Key Authorization Form, Pdf - The Department Of Biology - University Of: Fill & Download for Free

This is a good question, let's enumerate some important laws which came in the newspapers in the past 12 months.We shall make this post crowd-sourced. And we are planning to reward our contributors by giving them credits* -Detailed Well Presented 100 word Explanation - 2000Giving Valid Links and a Small Brief - 1000Giving Names of New Laws - 500Contributors (As of now) - Jai Parimi, Divya Malika, Prasanna, Ashutosh Pandey, Arihant Pawariya (अरिहंत पावङिया), Divya Choudhary (दिव्या चौधरी), Varsha Singh, Priyanka Peeramsetty, User, Gaurav Kumar, Jagannadh, Arpit Pareek, Nikhil Deshmukh, Harshit Ladva1) The National Judicial Appointments Commission Bill, 2014 and the 99th Constitutional AmendmentA bill to provide for the composition of the Judicial Appointments Commission for the purpose of recommending persons for appointment as Chief Justice of India and other Judges of the Supreme Court, Chief Justices and other Judges of High Courts, its functions, procedure to be followed by it and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.Key Issues and AnalysisThe current method of appointments has been examined by various bodies including the Law Commission and the Parliamentary Standing Committee. They vary in the role of the executive and judiciary in making appointments of judges.The composition of the JAC has not been included in the Constitution, but has been left for Parliament to decide by law. This implies that modifying the composition of the JAC would not require a constitutional amendment, but may be altered by a simple majority in Parliament.The Standing Committee examining the JAC Bill has recommended that (i) the JAC be composed of three eminent persons, (ii) the broad parameters for short listing of candidates for HC appointments be laid down in the Bill, and (iii) the center also consider the setting up of state level appointments commissions comprising the Chief Minister, the Chief Justice of HC and the Leader of Opposition.2) Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Reservation Act, 2013Objective - The principle objective of the new bill is fair compensation, thorough resettlement and rehabilitation of those affected, adequate safeguards for their well-being and complete transparency in the process of land acquisition. The title has been amended to reflect this.Need - There is unanimity of opinion across the social and political spectrum that the Old Law (The Land Acquisition Act 1894) suffers from various shortcomings and is outdated. Some of these include Forced acquisitions, No safeguards, Silent on resettlement and rehabilitation of those displaced, Urgency clause, Low rates of compensation, Litigation. To say the least, the Old Act needs to be replaced at the earliest by fair, reasonable and rational enactment in tune with the constitutional provisions, particularly, Article 300A of the Constitution.Link - Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 20133) Companies Act, 2013 (CSR Pref)Objective - Effective from financial year 2014-15, every company, private limited or public limited, which either has a net worth of Rs 500 crore or a turnover of Rs 1,000 crore or net profit of Rs 5 crore, needs to spend at least 2% of its average net profit for the immediately preceding three financial years on corporate social responsibility activities.Impact - The CSR activities undertaken by the companies will benefit hunger and poverty eradication, promoting preventive healthcare, promoting education and promoting gender equality, setting up homes for women, orphans and the senior citizens, measures for reducing inequalities faced by socially and economically backward groups, ensuring environmental sustainability and ecological balance, animal welfare, protection of national heritage and art and culture and many more.Link - Companies Act, 2013, Companies - It's a good articlePRSIndia– This describes the whole of companies act – Checkpoint 135 for CSR4) Right to Information Act (RTI), 2005Objective - Landmark bill, which realized the Right to seek and access Information in line with the interpretation of Art.19(1)(a) of our constitution.Impact - Champion to ensure Transparency and accountability in the governance procedures. it enforces the right of every citizen of India to have an access to the information regarding any money given by the State to any authority, thereby causing such authority to utilize such money reasonably and judiciously and also for keeping a check over their conduct and indulgence in corrupt activities. In 2002, SC’s verdict gave the citizens have a right to know about charges against candidates for elections as well as details of their assets, since they desire to offer themselves for public service and public servants cannot claim exemption from disclosure of charges against them or details of their assets. It is a powerful tool which can be realised in changing social dynamics and needs.Criticism - Debates regarding the ambit of RTI’s scope have been articulated, to be extended, say to the political parties, temples, schools and also privatized public utility companies. Evidences of misusage have come to the limelight, say Naxalites using RTI’s to check the assets of local landlords to loot themGuide to RTI : Page on rti.gov.in5) Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Act, 2005Objective - The SEZ Act is expected to give a big thrust to exports and consequently to the foreign direct investment (“FDI”) inflows into India, and is considered to be one of the finest pieces of legislation that may well represent the future of the industrial development strategy in India. The new law is aimed at encouraging PPP to develop world-class infrastructure and attract private investment (domestic and foreign), boosting economic growth, exports and employmentImpact - The government gets the capital needed to establish the required infrastructure and also the expertise. SEZ’s with relaxed import tariffs help the Import dependent and export driven industries to flourish. SEZ’s create immense employment opportunities and improve the country’s foreign export.Criticism - Practical implementation witnesses several backlogs ranging from regional disparities, grabbing arable land, labour laws issues and supply chain management which fail to be addressed effectively through the bill6) Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013Objective -The government introduced the Bill to redefine the offence of rape and amend the penal laws in line with the recommendations of the Law Commission and the National Commission for Women. The government withdrew the previous Bill and Ordinance, and introduced the Criminal Law (Amendment) Bill, 2013. The changes wrt the ordinance in the act are:Impact - Popularly known as the Anti-rape bill, this came out of the protests of 2012 Delhi Gang rape case.Criticism - For not including certain suggestions recommended by the Verma Committee Report like, marital rape, reduction of age of consent, amending Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act.Some detailed work: http://www.atimysore.gov.in/workshops/wppts/gender_issues/crim_law_amnd_2013_drjagadeesh_jsslaw_college.pdf7) Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013Objective - To provide protection against sexual harassment of women at workplace and for the prevention and redressal of complaints of sexual harassment and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. the protection against sexual harassment and the right to work with dignity are universally recognized human rightsImpact - On a broader line, this ensures safe work environment for women against sexual abuse at work place and is capable of garnering a greater female work force and these are the Major features the act provides for.Criticism - It does not cover women in the armed forces and excludes women agricultural workers, "a gross injustice to agricultural workers. The burden of proof is on the women who complain of harassment. If found guilty of making a false complaint or giving false evidence, she could be prosecuted, which has raised concerns about women being even more afraid of reporting offences. Furthermore, the law requires a third-party NGO to be involved, which could make employers less comfortable in reporting grievances, due to confidentiality concerns.8) DNA Profiling Bill, 2012Purpose - DNA analysis makes it possible to determine whether the source of origin of one body substance is identical to that of another, and further to establish the biological relationship, if any, between two individuals, living or dead without any doubt.Tip - Lawful purposes of establishing identity in criminal or civil proceedings.Impact - It will be essential to establish standards for laboratories, staff qualifications, training, proficiency testing, collection of body substances, custody trail from collection to reporting and a Data Bank with policies of use and access to information therein, its retention and deletion.DNA Data Bank Manager will supervise, execute and maintain this system and a DNA Profiling Board of eminent scientists, administrators and Law enforcement officers will administer and carry out other functions assigned to it under this Act.Link - DNA Profiling Bill - PDF9) Nuclear Safety Regulatory Authority Bill, 2011Purpose - So far, India has excellent record in nuclear safety and radiation safety; but the Central Government intends to promote nuclear energy to meet shortfall in total energy requirement of the country; and whereas such excellent safety record in nuclear safety and radiation safety is required to be sustained for growth in the nuclear energy sector.Impact - Now, therefore, it has been considered necessary and expedient to establish regulators to ensure continued excellence in nuclear safety and radiation safety in all applications of radiation and atomic energy on a large scale.10) Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Bill, 2010Purpose - As the name itself indicates that it is an Act to provide for civil liability for nuclear damage and prompt compensation to the victims of a nuclear incident through a no-fault liability regime channeling liability to the operator.Impact - Appointment of Claims Commissioner, establishment of Nuclear Damage Claims Commission connected there with.11) IT Act, 2000 and IT (Amendment) Bill, 2006Purpose - It is an Act to provide legal recognition for the transactions carried out by means of electronic data interchange and other means of electronic communication, commonly referred to as "Electronic Commerce", which involve the use of alternatives to paper based methods of communication and storage of information, to facilitate electronic filings of documents with the Government and other related agencies.Tip - It is renamed as the Information Technology Act, 2008Impact - To promote efficient delivery of Government services by means of reliable electronic records.12) National Green Tribunal Bill, 2009Purpose - For the effective disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including enforcement of any legal rights relating to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property.Impact - National Green Tribunal law is enacted in view of the involvement of multi-disciplinary issues relating to the environment and also to implement the decisions taken at Rio de Janeiro and Stockholm Conferences.Link - NGT Bill - PDF13) Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969Objective - It is designed to ensure that the operation of the economic system does not result in concentration of the economic power to the common detriment.The act also provides for probation of monopolistic, unfair and restrictive trade practices.Impact - The MRTP Commission if on enquiry concludes that the practice under consideration is of restrictive or unfair in nature , it may:Order discontinuation of the practice and restrict its repetition (cease and desist order ), the agreement shall be void and shall stand modified as may specified in the order. It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.Link - MRTP Act, 196914) Mines and Minerals (Development & Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2008(Coal scam and SC verdict, so