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Its Actually the military responsibilities , fulfilling which requires proper amount of training in the fields they need to fulfill there responsibilities.A Officer in Indian Armed Forces, is regularly trained from the day he steps in Service Boots. As One Grows up, there responsibilities grows, they are trained in the respective specialization.Now, once they undergo various training, they are awarded degree for that. Many a times these degrees a recognized by the Various renown Universities which offer them equivalent degrees.Also, many times many Universities offer Honorary Degrees to them, for there service and Knowledge in there field, such as Warfare Management, Naval Strategy etc.Following list i have taken from Wikipedia, listing various colleges and institute where training is imparted to Officers and men, as they grow up in ranks.Indian ArmyThe chief institutions training Indian Army officers are:Army War College: It is the premier All Arms Tactical Training Institution for officers and performs important functions of evaluation of concepts and doctrines in the fields of tactics and operational logistics. The institution was earlier known as College of Combat, Mhow and has been re-designated as Army War College, Mhow from 1 January 2003.Infantry School: The Infantry School, Mhow is the largest and the oldest military training centre of the Indian Army. The institution is responsible for developing the complete spectrum of tactical drills and concepts pertaining to infantry operating in varied terrain and environment and introduce them from time to time. This institution also trains the National Shooting Team under the aegis of Army Marksmanship Unit (AMU) which is part of Infantry School.Junior Leaders Wing: The Junior Leaders Wing, Belgaum is part of Infantry School, Mhow and trains junior officers and junior leaders in sub-unit level in tactical and special mission techniques to enable them to carry out assigned operational missions.Indian Military Academy: The Indian Military Academy (IMA), Dehradun is credited with providing excellent officers who are highly disciplined, thoroughly motivated and deeply committed to serve the Nation with honour and dignity. The valediction of the Academy is evident from the bountiful sagas of bravery, valour and sacrifice displayed by its alumni in times of crisis.Officers Training Academy: The Officers Training Academy imparts training to young men and women to enable them to take their rightful place as officers in the Indian Army., Chennai and Gaya, Bihar.High Altitude Warfare School: The High Altitude Warfare School (HAWS), Gulmarg is a training establishment imparting specialised Mountain Warfare and Winter Warfare Training to Indian Army personnel.Armoured Corps Centre and School: The Armoured Corps Centre and School (ACCS), Ahmednagar is a premier institution of the Army. It imparts training pertaining to employment of mechanical forces in battle and development of concepts for future battle.School of Artillery: School of Artillery, Deolali Nasik district, Maharashtra is a premier institution of the Army and imparts effective training, evaluation of new equipment for induction and development of new concepts/ doctrine for application of artillery fire.Army Air Defence College: The Army Air Defence College (AADC), Gopalpur imparts training for provision of effective Air Defence Artillery protection to ground forces against long and medium altitude enemy air attacks and also to preserve specified tactical and strategic vital areas and pivotal points from critical danger and destruction from enemy air attacks.College of Military Engineering: The role of College of Military Engineering (CME), Pune encompasses three aspects, i.e., training, advisory, projects research and experimentation.Military College of Telecommunication Engineering: The Military College of Telecommunication Engineering (MCTE), Mhow is a premiere training institute of the Corps of Signals. A variety of courses catering for the training needs in Information Technology and Communication for the Indian Army are conducted at MCTE.Counter Insurgency and Jungle Warfare School (CIJW School): The CIJW School in Vairengte, Mizoram, is an institution for counter-guerilla training. The institution has risen to be the nodal agency for imparting counter-insurgency training for the other branches.Junior Leader's Academy (JLA), Bareilly and Ramgarh: The Junior Leader's Academy (JLA), Bareilly and Ramgarh conduct institutionalised leadership training for Junior Leaders, who are Junior Commissioned Officers and Non-Commissioned Officers of the Army.Army Service Corps (ASC) Centre and College: The ASC Centre and College, Bangalore imparts training to Officers, personnel below officer rank of Army Service Corpsand other arms and services indicating personnel from foreign countries in various disciplines of Suppliers, Fuel, Oil and Lubricants, Mechanical Transport, Animal Transport and Air dispatch. The Centre also trains recruits for induction into service into Army Service Corps.Army Medical Corps (AMC) Centre and School: The AMC Centre and School, Lucknow conducts from basic to advance courses for Army Medical Corps and Military Nursing Service Officers. The Centre also trains recruits for induction into service