by its reddish walls, and the zone of the ñustas (princesses) had trapezoid-shaped rooms. The Monumental Mausoleum is a carved statue with a vaulted interior and carved drawings. It was used for rites or sacrifices.The Guardhouse is a three-sided building, with one of its long sides opening onto the Terrace of the Ceremonial Rock. The three-sided style of Inca architecture is known as the wayrona style.In 2005 and 2009, the University of Arkansas made detailed laser scans of the entire site and of the ruins at the top of the adjacent Huayna Picchu mountain. The scan data is available online for research purposes.Temple of the Sun or TorreonThis semicircular temple is built on the same rock overlying Bingham's "Royal Mausoleum", and is similar to the Temple of the Sun found in Cusco and the Temple of the Sun found in Pisac, in having what Bingham described as a "parabolic enclosure wall". The stonework is of ashlar quality. Within the temple is a 1.2 m by 2.7 m rock platform, smooth on top except for a small platform on its southwest quadrant. A "Serpent's Door" faces 340°, or just west of north, opening onto a series of 16 pools, and affording a view of Huayna Picchu. The temple also has two trapezoidal windows, one facing 65°, called the "Solstice Window", and the other facing 132°, called the "Qullqa Window". The northwest edge of the rock platform points out the Solstice Window to within 2’ of the 15th century June solstice rising Sun. For comparison, the angular diameter of the Sun is 32'. The Inca constellation Qullca, storehouse, can be viewed out the Qullqa Window at sunset during the 15th-century June Solstice, hence the window's name. At the same time, the Pleaides are at the opposite end of the sky. Also seen through this window on this night are the constellations Llamacnawin, Llama, Unallamacha, Machacuay, and the star Pachapacariq Chaska (Canopus).Hopes it helps you