important)Objective - To develop and regulate mining & mineral industries and bring it under the control of one union by setting up mineral funds on National level, granting concessions, share benefit schemes while preventing illegal mining.Impact - Safeguards on regulating and safe disposal of waste in consonance with environmental norms will be incorporated. Through implementation of proper taxing and speedy approvals on action against violations illegal mining will be preventedLink - Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill 200815) Whistleblower Protection Bill, 2011It seeks to establish a mechanism to register complaints on any allegations of corruption or wilful misuse of power against a public servant. The Bill also provides safeguards against victimisation of the person who makes the complaint.Highlights of the BillThe Bill seeks to protect whistleblowers, i.e. persons making a public interest disclosure related to an act of corruption, misuse of power, or criminal offence by a public servant.The Vigilance Commission shall not disclose the identity of the complainant except to the head of the department if he deems it necessary. The Bill penalises any person who has disclosed the identity of the complainant.Key Issues and AnalysisThe Bill aims to balance the need to protect honest officials from undue harassment with protecting persons making a public interest disclosure. It punishes any person making false complaints. However, it does not provide any penalty for victimizing a complainant.16) Juvenile Justice(Care and Protection) Bill 2014Objectives: The Bill seeks to achieve the objectives of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children. It specifies procedural safeguards in cases of children in conflict with law. It seeks to address challenges in the existing Act such as delays in adoption processes, high pendency of cases, accountability of institutions, etc. The Bill further seeks to address children in the 16-18 age group, in conflict with law, as an increased incidence of crimes committed by them have been reported over the past few years.Coverage: The Bill defines a child as anyone less than 18 years of age. However, a special provision has been inserted for the possibility of trying 16-18 year old committing heinous offenses, as adults. A heinous offense is defined as one for which the minimum punishment under the Indian Penal Code is seven years.17) Citizens Charters & Grievance Redressal Bill, 2011. (CCGR)The Citizen's Charter and Grievance Redressal Bill 2011 also known as The Right of Citizens for Time Bound Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of their Grievances Bill, 2011 or Citizens Charter Bill was a proposed in Lok Sabha in December 2011. The bill lapsed due to dissolution of the 15th Lok Sabha.The Right of Citizens for Time Bound Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of their Grievances Bill, 2011 lays down obligations of every public authority towards citizens, specifying delivery of goods and services in a time-bound manner and providing for a grievance redressal mechanism for non-compliance of citizens charter.Highlights :The Bill makes it mandatory for every public authority to publish a Citizen’s Charter within six months of the commencement of the Act.The Citizen’s Charter shall list the details of the goods and services provided by a public authority; the name of the person or agency responsible for providing the goods or services; the time frame within which such goods or services have to be provided; the category of people entitled to the goods and services; and details of the complaint redressal mechanism.Grievance redress officer : It requires every public authority to designate grievance redress officers in all public offices to enquire into and redress any complaints from citizens in a timeframe not exceeding 30 days from the date of receipt of the complaint.Public Grievance Redressal Commissions : The Bill provides for constitution of the state public grievance redressal commission and the central public grievance redressal commission consisting of chief commissioners and other commissioners.Penalty : DA and Commission can impose fine of Max. Rs 50000 to concerned officials/GRO. The penalty shall be recovered from the salary of the official. Such penalty may be awarded as compensation to the appellant.Corruption Prevention : The Designated Authority and the Commissions may refer a matter to the appropriate authorities if there is prima facie evidence of a corrupt act under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988. An appeal against the decision of the Central Commission shall be filed before the Lokpal. An appeal against the decision of the State Commission shall be filed before the Lokayukta.Criticism :Against federal Spirit : Citizens’ charter bill provides for GRO and Grievances Commission at state and central level, but Parliament doesn’t not have jurisdiction to enact such law. Only State legislature has jurisdiction to make laws regarding state public services.More than ten states have already enacted a Citizen Charter Act or Public Services Guarantee Act in their respective states. Many of these state laws have provisions that are much better than the proposed Bill.Lack of Autonomy : According to the bill, the commissioners may be removed without judicial inquiry.Duplication of work : Several states have their own grievance redressal laws, The mechanism provided under these laws is different from that provided under the Bill. This will lead to duplication of work and organizations.MNREGA Act, RTE Act, National Food Security Bill, and the Public Procurement Bill also have their own grievances redressal forums. This will again lead to more duplication.Sources :Copy of Bill : Page on prsindia.orgSummery of Bill : Page on prsindia.orgWiki Page : Citizen's Charter and Grievance Redressal Bill 2011Mrual Page : Citizens Charter Bill 2011: Salient Features, Issues, CriticismRediff Page : All you need to know about the Citizen's Charter Bill18) Right to Education Act, 2009The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to Education Act (RTE), was enacted on 4 August 2009, which describes the rules and regulations for free and compulsory education of children between 6 and 14 under Article 21A of Constitution. India became one of 135 countries to make education a fundamental right of every child when the act came into force on 1 April 2010.Highlights :The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act 2009 stipulates that private schools reserve 25 per cent of seats at the entry level for children belonging to ‘disadvantaged groups’ and ‘weaker sections’.The Act also provides that no child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until the completion of elementary education. There is also a provision for special training of school drop-outs to bring them up to par with students of the same age.Mentally and physically challenged children, entitled to free education in special schools, were included in the definition through an amendment in 2012.It also prohibits all unrecognised schools from practice, and makes provisions for no donation or capitation fees and no interview of the child or parent for admissions.Criticism :The act has been criticised for being hastily-drafted, not consulting many groups active in education, not considering the quality of education, infringing on the rights of private and religious minority schools to administer their system, and for excluding children under six years of age.Problems faced :Poor Response : Lack of awareness about the Act, inability to meet the distance criteria and difficulty in obtaining necessary certificates from government authorities could be some of the reasons for this.The Act provides for admission of children without any certification. However, several states have continued pre-existing procedures insisting that children produce income and caste certificates, BPL cards and birth certificates.The Act is not applicable to private minority schools and boarding schools.Report on the status of implementation of the Act released by the Ministry of Human Resource Development admits that 8.1 million children in the age group six-14 remain out of school and there’s a shortage of 508,000 teachers country-wide.Conclusion :For all its flaws, the RTE Act is a progressive piece of legislation that aims to take education to the masses and fill the gaps in the social system.Sources :Copy of Act : Page on ssa.nic.inWiki page : Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education ActHindu Article : Advantages and disadvantages of RTE Act19) Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2013 (POSCO)Objective – The act aims at ensuring protection of children from sexual abuse.Pros –1. Gender Neutral bill. 53% victims of children are victims.2. Stringent punishment (upto life imprisonment)3. Covers broad range of sexual crimes such as non-penetrative sexual assault, sexual harassment, and the use of children for pornography4. Includes special procedures to prevent the re-victimisation of children at the hands of an insensitive justice delivery system5. Protects victims identity and provides assisting legal, medical and psychological facilitiesCons –1. Criminalises all consensual sexual contact below 18 years age.2. The age provision is not in consonance with other acts.3. Regressive and draconian considering today’s social realities. Children are increasingly aware of each others sexualities at early age.4. Child marriage is prevalent on large scale. The age provision ignores this reality. Liable to bogus and unjustified complaints.Source – The Hindu : Good Act, bad provision20) The Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Bill, 2013Objective – The act aims to combat corruption in government agencies and public sector businesses in India.Pros -1. Covers the offence of giving a bribe to a public servant under abetment. Specific provisions related to giving a bribe to a public servant, and giving a bribe by a commercial organisation.2. Redefines criminal misconduct to only cover misappropriation of property and possession of disproportionate assets.3. Modifies the definitions and penalties for offences related totaking a bribe, being a habitual offender and abetting an offence.4. Introduces Powers and procedures for the attachment and forfeiture of property of public servants accused of corruption.5. The Act requires prior sanction to prosecute serving public officials. The Bill extends this protection to former officials.Cons -1. The Bill makes giving a bribe a specific offence. There are diverging views on whether bribe giving under all circumstances must be penalised. Some have argued that a coerced bribe giver must be distinguished from a collusive bribe giver.2. The Bill has deleted the provision that protects a bribe giver from prosecution, for any statement made by him during a corruption trial. This may deter bribe givers from appearing as witnesses in court.3. The Bill has replaced the definition of criminal misconduct. It now requires that the intention to acquire assets disproportionate to income also be proved, in addition to possession of such assets. Thus, the threshold to establish the offence of possession of disproportionate assets has been increased by the Bill.4. By redefining the offence of criminal misconduct, the Bill does not cover circumstances where the public official: (i) uses illegal means, (ii) abuses his position, or (iii) disregards public interest and obtains a valuable thing or reward for himself or another person.5. Under the Act, the guilt of the person is presumed for the offences of taking a bribe, being a habitual offender or abetting an offence. The Bill amends this provision to only cover the offence of taking a bribe.Source - The Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Bill, 201321) Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) (Regulation) Bill 2010Objective – The bill aims at legalizing (commercial) surrogacy.Pros –1. Offers legal protection to child and surrogate mothers.2. Regulation of IVF/ART clinics and holding them Accountable for ensuring best medical practices.3. Curbs exploitation of mother. Limits number of child births per mother to five.4. Introduces age limit for surrogate mother – 21 to 35.5. Ensures Child’s citizenship to be same as parents.Cons –1. Legal back up will lead to widespread commercialization of surrogacy, posing serious ethical, moral and philosophical questions.2. Mandatory certificate ensuring legality of surrogacy in foreign couple’s home country needed. Impediments in smooth commercial functioning.3. No provision in the bill if parent’s change their mind or die. Child’s responsibility in this case is debatable.4. Plethora of in-genuine clinics in India. Exploitation of poor and illiterate mothers because of their incapability to understand legalities involved.Source - Issues of surrogacy, PIB English Features22) Biotechnology Regulatory Authority Bill, 2013Objective - The Bill sets up an independent authority, the Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India (BRAI), to regulate organisms and products of modern biotechnology.Pros –1. BRAI will regulate the research, transport, import, containment, environmental release, manufacture, and use of biotechnology products.2. Regulatory approval by BRAI will be granted through a multi-level process of assessment undertaken by scientific experts.3. BRAI will certify that the product developed is safe for its intended use. All other laws governing the product will continue to apply.4. A Biotechnology Regulatory Appellate Tribunal will hear civil cases that involve a substantial question relating to modern biotechnology and hear appeals on the decisions and orders of BRAI.5. Penalties are specified for providing false information to BRAI, conducting unapproved field trials, obstructing or impersonating an officer of BRAI and for contravening any other provisions of the Bill.Cons -1. The Tribunal has jurisdiction over a ‘substantial question relating to modern biotechnology’ – An ambiguous term.2. The Tribunal will consist of one judicial member and five technical members. This is not in conformity with a SC decision that the number of technical members on a bench of a Tribunal cannot exceed the number of judicial members.3. The Tribunal’s technical members shall be eminent scientists or government officials with experience in the field. It is unclear whether the technical expertise of the latter can be equated with the former.4. The Bill does not specify any liability for damage caused by a product of biotechnology. Therefore, it will remain open to the courts to determine liability arising out of any adverse impact of modern biotechnology.5. Tribunal will not accept complaints from civil society, in spite of the fact that the Bill directly or indirectly affects every citizen. No public consultation done.6. Non clarity over Dept of GoI that will service BRAI. No mention of mandatory labelling of GM crops.7. Takes away rights of states to decide on Agriculture, which is state subject.8. The Convener of the Selection Committee for members of BRAI will be from the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), which is a vendor of genetic engineering (the technology that BRAI is supposed to regulate) in the country. Conflict of Interest will arise.Source - The Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India Bill, 2013Unconstitutional, unethical, unscientific23) Coal Regulatory Authority Bill, 2013ObjectiveTo set up an independent regulatory body for the coal sector that shall help in the regulation and conservation of coal resources and will benefit all stakeholders i.e. - coal companies, coal consuming industries such as power, steel, cement and coal bearing States and people, directly or indirectly associated with the coal industry.A fund called ‘The Coal Regulatory Authority Fund” is created to credit all the receipts and fees received.Constituents1 chairperson + 4 members. One each from legal , technical , administrative and financial wings. All to be selected by a committee of Group of Ministers (GoM) headed by Cabinet Secretary.What will it do ?Inject transparency in allocation of coal blocks.Decide and Monitor operational norms and mining closure compliances and such.Determine pricing of the fuel and publishing surveys, information, statistics, etc related to coal sector and coal quality.Adjudicate disputes between entities and between entities and other persons.Advise government on technologies, policy, promotion, investment etc.Ref :- The Coal Regulatory Authority Bill, 2013,Coal Regulatory Authority Bill likely in Winter session24) eWaste (Management and Handling) Act, 2011What is it ?E-waste has beendefined as “waste electrical and electronic equipment, whole or in part or rejects from their manufacturing and repair process, which are intended to be discarded”.AIM :-Reduction in the use of hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment.Specifying threshold for use of hazardous material including lead, mercury and cadmium.Ministry of Environment & Forest (MoEF) thus introduces the concept of "Extended Producer Responsibility".How will it work ?It fixes responsibilities on every producer, seller, consumer or bulk consumer, collection centre, dismantler and recycler of e-waste involved in the manufacture, sale, purchase and processing of electrical and electronic equipment or components.E.g. :Recycling of E-Waste generated during manufacturing and "End of Life" of electronic and electrical equipments.Setting up of collection centres by companies or individuals to collect E-waste and discard them.Setting up of funds by corporate to boost scientific and eco-friendly disposal of E-waste.CritiqueNo accountability set on anyone.E-Industry remains skeptical of the efficacy of this act.No specific targets set.Ref :- @E-waste management rules kick in today@Page on moef.nic.in25) Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence Bill, 2011What is it ?The bill is intended to prevent “any act or series of acts, whether spontaneous or planned, resulting in injury or harm to the person and or property, knowingly directed against any person by virtue of his or her membership of any group."How ?The billAddresses identity-based or targeted crimes and organised mass violence as special offences.Places accountability of public officers with varying penalties for dereliction of duty it.Provides for the creation of a National Authority and the State authorities to ensure justice and reparation.Addresses issues faced by specific communities like economic boycott, denial of public service, forced migration , hostile environment etc.Empowers state and center government to intercept any messages and communication that it feels might lead to communal violence.Sets up district level authorities to assess compensation.CritiquesCurbing freedom of expression by terming it as Hate propaganda.Presumption of guilt and burden of proof on the accused – The accused will have to prove innocence.All the persons acting under this Act will have blanket of protection of action taken in good faith.Brings civil servants in direct line of fire by vaguely defining "dereliction of duty".26) Competition Act, 2002The Competition Act was passed in 2002Competition Commission of India (CCI) was established on March 1, 2009 as an autonomous body comprising of a Chairperson and six members.CCI not only hears and investigates cases based on the information received by it, but it also takes suo moto action wherever it finds that a prima facie violationCommission had taken suo-moto cognizance of the reported manipulation of the bids by manufacturers of LPG cylinders for supplying cylinders to the Indian Oil CorporationMany more such notices have been sent by CCI in the Petroleum sector, Agricuture sector etc. taking cognisance suo-moto.Role of trade associationsCompetition law treats the activities of trade associations much like any other form of cooperation between competitors.decisions or recommendations of trade associations are treated as agreements between its members and law may be breached even when they are not binding on the members.CCI imposed a nominal penalty of Rs. 1 lakh each on 27 film producers on charges of colluding through an association to exploit multiplex owners.number of cases involving the associations in the Pharmaceutical sector/Film production etc where CCI has passed orders against the associations and asked them to “cease and desist” from activities that may be anti-competitive in nature.Public Procurement and Competition LawPublic procurement is a contentious issue vis-à-vis application of competition lawpublic enterprises, which are generally the big procurers, are subject to competition assessment.Commission has decided a number of matters, including cartelization in government contracts. Penalties have been imposed on firms to discourage the anti-competitive practices and abuse of dominanceCompetition Commission of India is set to change the rules of the game and play the role of a watchdog to check anti-competitive practices in the markethttp://echoofindia.com/reflex-action/competition-commission-india-4-years-enforcement-competition-law-3216927) Prasar Bharati (Amendment) Bill, 201028) Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 200229) Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitaion Act, 2013. (Important, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan)30) Child Labour (Prohibition) Act, 198631) Scheduled Tribes and Recognition of Forest Rights Bill, 200632) Environment Protection Law, 198633) Wildlife Protection Act, 197234) The Electricity Act, 200335) Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas Act, 199636) Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 199237) Factories Act 1948/Amendment Bill 201438) Apprentice Act 1961/ Amendment Bill 201439) The Pension Fund Regulatory And Development Authority Act, 201340) The Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Bill, 201341) Benami Transaction (Prohibition )Act, 198842) The National Food Security Act, 201343) Pesticides Management Bill, 2008*Maximum Credits per Person - 5000**Contributors earning more than 1000 credits <must> -a) Promote to at least 100 people.b) Share this list everywhere. :P :P LOL !Thank you all. :)Thanks for the A2A Anon. :)

Wow! I wasn’t going to write an answer since I’m not “right” wing, but reading these answers, from what I presume to be left-wingers, describe the conservative movement as racists who support “white supremacy” really irritated me.Not because I want to defend conservatism, but because I’m tired of my country being divided by these self-righteous mountebanks.First things first:“American conservatism is a broad system of political beliefs in the United States that is characterized by respect for American traditions, republicanism, support for Judeo-Christian values, moral universalism, business (which lead them to support free trade when it is good for business), anti-communism, individualism, advocacy of American exceptionalism, and a defense of Western culture from the perceived threats posed by socialism, authoritarianism, and moral relativism.” Conservatism in the United States - WikipediaSpare me the Wikipedia ad hominem. Everyone and their grandmother knows you use it too.Now compare that to American liberalism:“Liberalism in the United States is a broad political philosophy centered on what many see as the unalienable rights of the individual. The fundamental liberal ideals of freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion for all belief systems, and the separation of church and state, right to due process, and equality under the law are widely accepted as common foundation across the spectrum of liberal thought.” Liberalism in the United States - WikipediaI recommend, at the LEAST, reading both of these Wikipedia web pages to get a better idea of the history and the differences of the two main systems of political thought in the United States.Political parties like the Republicans (associated with the color red, an elephant, and the right-wing) or the Democrats (associated with the color blue, a donkey, and the left-wing ) want the average citizen of the United States (you can’t even call yourself American without triggering half the world nowadays) to believe they are static creatures that can go up and down the political spectrum.The reality is we are multifaceted individuals that can swing to either side depending on the situation.These situations are based on self-interest and self-preservation.Two terms you should be familiar with to understand each end of this spectrum is radical and reactionary.A radical, in the politically minded sense of the word, is someone who wants to change society in a fundamental, perhaps extreme way.Maybe toppling a current political power or creating a new party. American abolitionism is a radical shift from laissez-faire, let do, keep all the slaves because it is good for the economy mindset.Let’s put our Wikipedia scholar hats back on for a more textbook definition of the word:“The term political radicalism (in political science known as radicalism denotes political principles focused on altering social structures through revolutionary or other means and changing value systems in fundamental ways.” Political radicalism - WikipediaEnding slavery in the United States is a textbook definition of radicalism because not only did it fuel a civil war, but it altered social structures that still exist today with Jim Crow Laws that “enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States,” indentured servitude, and perhaps even the Great Northward Migration when “six million African-Americans” moved out of “rural Southern United States to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West that occurred between 1916 and 1970.”[1][1][1][1]The origin story of the Republican party is a radical movement to stop the spread of slavery, to promote abolitionism in the United States.“The Republican Party began as a coalition of anti-slavery Conscience Whigs such as Zachariah Chandler and Free Soil Democrats such as Salmon P. Chase, who were opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Act…The act opened Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory to slavery and future admission as slave states, thus implicitly repealing the prohibition on slavery in territory north of 36°, 30′ latitude which had been part of the Missouri Compromise.” History of the United States Republican Party - WikipediaCheck out this map and notice the green line indicating the 36°, 30′ latitude; all that land above the green line would be opened to slavery if the people in those territories wanted it.Figure 1. “Map of the United States c. 1849 (modern state borders), with the parallel 36°30′ north – slave states in red, free states in blue” [2][2][2][2]This put the new Republicans in direct opposition to those on the other side of the spectrum—the reactionaries.A reactionary, again in the politically minded sense, is an individual who wants to return to the good ol’ days, the status quo.The Kansas-Nebraska act is an example of a reactionary policy that returns to a previous political mindset by overthrowing the radical policy of The Missouri Compromise.Here’s another Wiki definition for your reading pleasure:“In political science, a reactionary is a person who holds political views that favor a return to the status quo ante, the previous political state of society, which they believe possessed characteristics (economic prosperity, justice, individual ownership, discipline, respect for authority, etc.) that are negatively absent from the contemporary status quo of a society.” Reactionary - WikipediaDo you want to ban abortion in America? Then you can consider yourself a reactionary because you want to go back to a previous political policy that made terminating unwanted fetuses illegal.Do you support presidential candidate Andrew Yang on his Freedom Dividend of giving one-thousand U.S. dollars to all American citizens? Then you can consider yourself a radical because you want to alter a social structure in a fundamental way.Now you understand the two spectrums of the American political system: radical on the left, reactionary on the right.Figure 2: French Revolution Political Spectrum It says French because Americans take everything from the French: Statues of Liberty, French fries, and Political Spectrums ;)An easy way to remember which R is on which side is by reminding yourself of Radicals are blue because they want to change you and Reactionaries are red because they can’t make their beds. Stupid but it works for me.Some argue that this is a simplistic view of politics and that it doesn’t include for all the “existing variations.”“Political scientists have frequently noted that a single left-right axis is insufficient for describing the existing variation in political beliefs and often include other axes.” Political spectrum - WikipediaI don’t know. I’m not a political scientist. I just know it is easier to understand complicated material by simplifying it first then complicating it to scale to develop a further understanding that encompasses all the nitty-gritty bits.Are you going to study female biology before you ask the cute girl out? No! So let’s move on.With the abortion and Freedom Dividend examples above, you might think if you fall on one side of the spectrum for one issue you’ll keep falling for the same side for other issues.Let’s see.Do you believe universities should create areas where a person or a “category of people” don’t have to worry about being emotionally or physically harmed?“A place or environment in which a person or category of people can feel confident that they will not be exposed to discrimination, criticism, harassment, or any other emotional or physical harm.” Google FeedbackIf you think yes, then you’re a radical on the issue of safe spaces.Do you believe the United States should have a responsibility to open their borders to allow less privileged citizens from other countries in?If you think yes, then you might be considered a reactionary wanting to go back before the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 that limited immigrants, mainly Jews, in the U.S.“The Emergency Quota Act, also known as the Emergency Immigration Act of 1921… was actually formulated mainly in response to the large influx of Jews fleeing persecution in Eastern Europe and thus successfully restricted their immigration and that of other ‘undesirables’ into the United States…. it added two new features to American immigration law: numerical limits on immigration and the use of a quota system for establishing those limits.” Emergency Quota Act - WikipediaNow a right-winger is someone with a static political ideology cemented in conservatism.Perhaps they want to go back to defining marriage between a man and a woman and make abortion illegal again. But for the most part, they want to preserve the status quo not revert back to a previous status quo.Alt-righters are people with a political ideology cemented in reactionary policies: re-establishing a “whites” only nation, closed borders, zero intervention in other countries disputes, and racial purity except for Asians.The big take away is that alt-righters want to make their own country for only white people, similar to the black nationalist that want a country for only the descendants of former slaves with the difference being the black nationalist calling for a radical policy and white nationalists asking to go back to a previous reactionary one.Which brings us to the left and their tactics of polarizing political rivals to gain the upper hand.The United States is 60.7 % White out of a population of 327,167, 434 according to the 2018 United States Census Bureau.Figure 3: U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: UNITED STATESFor white liberals to gain an upper hand they have to convince the rest of the population that the white conservatives are these racist, sexist, horrible people.Don’t believe me? Look below this post and read for yourself some of the comments.“The Alt-Right says aloud what the Right-Wing is afraid to say, but more than willing to support.”Notice how this attack has no concrete examples only superfluous virtue signaling meant to demonize conservative people.Here’s a quote Richard Spencer said in July of 2014 at the Metrapolitics of America, “We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created unequal.”This popular Quoran should be ashamed of himself for trying to link conservatives who don’t want to be made to feel ashamed of their American culture to this man holding racist thoughts.Answer me this if other countries can be proud of their culture, then why can’t Americans feel proud of theirs without triggering those who feel a constant need to remind us that Canadians and Latinos are American too?What racist systemic policies are Republicans passing? Tight border patrol policies that detain parents crossing the country separating them from children? Okay, maybe insensitive, but most liberals AND conservatives didn’t agree with Trump hence, “President Trump signed an executive order reversing his policy of separating families — and replacing it with a policy of detaining entire families together, including children, but ignoring legal time limits on the detention of minors.”[3][3][3][3]But here’s a racist systemic policy left-wingers at Harvard passed to limit the amount of Asians at their institution.“The basic claim by the plaintiffs, a group representing Asian-American students rejected by Harvard, is that the university has systematically discriminated against Asian-Americans by holding them to a higher standard than other applicants. Harvard argues that in trying to compose a diverse class, it considers each applicant as an individual and does not discriminate.” The Harvard Bias Suit by Asian-Americans: 5 Key IssuesAll fair in love and diversity, right left-wingers? Keep in mind that Asians make up 5.8% of the population in America. Talk about attacking a tiny minority group.Left-wingers like the popular Quorans attacking popular right-winging Quorans completely ignore Blacks and Hispanics that either identify as Republican or lean towards Republican, convincing themselves that only white “racist” men voted for Trump. The reality is left-wingers only care about “minorities” in so much as they can get them to vote for their liberal amigos into office.How about Homophobic? Liberals accuse conservatives all the time of fearing members of the LGTBQ+, for example, Trump banning transgenders from serving in the military.They forget to mention many Republicans were against this decision including “John McCain, Susan Collins and Orrin Hatch have criticized the policy and more than 50 retired generals and admirals signed a letter saying the ban would degrade military readiness.”[4][4][4][4]Not to mention this passed the Supreme Court 5–4, so plenty of opposition to it. But is the issue hatred for a group or is Trump banning trans people from serving because he doesn’t want to spend money on trans-inclusive medical services?“Trump would effectively return to the pre-2016 era in which trans troops could not serve openly. It would also ban the military from paying for gender-affirming surgeries, with some exceptions to ‘protect the health’ of someone who had already begun transitioning.” Trump’s ban on transgender troops, explainedThis reactionary policy seems, to me, to be about paying for the medical cost of trans people, not some inherent hatred for them. But let’s see what Big Red has to say for himself:Do those 366 thousand people who liked his tweets all hate trans-people or do they simply not want to spend their tax dollars on gender-affirming care?Hey, I don’t agree with it and I think if we can spend more than a half a trillion dollars each year on the Department of Defense then surely we can spend a meager “$2.4 million and $8.4 million annually”[5][5][5][5] for gender-affirming surgeries.Call Trump and those who support his decision cheap bastards if you like but demonizing him as a bigot against trans because he doesn’t want the taxpayer to pay for their transitioning is a different issue altogether.You don’t turn those you disagree with into villains unless you’re looking for someone to fight.And let us not forget which side passed The Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 (DOMA):“The Defense of Marriage Act enacted September 21, 1996 was a United States federal law that, prior to being ruled unconstitutional, defined marriage for federal purposes as the union of one man and one woman, and allowed states to refuse to recognize same-sex marriages granted under the laws of other states… Initially introduced in May 1996, DOMA passed both houses of Congress by large, veto-proof majorities and was signed into law by President Bill Clinton in September 1996.” Defense of Marriage Act - WikipediaDenying homosexuals the right to marry seems to me more indicative of prejudice.Perhaps you say that Republicans had a house majority and it didn’t matter if Bill signed it because it would have passed anyway. But I would argue that even if the Dems held the house it would still pass since 118 Dems supported the bill with only 65 against.http://clerk.house.gov/evs/1996/roll316.xmlBut no, only the right-wingers are capable of discrimination.Here’s another quote demonizing the right by another popular Quoran:“The American right embraces neo-Nazis and white supremacists. Popular conservatives on Quora and elsewhere may say they aren’t racist, but they still vote for white supremacists, defend white supremacists, openly embrace white supremacists as part of their political party, and advocate for people who promote white supremacist ideology.”No, sir, the only bigot is you who is generalizing an entire group of people based on their ideology.This is what the left, or better yet said, the left with a platform to express their views, do to those they disagree with: a sweeping statement without facts to back them up.How long have I been writing this answer with quotes supporting what I’m saying and footnotes to point where I got my material from? It’s already been 12 hours composing this post! Why? Because radical leaning individuals can’t stop objectifying the opposing side into their symbols of hate the left love fetishizing over.Excuse me, mister, and I only call you mister out of respect for civility, something ideologues like you know nothing about—conservatives have real fears, okay. They are not Islamophobes. They’re scared of bringing people from a culture into their country that have a track record of forcing their women into symbols of oppression called a hijab, burka, niqab, chador, shayla, Al-Amira, and Khimar.And I say symbol of oppression because women don’t have a choice.“Although the Taliban regime ended in 2001, some women continue to wear it out of security concerns or as a cultural practice.” Hijab by country - WikipediaHow can you have peace in the world when women are afraid to show their hair in public? That’s not being an Islamophobe. It’s called loving your sisters from other misters.I, and a lot of conservatives, don’t want any American, regardless of race or ethnicity, to be forced into marriage by an Imam leader thinking he’s quoting the Prophet.“Among some Muslim faith communities, early marriage is sometimes justified by citing the example of the Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) marriage to his youngest wife Ayesha bint Abu Bakr. This is despite the fact that her exact age at the time of marriage is unknown and Islam requires that all males and females reach puberty before they are married.”https://www.islamic-relief.org/wp-content/.../03/FORCED-MARRIAGE-CSW62.pdfI criticize the Catholic church for not turning over evidence of their priests and nuns molesting little boys and I criticize Islam leaders forcing girls into marriage. Neither is bashing or speaking badly about the religion as a whole but condemning evil practices.Guess what, I DESPISE the cultural practice of slashing a girl’s clitoris. It’s disgusting and should be outlawed, but here we go again with one more example of religion-inspired customs spreading evil.“The decision, in the first federal case to involve FGM [female genital multilage], dismissed the main charges in a case against Jumiana Nargarwala, a doctor who performed the procedure on nine girls, aged 7–13, from Michigan, Illinois, and Minnesota at another doctor’s clinic in Livonia, on the outskirts of Detroit. The prosecution said she may have performed the procedure on as many as 100 girls. Four of the eight defendants, including three of the four mothers accused of subjecting their daughters to the procedure, were dismissed in the case. The defendants are members of a small Muslim Dawoodi Bohra community.” ‘US is moving backwards’: female genital mutilation ruling a blow to girls at riskWhile the left are concerned about microaggressions, manspreading, and creating enough space spaces for the hypersensitive, little girls around the world in Muslim communities are having their clitorises mutilated.Wave your virtue signaling flag again. Let the world see how righteous you are by calling conservatives who speak against these atrocities Islamophobes because they don’t want to bring these crimes to their neighborhoods.Conservatives are tough on immigration not because they hate other countries but they hate certain evil practices that those countries practice like forced marriages, FGM, bride prices, machismo (aggressive masculine pride), censorship (not believing in freedom of speech), and the list goes on.When you bring people to your country, they bring their country with them, the good and the bad. It’s the responsibility of those in power to protect us from the bad that put their citizens in jeopardy, not sell their citizens well-being for a couple million cheap votes masquerading as righteousness. It’s not about bashing other countries, something you and your ad hominem team of logical fallacies love feigning ignorance about.Right-wingers worry about their daughters walking home and encountering an immigrant male from an Islamic country used to seeing women fully clothed in a burka or other attire.You call right-wingers racist and prejudice, completely dismissing their fears since you’re rich off book sales that let you live in a posh neighborhood.Here’s what they are afraid of that your rich gated community protects you against:“Authorities now think that on New Year’s Eve, more than 1,200 women were sexually assaulted in various German cities, including more than 600 in Cologne and about 400 in Hamburg. More than 2,000 men were allegedly involved, and 120 suspects — about half of them foreign nationals who had only recently arrived in Germany — have been identified.”[6][6][6][6]They don’t want this to happen to their hometowns. It’s not hate. It’s called protecting your daughters, something you probably don’t know anything about with your lifestyle.It’s incidences like these that made mothers and fathers vote Trump in over Hillary, not being racist, sexist, bigoted, or any other popular buzz words you want to use to overinflate your gigantic self-righteous ego.Leftist like you condemn girls [7][7][7][7]for embracing other cultures by labeling something beautiful as ugly. It is the racist individuals that want nothing to do with other cultures.The truth is when you visit another country the people of that country want to dress you up in their clothes, they want to feed you their food, they want you to speak their language, they want to share their traditions and cultures with you because they want to welcome you into their world. That’s how you create peace and harmony.So far I’ve been to 16 countries and what I just said proved true in all of them except the United States of America.Looks nice, I know ;) The people of South Korean couldn’t wait to dress us all up in their traditional clothes.Political correctness, identity politics, race baiting, demonizing political opponents, threatening violence against those you disagree with, all these tactics need to end now if we want to build a better world for the next generations.Footnotes[1] Great Migration (African-American) - Wikipedia[1] Great Migration (African-American) - Wikipedia[1] Great Migration (African-American) - Wikipedia[1] Great Migration (African-American) - Wikipedia[2] Parallel 36°30′ north - Wikipedia[2] Parallel 36°30′ north - Wikipedia[2] Parallel 36°30′ north - Wikipedia[2] Parallel 36°30′ north - Wikipedia[3] What We Know: Family Separation And 'Zero Tolerance' At The Border[3] What We Know: Family Separation And 'Zero Tolerance' At The Border[3] What We Know: Family Separation And 'Zero Tolerance' At The Border[3] What We Know: Family Separation And 'Zero Tolerance' At The Border[4] White House announces ban on transgender people serving in military[4] White House announces ban on transgender people serving in military[4] White House announces ban on transgender people serving in military[4] White House announces ban on transgender people serving in military[5] Trump’s ban on transgender troops, explained[5] Trump’s ban on transgender troops, explained[5] Trump’s ban on transgender troops, explained[5] Trump’s ban on transgender troops, explained[6] https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/07/10/leaked-document-says-2000-men-allegedly-assaulted-1200-german-women-on-new-years-eve/?utm_term=.176041c9d51a[6] https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/07/10/leaked-document-says-2000-men-allegedly-assaulted-1200-german-women-on-new-years-eve/?utm_term=.176041c9d51a[6] https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/07/10/leaked-document-says-2000-men-allegedly-assaulted-1200-german-women-on-new-years-eve/?utm_term=.176041c9d51a[6] https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/07/10/leaked-document-says-2000-men-allegedly-assaulted-1200-german-women-on-new-years-eve/?utm_term=.176041c9d51a[7] People are furious at teen for wearing a traditional Chinese dress to prom[7] People are furious at teen for wearing a traditional Chinese dress to prom[7] People are furious at teen for wearing a traditional Chinese dress to prom[7] People are furious at teen for wearing a traditional Chinese dress to prom

There is no such thing as “race”.. Since 2017, almost every major scientific journal has done a story on the latest findings regarding “race”.Quote(s):“Race is a concept based on the premise that the humans can be systematically classified into discrete biological groups based on phenotypic and/or genotypic ancestral traits. Racialism is the view that races are natural and fixed subdivisions of humans, each with its own distinct and variable cultural characteristics and capacity for developing civilizations. Race and racialism are core concepts in eugenics, since early eugenicists typically warned about miscegenation or race-mixing as promoting degeneracy and social degradation, thus promoting scientific racism (see also Roles of science in eugenics)”.The concept of race in such research is “problematic at best and harmful at worst,” the researchers argued in a new paper published in the journal ScienceResearch study: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/351/6273/564Simply, race holds no biological merit, as it resides not in nature, but in politics, economics and culture. Race has a social function which is, the institution racism itself.Quote(s):"Race is a social construct, not a scientific classification".Source: Robert S. Schwartz, M.D. wrote (in "Race Is a Poor Measure," New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 344, No. 18, May 3, 2001).Charles E. Orser, Jr., is an anthropological historical archaeologist who investigates the modern world as it was created after about 1492.Quote(s):“Racialization is a process that seeks to define and compartmentalize the human community on the basis of outward characteristics,” and such a process inevitably leads to “the construction of social inequality.”Source: Charles Orser, Jr., Race and Practice in Archaeological Interpretation (2004)Elizabeth Kolbert (born 1961) is an American journalist and author and visiting fellow at Williams College. She is best known for her Pulitzer Prize-winning book The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History, and as an observer and commentator on environmentalism for The New Yorker magazine. As of March 2017, Kolbert serves as a member of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists’ Science and Security Board.Quote(s):“Over the past few decades, genetic research has revealed two deep truths about people. The first is that all humans are closely related—more closely related than all chimps, even though there are many more humans around today. Everyone has the same collection of genes, but with the exception of identical twins, everyone has slightly different versions of some of them. Studies of this genetic diversity have allowed scientists to reconstruct a kind of family tree of human populations. That has revealed the second deep truth: In a very real sense, all people alive today are Africans”.“Our species, Homo sapiens, evolved in Africa—no one is sure of the exact time or place. The most recent fossil find, from Morocco, suggests that anatomically modern human features began appearing as long as 300,000 years ago. For the next 200,000 years or so, we remained in Africa, but already during that period, groups began to move to different parts of the continent and become isolated from one another—in effect founding new populations”.Source: Elizabeth Kolbert, National Geographic, The Race Issue, There’s No Scientific Basis For Race, April 2018“All non-Africans today, the genetics tells us, are descended from a few thousand humans who left Africa maybe 60,000 years ago. These migrants were most closely related to groups that today live in East Africa, including the Hadza of Tanzania. Because they were just a small subset of Africa’s population, the migrants took with them only a fraction of its genetic diversity.Somewhere along the way, perhaps in the Middle East, the travelers met and had sex with another human species, the Neanderthals; farther east they encountered yet another, the Denisovans. It’s believed that both species evolved in Eurasia from a hominin that had migrated out of Africa much earlier. Some scientists also believe the exodus 60,000 years ago was actually the second wave of modern humans to leave Africa. If so, judging from our genomes today, the second wave swamped the first.Source: Elizabeth Kolbert, National Geographic, The Race Issue, There’s No Scientific Basis For Race, April 2018(Continued..)Quote(s):“Several genes work together to determine skin tone, and different groups may possess any number of combinations of different tweaks. Among Africans, some people, such as the Mursi of Ethiopia, have skin that’s almost ebony, while others, such as the Khoe-San, have skin the color of copper. Many dark-skinned East Africans, researchers were surprised to learn, possess the light-skinned variant of SLC24A5. (It seems to have been introduced to Africa, just as it was to Europe, from the Middle East.) East Asians, for their part, generally have light skin but possess the dark-skinned version of the gene”.“The mutation that’s most responsible for giving Europeans lighter skin is a single tweak in a gene known as SLC24A5, which consists of roughly 20,000 base pairs. In one position, where most sub-Saharan Africans have a G, Europeans have an A. About a decade ago a pathologist and geneticist named Keith Cheng, at Penn State College of Medicine, discovered the mutation by studying zebrafish that had been bred to have lighter stripes. The fish, it turned out, possessed a mutation in a pigment gene analogous to the one that is mutated in European”.Studying DNA extracted from ancient bones, paleogeneticists have found that the G-to-A substitution was introduced into western Europe relatively recently—about 8,000 years ago—by people migrating from the Middle East, who also brought a newfangled technology: farming. That means the people already in Europe—hunter-gatherers who created the spectacular cave paintings at Lascaux, for example—probably were not white but brown. The ancient DNA suggests that many of those dark-skinned Europeans also had blue eyes, a combination rarely seen today.Source: Elizabeth Kolbert, National Geographic, The Race Issue, There’s No Scientific Basis For Race, April 2018The Timing of Pigmentation Lightening in EuropeansEUROPEANS ARE MOSTLY ASIAN AND TWO THIRDS AFRICAN, A HYBRIDhttps://user.xmission.com/~wooding/pdfs/bamshad_race04.pdfTony Frudakis, Ph.D, he founded DNAPrint Genomics, Inc. Presently, he is President, CEO, CFO, Secretary & Treasurer for Skyview Holdings Corp.Tony is a Ph.D. graduate of the University of California, Berkeley (1995), and a Phi-Beta Kappa, Magna Cumme Laude graduate from the University of California, Irvine (1989).In the late ‘90s he founded DNAPrint genomics, where he authored and stewarded products that changed the way detectives identify the donors of crime scene DNA evidence. His work proved instrumental in the resolution of numerous serial homicide cases, received international media attention, led to his authorship of the book “Molecular Photofitting: Predicting Ancestry and Phenotype Using DNA” and induced Genome Technology Magazine to name him as “a Most Influential Scientist” in 2001.Since 2007, Tony has participated in the founding of three companies with technology innovations for homeland security, defense and clean energy. In 2012, he started Okeanos Technologies to develop and market an ultra-energy-efficient desalination technology that might become the next paradigm shift in water treatment systems.Tony is the author of 15 peer-reviewed scientific papers and 17 technology patent applications. He has delivered several lectures to scientific and business audiences around the world.Study: Frudakis T[au] - PubMed - NCBIKaino Kalevi Wiik (2 August 1932, Turku — 12 September 2015, Turku) was a professor of phonetics at the University of Turku, Finland.Study: Where Did European Men Come From? http://www.jogg.info/pages/41/Wiik.pdfLuigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza (25 January 1922 – 31 August 2018) was an Italian-born population geneticist who taught at the University of Parma, the Universuty of Pavia and then at Stanford University.The book that contains his work on Europeans being hybrid Genes, Peoples, and Languages - Luigi Luca Cavalli-SforzaCavalli-Sforza initiated a new field of research by combining the concrete findings of demography with a newly-available analysis of blood groups in an actual human population. He also studied the connections between migration patterns and blood groups.Study: An apportionment of human DNA diversityGENETICSSarah A. Tishkoff, Ph.D (born 1965) is an American geneticist who is the David and Lyn Silfen Professor at the University of Pennsylvania.The research “dispels a biological concept of race,” Dr. Tishkoff said.Tishkoff and team:Quote(s):“Humans develop color much as other mammals do. Special cells in the skin contain pouches, called melanosomes, packed with pigment molecules. The more pigment, the darker the skin. Skin color also varies with the kind of pigments: Melanosomes may contain mixtures of a brown-black called eumelanin and a yellow-red called pheomelanin. To find the genes that help produce pigments, scientists began by studying people of European ancestry and found that mutations to a gene called SLC24A5 caused cells to make less pigment, leading to paler skin. Unsurprisingly, almost all Europeans have this variant.We knew quite a lot about why people have pale skin if they had European ancestry,” said Nicholas G. Crawford, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Pennsylvania and a co-author of the new study. “But there was very little known about why people have dark skin.”Since the early 2000s, Dr. Tishkoff has studied genes in Africa, discovering variants important to everything from resistance to malaria to height. African populations vary tremendously in skin color, and Dr. Tishkoff reasoned that powerful genetic variants must be responsible.Studying 1,570 people in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Botswana, she and her colleagues discovered a set of genetic variants that account for 29 percent of the variation in skin color. (The remaining variation seems tied to genes yet to be discovered.) One variant, MFSD12, was particularly mysterious: No one knew what it did anywhere in the body. To investigate its function, the researchers altered the gene in reddish lab mice. Giving them the variant found in darker-skinned Africans turned the mice gray. As it turned out, MFSD12 can affect the production of brown-black eumelanin, producing a darker skin color.The eight gene variants that Dr. Tishkoff and her colleagues discovered in Africans turned out to be present in many populations outside the continent. By comparing the DNA of these people, the researchers were able to estimate how long ago the genes appeared. They turned out to be immensely old. A variant for light skin — found in both Europeans and the San hunter-gatherers of Botswana — arose roughly 900,000 years ago, for example.Living humans come packaged in a wide range of hues — from pale and freckly in Ireland to dark brown in southern India, Australia and New Guinea. Researchers have argued that these varying colors evolved partly in response to sunlight. The idea is that people who live with intense ultraviolet light benefited from dark color, pigments that shielded important molecules in their skin. In places with less sunlight, people needed lighter skin, because they were able to absorb more sunlight to make vitamin D. The new genetic evidence supports this explanation, but adds unexpected complexity. The dark-skinned people of southern India, Australia and New Guinea, for example, did not independently evolve their color simply because evolution favored it.They inherited the ancestral dark variants Dr. Tishkoff’s team found in Africans. “They had to be introduced from an African population,” said Dr. Tishkoff. Yet the same is true for some genes that produce light skin in Asia and Europe. They also originated in Africa and were carried from the continent by migrants. As Africans moved into Europe and Asia, they interbred with Neanderthals on several occasions. Last week, Michael Dannemann and Janet Kelso of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany reported that people in Britain still carry a number of Neanderthal variants that color skin.Some of the newly discovered genes appeared relatively recently in our evolution.The pale-skin variant of SLC24A5 that’s overwhelmingly common in Europe, for example, is a recent addition to the genome, arising just 29,000 years ago, according to the new study. It became widespread only in the past few thousand years.Dr. Tishkoff and her colleagues found it frequently not just in Europe, but also in some populations of lighter-skinned Africans in East Africa and Tanzania. Studies of ancient DNA recently discovered in Africa point to an explanation.The “depigmentation gene” SLC24A5, the gene linked to pale skin, swept through European populations in the past 6000 years. But Tishkoff ’s team found that the story of skin color evolution isn’t so black and white.Source: Genes for Skin Color Rebut Dated Notions of Race, Researchers SaySource: Tishkoff SA, Williams SM., Genetic analysis of African populations: human evolution and complex disease. Nature Reviews Genetics. 2002 Aug (8):611-21.)It’s a Genetic MutationIgbo Nigerian couple gave birth to a blonde haired, blue eyed baby girl named Nmanchi. Pictured above with parents and siblings Dumebi and ChisomGenetics experts have been amazed by the birth of a blonde, blue-eyed white baby - to a black couple. Doctors insist tiny Nmachi is not an albino and neither of the parents has any mixed-race family history.Source: Mystery as Nigerian couple gives birth to white baby in UK - Vanguard News Nigeria.Other experts, however, propose that some form of unknown racial or genetic mutation was the most likely explanation for Nmachi’s colour. A genetic expert, Dr. Rick Kittles who runs a genetic tracing company, African Ancestry Inc.Rick Antonius Kittles (born in Sylvania, Georgia, United States) is an American biologist specializing in humangenetics. The 42 year old is of African-American ancestry, and achieved renown in the 1990s for his pioneering work in tracing the ancestry of African Americans via DNA testing.Dr. Kittles described race as white or black, and more of a social concept than a real biological concept. In his words:Quote(s):“Race is based on two things: skin colour and ancestry. You can’t really (see) somebody’s ancestry, but you can tell their skin colour. According to him, while physical features are determined by a small number of genes, genes do not determine race specifically”. Kittles feels strongly that race and ethnicity are separate. He argues that genes determining physical features do not determine internal makeup or predisposition to certain diseases.Source: Mystery as Nigerian couple gives birth to white baby in UK - Vanguard News Nigeria.Charles Loring (C.L.) Brace IV (born 1930) is an American anthropologist, Professor Emeritus at the University of Michigan's Department of Anthropology and Curator Emeritus at the University's Museum of Anthropological Archaeology. C L. Brace was also a critic of Afrocentricity.Source: (PDF) The questionable contribution of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age to European craniofacial formProfessor Trenton Holliday received his B.A. in anthropology from Louisiana State University in 1988, and his M.A. (1991) and Ph.D. (1995) in anthropology from the University of New Mexico. A paleoanthropologist, he studies fossil hominins from a host of different time periods. He is particularly interested in the origins of modern humans (Homo sapiens), a topic which is intimately tied to the question of the fate of the Neandertals (H. neanderthalensis). He is also interested in late Australopithecus and the origins of the genus Homo, and in interspecific hybridization among extant mammals and its implications for human evolution. Professor Holliday teaches courses in human evolution, functional morphology, and modern human adaptation and variation.Study: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231954999_Gough's_Cave_1_Somerset_England_a_study_of_the_axial_skeletonIain Mathieson Assistant Professor of Genetics, Cell and Molecular Biology · Genomics and Computational Biology · Epidemiology and Biostatistics , Graduate Group AffiliationsStudy: Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient EurasiansJohn L. Brooke (born 1953) is an American historians. Brooke graduated from Cornell University in 1975, and from the University of Pennsylvania, with an M.A. and Ph.D. in 1982. He taught at Franklin & Marshall College, Amherst College, and Tufts University. He most recently teaches at Ohio State University.J ohn L. B rooke . Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey .Ann Gibbons has been a correspondent for more than a decade for Science magazine, where she has specialized in writing about evolution. With a name like Gibbons, it was perhaps inevitable that she would write about primate evolution, including the evolution of humans. Her research has included many hours observing highly evolved scientists in their familiar habitats, whether upright in the lab sequencing DNA or prone on the ground excavating fossils from ancient graves.A. Gibbons European Skin Turned Pale Only Recently, Gene Suggests[Excerpt]:Most people associate Africans with dark skin. But different groups of people in Africa have almost every skin color on the planet, from deepest black in the Dinka of South Sudan to beige in the San of South Africa. Now, researchers have discovered a handful of new gene variants responsible for this palette of tones.The study, published online this week in Science, traces the evolution of these genes and how they traveled around the world. While the dark skin of some Pacific Islanders can be traced to Africa, gene variants from Eurasia also seem to have made their way back to Africa. And surprisingly, some of the mutations responsible for lighter skin in Europeans turn out to have an ancient African origin.“This is really a landmark study of skin color diversity,” says geneticist Greg Barsh of the Hudson Alpha Institute for Biotechnology in Huntsville, Alabama. Until recently, researchers assumed that after human ancestors shed most body hair, sometime before 2 million years ago, they quickly evolved dark skin for protection from skin cancer and other harmful effects of UV radiation. Then, when humans migrated out of Africa and headed to the far north, they evolved lighter skin as an adaptation to limited sunlight. (Pale skin synthesizes more vitamin D when light is scarce.)Previous research on skin-color genes fit that picture. For example, a “depigmentation gene” called SLC24A5 linked to pale skin swept through European populations in the past 6000 years. But Tishkoff ’s team found that the story of skin color evolution isn’t so black and white. Her team, including African researchers, used a light meter to measure skin reflectance in 2092 people in Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Botswana. They found the darkest skin in the Nilo-Saharan pastoralist populations of eastern Africa, such as the Mursi and Surma, and the lightest skin in the San of southern Africa, as well as many shades in between, as in the Agaw people of Ethiopia.At the same time, they collected blood samples for genetic studies. They sequenced more than 4 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)—places where a single letter of the genetic code varies across the genomes of 1570 of these Africans. They found four key areas of the genome where specific SNPs correlate with skin color.The first surprise was that SLC24A5, which swept Europe, is also common in East Africa—found in as many as half the members of some Ethiopian groups. This variant arose 30,000 years ago and was probably brought to eastern Africa by people migrating from the Middle East, Tishkoff says. But though many East Africans have this gene, they don’t have white skin, probably because it is just one of several genes that shape their skin color.The team also found variants of two neighboring genes, HERC2 and OCA2, which are associated with light skin, eyes, and hair in Europeans but arose in Africa; these variants are ancient and common in the light-skinned San people. The team proposes that the variants arose in Africa as early as 1 million years ago and spread later to Europeans and Asians. “Many of the gene variants that cause light skin in Europe have origins in Africa,” Tishkoff says.[Excerpt]Source: Ann Gibbons, New gene variants reveal the evolution of human skin colorThis graphic above shows the influx of genes to Europe that brought lighter skin colour and taller body shapes, according to the new research on ancient human remains conducted by geneticists at Harvard University.Pale skin and lactose tolerance a recent occurrence in EuropeQuote:“Most of us think of Europe as the ancestral home of white people. But a new study shows that pale skin, as well as other traits such as tallness and the ability to digest milk as adults, arrived in most of the continent relatively recently. The work, presented here last week at the 84th annual meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, offers dramatic evidence of recent evolution in Europe and shows that most modern Europeans don’t look much like those of 8000 years ago... First, the scientists confirmed an earlier report that the hunter-gatherers in Europe could not digest the sugars in milk 8000 years ago, according to a poster. They also noted an interesting twist: The first farmers also couldn’t digest milk. The farmers who came from the Near East about 7800 years ago and the Yamnaya pastoralists who came from the steppes 4800 years ago lacked the version of the LCT gene that allows adults to digest sugars in milk. It wasn’t until about 4300 years ago that lactose tolerance swept through Europe... The modern humans who came out of Africa to originally settle Europe about 40,000 years are presumed to have had dark skin, which is advantageous in sunny latitudes. And the new data confirm that about 8500 years ago, early hunter-gatherers in Spain, Luxembourg, and Hungary also had darker skin: They lacked versions of two genes—SLC24A5 and SLC45A2—that lead to depigmentation and, therefore, pale skin in Europeans today."Source: Ann Gibbon, 2007, How Europeans evolved white skin, 4-2-2015.Two teenage girls with different coloured hair, eyes and skin… but they're TWINSTwins Lucy and Maria Aylmer, both 18, look more like best friends than siblings thanks to their parents' mixed-race pairing, which has led to the teenage girls having different skin tones.{excerpt}When it comes to skin color, the team found a patchwork of evolution in different places, and three separate genes that produce light skin, telling a complex story for how European’s skin evolved to be much lighter during the past 8000 years. The modern humans who came out of Africa to originally settle Europe about 40,000 years are presumed to have had dark skin, which is advantageous in sunny latitudes. And the new data confirm that about 8500 years ago, early hunter-gatherers in Spain, Luxembourg, and Hungary also had darker skin: They lacked versions of two genes—SLC24A5 and SLC45A2—that lead to depigmentation and, therefore, pale skin in Europeans today. But in the far north—where low light levels would favor pale skin—the team found a different picture in hunter-gatherers: Seven people from the 7700-year-old Motala archaeological site in southern Sweden had both light skin gene variants, SLC24A5 and SLC45A2. They also had a third gene, HERC2/OCA2, which causes blue eyes and may also contribute to light skin and blond hair. Thus ancient hunter-gatherers of the far north were already pale and blue-eyed, but those of central and southern Europe had darker skin. Then, the first farmers from the Near East arrived in Europe; they carried both genes for light skin. As they interbred with the indigenous hunter-gatherers, one of their light-skin genes swept through Europe, so that central and southern Europeans also began to have lighter skin. The other gene variant, SLC45A2, was at low levels until about 5800 years ago when it swept up to high frequency. {excerpt}Source: Ann Gibbbons for Science, Here’s How Europeans Quickly Evolved Lighter Skin, Smithsonian Magazine, April 2015“This contradicts a long-standing hypothesis that modern humans in Europe grew paler about 40,000 years ago, as soon as they migrated into northern latitudes. Under darker skies, pale skin absorbs more sunlight than dark skin, allowing ultraviolet rays to produce more vitamin D for bone growth and calcium absorption. “The [evolution of] light skin occurred long after the arrival of modern humans in Europe,” molecular anthropologist Heather Norton of the University of Arizona, Tucson, said in her talk... Either way, the implication is that Europeans were brown-skinned for tens of thousands of years—a suggestion made 30 years ago by Stanford University geneticist L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza”.Source: A Gibbons. 2007. European Skin Turned Pale Only Recently, Gene Suggests. Science 20, V316, I5823, p364.“We also found evidence of selection at two loci that affect skin pigmentation. The derived alleles 63 of rs1426654 at SLC24A5 and rs16891982 at SLC45A2 are, respectively, fixed and almost fixed in present -64 day Europeans 23, 24. As previously reported 7,11, 12, both derived alleles are absent or very rare in western 65 hunter -gatherers. suggesting that mainland European hunter-gatherers may have had dark skin 66 pigmentation. SLC45A2 first appears in our data at low frequency in the Early Neolithic, and increases 67 steadily in frequency until the present... In contrast, the derived allele of 69 SLC24A5 increases rapidly in frequency to around 0.9 in the Early Neolithic, suggesting that most of the 70 increase in frequency of this allele is due to its high frequency in the early farmers who migrated from the southeast at this time..”Source: Mathieson et al 2015. Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe. bioRxiv 2015.Research: Nature Journal,Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians, published: 23 November 2015"The second strongest signal in our analysis is at the derived allele of rs16891982 in SLC45A2, which contributes to light skin pigmentation and is almost fixed in present-day Europeans but occurred at much lower frequency in ancient populations...""The strongest signal of selection is at the SNP (rs4988235) responsible for lactase persistence in Europe15, 16. Our data (Fig. 3) strengthens previous reports that an appreciable frequency of lactase persistence in Europe only dates to the last 4,000 years 3, 5, 17. The allele’s earliest appearance in the dataset is in a central European Bell Beaker sample (individual I0112) dated to between 2450 and 2140 bc."Source: Mathieson, Lizardis et al. 2015. Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians. Nature volume 528, pages 499–503Research: Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians, 2015"The strongest association is in SLC24A5, which is a well-known pigmentation gene (Lamason et al., 2005... including missense mutations that influence skin and eye pigmentation (Table 2), are at high frequency in the KhoeSan... these variants arose in southern Africa more than 100,000 years ago and were later selected for in Europeans after the out-of-Africa migration..“Because African populations often carry the ancestral (i.e., dark) allele for skin pigmentation genes identified in Eurasians, allusions to African skin pigmentation have ignored the great variability in this phenotype across Africa. Here, we reiterate that skin pigmentation varies more in Africa than in any other continent, and we show that pigmentation in African populations cannot simply be explained by the small number of large-effect alleles discovered in Eurasians. Even in lightly to moderately pigmented KhoeSan populations, the polygenicity of skin pigmentation is much greater than in Eurasians, encompassing both known pigmentation genes as well as novel loci."Source: Martin et al., 2017, An Unexpectedly Complex Architecture for Skin Pigmentation in Africans. Cell 171, 1340–1353Study: An Unexpectedly Complex Architecture for Skin Pigmentation in Africans.Dr. Hans Eiberg, (born 8 April 1945) is a Danish geneticist, known for his discovery of the genetic mutation causing blueeyes. Eiberg contributed to the mapping of the humangenome, and has succeeded in finding important genetic markers for several serious illnesses such as cystic fibrosis, Batten disease and various diseases of the eye. He has also shown that bedwetting is a hereditary disease rather than a psychological disturbance. Hans Eiberg has written more than 250 articles published in international journals.Dr. Hans Eiberg claims that before this time, every human being had brown eyes.Quote:“A genetic mutation affecting the OCA2 gene in our chromosomes resulted in the creation of a ‘switch,’ which literally ‘turned off’ the ability to produce brown eyes.”When blue-eyed peoples from Jordan, Denmark and Turkey were examined, their genetic difference was traced back to the maternal lineage according to Eiberg’s team. The brown melanin pigment is still dominant. However, following the last Ice Age, Europeans developed this rare mutation that differentiated them from the rest of the human race. Ninety-five percent of Europeans in Scandinavian countries have blue eyes. They are also found to have a greater range of hair and skin color. Comparatively, Europe has a wider variety of hair color and skin pigment than is found in any other continent in the world. These mutations are recent as Europe was colonized only a few thousand years ago, say mainstream scientists.”Source: Blue eyes result of ancient genetic 'mutation'In 2012, A team of researchers from Copenhagen University have located a single mutation that causes the mysterious phenomenon of blue eyes. All blue eyed people are believed to be genetically related to a person who lived in the Black Sea region sometime between 6 – 10,000 years ago. The research was published in the Journal of Human Genetics.“A mutation in a gene called OCA2 came into being nearly 8,000 years ago. It can be definitively traced back to an ancestor from the Black Sea”.Source: Blue eyes result of ancient genetic 'mutation'The team also found variants of two neighboring genes, HERC2 and OCA2, WHICH ARE ASSOCIATED WITH LIGHT SKIN, EYES, AND HAIR IN EUROPEANS, BUT AROSE IN AFRICA; these variants are ancient and common in the light-skinned San people. The team proposes that the variants arose in Africa as early as 1 million years ago and spread later to Europeans and Asians. “Many of the gene variants that cause light skin in Europe have origins in Africa,” Tishkoff says.Source: Tishkoff, SA, New gene variants reveal the evolution of human skin colorFrancis Sellers Collins (born April 14, 1950) is an American physician-geneticist who discovered the genes associated with a number of diseases and led the Human Genome Project. He is director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Maryland, United States.Before being appointed director of the NIH, Collins led the Human Genome Project and other genomics research initiatives as director of the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), one of the 27 institutes and centers at NIH. Before joining NHGRI, he earned a reputation as a gene hunter at the University of Michigan. He has been elected to the Institute of Medicine and the National Academy of Sciences, and has received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and National Medal of science.“In 2004, Francis Collins, then head of the National Human Genome Research Institute and now director of the National Institutes of Health, called race a “flawed” and “weak” concept and argued that science needed to move beyond race. Yet, as our paper highlights, the use of race persist in genetics, despite voices like Collins, like Craig Venter — leaders in the field of genomics — who have called on the field to move beyond it.“We believe it is time to revisit this century-long debate and bring biologists, social scientists and scholars from the humanities together in a constructive way to find better ways to study the ever-important subject of human diversity.“The race concept should be removed from genetics research for the following reasons: Genetic methods do not support the classification of humans into discrete races, [and] racial assumptions are not good biological guideposts. Races are not genetically homogenous and lack clear-cut genetic boundaries. And because of this, using race as a proxy to make clinical predictions is about probability”.Source: Jaqueline Howard, What Scientists Mean When They Say Race Is Not GeneticDana Osborne joined the Department of Languages, Literatures and Cultures in 2016 as Assistant Professor. Dr. Osborne is a linguistic anthropologist by training, having received her PhD from the University of Arizona's School of Anthropology in 2015, one of the highest ranking doctoral programs for anthropologists in the United States. Dr. Osborne's dissertation, entitled "Negotiating the Hierarchy of Languages in Ilocandia" focuses on the dynamics of language contact and change among young multilinguals in the minority-language region of Ilocos Sur, Philippines with the help of a Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant from the Wenner-Gren Foundation. In addition to this, Dr. Osborne has extensive experience with community-based participatory research, ethnographic and documentary filmmaking, and an array of methodologies of relevance to anthropological and social scientific analysis including experimental and psycholinguistic techniques. Dr. Osborne is a member of the American Anthropological Association, the Toronto Semiotic Circle, and plays the ukulele. Dr. Osborne teaches courses in Anthropology, Arts and Contemporary Studies, and Language and Intercultural Relations at Ryerson University.Quote(s):The race concept should be removed from genetic research for the following reasons: Genetic methods do not support the classification of humans into discrete races, [and] racial assumptions are not good biological guideposts. Races are not genetically homogenous and lack clear-cut genetic boundaries. And because of this, using race as a proxy to make clinical predictions is about probability.“The concept and application of ‘race’ as a concept has since its inception been inextricably linked to power, This is particularly true when it came to the classification of ‘types’ of people that went hand-in-hand with things like colonization, missionization, and the expansion of empires, particularly out of Europe.”Source: Dana Osborne, assistant professor at Ryerson University’s Department of Languages, Literatures and Cultures Toronto, https://globalnews.ca/news/2997715/what-is-race-is-it-biological-or-a-social-construct/Race is not biological. It is a social construct. There is no gene or cluster of genes common to all blacks or all whites. Human fossil records suggest that humans evolved in sub-Saharan Africa. Then, about 180,000 years ago humans began to split, migrating across the globe into Eurasia and North Africa and, eventually, beyond.Quote(s):“There is scientific evidence that suggests there may be more variation within races than between them”The concept and application of ‘race’ as a concept has since its inception been inextricably linked to power,”This is particularly true when it came to the classification of ‘types’ of people that went hand-in-hand with things like colonization, missionization, and the expansion of empires, particularly out of Europe.”Source: Dana Osborne, assistant professor at Ryerson University’s Department of Languages, Literatures and Cultures in Toronto.Vivian Chou is a Ph.D. candidate in the Biological and Biomedical Sciences program at Harvard Medical School.Quote(s):‘Race’ cannot be biologically defined due to genetic variation among human individuals and populations. (A) The old concept of the “five races:” African, Asian, European, Native American, and Oceanian. According to this view, variation between the races is large, and thus, the each race is a separate category. Additionally, individual races are thought to have a relatively uniform genetic identity. (B) Actual genetic variation in humans. Human populations do roughly cluster into geographical regions. However, variation between different regions is small, thus blurring the lines between populations. Furthermore, variation within a single region is large, and there is no uniform identity.Source: Vivian Chou, http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/science-genetics-reshaping-race-debate-21st-century/The popular classifications of race are based chiefly on skin color, with other relevant features including height, eyes, and hair. Though these physical differences may appear, on a superficial level, to be very dramatic, they are determined by only a minute portion of the genome: we as a species have been estimated to share 99.9% of our DNA with each other. The few differences that do exist reflect differences in environments and external factors, not core biology.Source: Vivian Chou, http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/science-genetics-reshaping-race-debate-21st-century/However, even if scientists agree that race is, at most, a social construct, any cursory search of the internet reveals that the broader public is not convinced of this. After all, if an Asian person looks so different from a European, how could they not be from distinct groups? Even if most scientists reject the concept of “race” as a biological concept, race exists, undeniably, as a social and political concept.The popular classifications of race are based chiefly on skin color, with other relevant features including height, eyes, and hair. Though these physical differences may appear, on a superficial level, to be very dramatic, they are determined by only a minute portion of the genome: we as a species have been estimated to share 99.9% of our DNA with each other. The few differences that do exist reflect differences in environments and external factors, not core biology.Some additional studies and articles interviewing various scientistsRace Is a Social Construct, Scientists ArgueThere’s No Scientific Basis for Race—It's a Made-Up LabelHow Science and Genetics are Reshaping the Race Debate of the 21st Century - Science in the NewsGenetics for the human raceDistribution of the F374 Allele of the SLC45A2 (MATP) Gene and Founder‐Haplotype AnalysisAdaptation of human skin color in various populationshttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/301293756_The_Nature_of_Race_the_Genealogy_of_the_Concept_and_the_Biological_Construct's_Contemporaneous_Utilityhttps://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/journal/v289/n6/full/scientificamerican1203-78.htmlSkin color is not race - Gene ExpressionRace, Ethnicity, and Genomics: Social Classifications as Proxies of Biological HeterogeneityYour gateway to world-class journal researchThe medicalization of race: scientific legitimization of a flawed social construct.Race in Biological and Biomedical Research