into Army Medical Corps.College of Materials Management (CMM), Jabalpur: The College of Materials Management (CMM), Jabalpur is the hub centre of all logistics courses for Army. It runs courses like advance material management, higher munition course and quarter master courses for officers, JCOs and NCOs. It also imparts basic training to technical clerks.Military College of Electronic and Mechanical Engineering: The Military College of Electronics and Mechanical Engineering (MCEME), Secunderabad (Telangana) is an institution of technical education in the Army. The College was awarded the Golden Peacock National Training Award (1997) as well as Golden Peacock National Quality Award.Remount and Veterinary Corps (RVC) Centre and School: The RVC Centre and School, Meerut Cantt, imparts basic military and technical training to young veterinary graduates on commission and to various technical tradesmen of the corps like Dressors, Riders, Ferriers, Army Dog trainers and lab attendants. The Centre also trains recruits for induction into service into Remount and Veterinary Corps Centre and School.Army Education Corps (AEC) Training College and Centre: The AEC Training College and Centre, Pachmarhi is a Category 'A' establishment, a Regimental Training Centre for AEC personnel and an Autonomous College affiliated to Barkatullah University, Bhopal.Corps of Military Police (CMP) Centre and School: The CMP Centre and School, Bangalore imparts basic military training to all personnel enrolled in Corps of Military Police and also conduct courses for officers on deputation to the corps.Army School of Physical Training: The Army School of Physical Training (ASPT), Pune runs the Sports Training Course for Army personnel, central police organisation and paramilitary forces to train instructors capable of imparting physical training and sports coaching at appropriate level.Army Airborne Training School: The Army Airborne Training School (AATS), Agra imparts training in aerial delivery and air transportation of men and material. It is also responsible for carrying out Research and Trial pertaining to air portability and para dropping of all types of equipment.Institute of National Integration: The Institute of National Integration (INI), Pune imparts training to Officers, Personnel Below Officer Rank and Religious Teachers. Its focus is on instilling a sense of national and cultural unity in the officer corps.Institute of Military Law: The Institute of Military Law (IML), Kamptee imparts training to officers of Judge Advocate General Branch as well as other arms and services in military and allied law.Army Sports Institute: The Army Sports Institute (ASI) at Pune and Army Sports Nodes is a public-relations sports centre, intended for portraying the Army in a positive light. Appropriate funds have been earmarked for the construction and equipment coupled with food habitat, advertising and training under foreign coaches.Army Cadet College: Army Cadet College (ACC), Dehradun is a Wing of the IMA which caters for training of service cadets selected for commission. On completion of the course, these cadets also qualify for a B.A. or B. Sc. degree, recognized by the Jawaharlal Nehru University.Combat Army Aviation Training School (CAATS): CAATS is the main training course for aviators of the air wing of the Army,The Army Aviation Corps. It is located at the Army Aviation Base in Nashik Road. It replaced the Indian Air Force's academy, the Helicopter Training School (HTS), as the main training school for army aviators. It mainly operates Cheetahs and Chetaks and also has Simulators.Others include:Army Clerks Training School, Aurangabad.Army School of Mechanical Transport, Bangalore.Army/ Air Transport Support School, AgraEME School, Vadodara.Military Intelligence Training School and Depot (MITSD), PuneMilitary School of Music - PachmarhiIndian NavyThe Indian Navy has numerous training establishments at various places. The Indian Naval Academy is presently located in Ezhimala, near Kannur in Kerala State.Indian Naval Academy (Officers Training) - EzhimalaINS Agrani (Leadership Training) - CoimbatoreINS Chilka (Sailors Training) - ChilkaINS Dronacharya (Gunnery School) - KochiINS Garuda (Aviation) - KochiINS Hamla (Logistics Training) - MumbaiInstitute of Naval Medicine - MumbaiINS Kunjali (Music Training School) - MumbaiINS Mandovi (Provost and Physical Training School) - GoaNaval Institute of Educational and Training Technology (NIETT) - KochiNational Institute of Hydrography - GoaINS Shivaji (Engineering Training) - LonavlaShipWright School - VisakhapatnamINS Valsura (Electrical Training) - JamnagarINS Venduruthy (Seamen Training) - KochiINS Satavahana (Submarine School) - VishakhapatnamIndian Air ForceThe Indian Air Force has a Training Command and several training establishments. While technical and other support staff are trained at the various Ground Training Schools, the pilots are trained at the Air Force Academy located at Dundigal, near Hyderabad, Telangana.College of Air Warfare- SecunderabadPilot Training Establishment - AllahabadAir Force Administrative College - CoimbatoreSchool of Aviation Medicine - BangaloreAir Force Technical Training College - Jalahalli, near BangaloreParatrooper’s Training School - AgraIndian Air Force Test Pilot School - BangaloreTETTRA Schools - PuneTri-service InstitutionsNational Defence College: The National Defence College (NDC) inaugurated on 27 April 1960 is the only institution in the country that imparts knowledge on all aspects of national security and strategy. Senior Defence and Civil Service Officers participate in a 47-week comprehensive programme of national security and strategy.College of Defence Management: The Institute of Defence Management (IDM), Secunderabad was established in June 1970 to impart modern, scientific management training to the Armed Forces Officers. The IDM was renamed as College of Defence Management (CDM) in 1980. The College has trained over 5,000 officers of the rank of Major to Major General and equivalents of the three Services through its on-campus programmes. It has also given exposure in defence management to a large number of officers through external capsules. Officers from Para-Military Forces, Ministry of Defence, Research and Development Organisations and friendly foreign countries also attend various on-campus programmes.Defence Services Staff College: The Defence Services Staff College (DSSC), Wellington is a premier tri-service training establishment imparting training to middle level officers (Majors and equivalent) of the three wings of Indian Armed Forces, friendly foreign countries and Indian Civil Services. The DSSC is located in picturesque settings atWellington, near Conoor in The Nilgiris mountains of Tamil Nadu State.National Defence Academy: The National Defence Academy (NDA), Khadakwasla is a premier Inter-Service training institution where future officers of Armed Forces are trained. The training involves an exacting schedule of three years before the cadets join their respective Service Academics, viz., Indian Military Academy, Naval Academy and Air Force Academy.Medical PersonnelArmed Forces Medical College (AFMC)The AFMC is located in Pune, near Mumbai in Maharashtra State. It is an Inter-Services institution. AFMC has multiple roles to perform. These are primarily training of medical undergraduates and post-graduates, dental postgraduates, nursing cadets and paramedical staff. Patient care forms an integral part of its training curriculum and the attached hospital benefits from the expertise available at AFMC. The institution is responsible for providing the entire pool of specialists and super-specialists to Armed Forces by giving them in service training.The AFMC is well known as one of the premier medical institutions of India, and its entrance test is written by thousands of High School students throughout India (both male and female), who via for its approximately 130 seats. Selected candidates are also required to pass a medical and fitness test on par with those for Officer Cadets. The 5-year course also includes basic military training, on par with that received by all Officer Cadets at other Academies of the Armed Forces, as well as training in battle-field medicine. After graduation, Cadets are to serve for a minimum of seven years in the Indian Army, after which they are free to leave or continue as Commissioned Medical officers.Thank You.!

No exam is tough enough to overpower your will. SSC Combined Higher Secondary Level Exam and SSC Combined Graduate Level Exam are both conducted by Staff Selection Commission. ... This implies that the question paper of SSC CGL Exam is a bit difficult than of SSC CHSL Exam.Staff Selection Commission - Combined Graduate Level Examination, often referred to as SSC CGL is an examination conducted to recruit staff to various posts in ministries, departments and organisations of the Government of India. It is conducted by the Staff Selection Commission for selecting staff for various Group B and Group C posts. The Staff Selection Commission was established in 1975.PrerequisitesCandidates applying for the various posts need to have a bachelor's degree from a recognised university at the time of applying. The age requirements are between 20 to 30 years. The age limits may vary depending on the position applied. For instance, the position for Inspector of Central Bureau of Narcotics which had an age range from 18 to 27 years, was extended to 30 years in September 2018. The application fee for 2017 is Rs. 100. All women candidates and candidates belonging to Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe, Physically Handicapped, and Ex-Servicemen eligible for reservation are exempted from paying application fee.StructureThe examination has several Tiers which are conducted over different days with results posted after each Tier. Previous exams also included an interview tier, but following a government order, interviews have been dispensed off for all non-gazetted posts in the central government as of 1 January 2016. A computer proficiency test or a skill test was also added as a Tier for some posts. There are four major tiers for the 2018 exam.Tier I: PreliminaryThe Tier I exam consists of a written objective multiple-choice exam with four sections, covering the subjects of:General Intelligence and ReasoningGeneral AwarenessQuantitative AptitudeEnglish ComprehensionThe exam was typically scored with maximum 50 Marks per section for a total of 200 Marks. The latest versions of this exam such as with 2018 have been conducted online.Based on results from Tier I, qualified candidates can then take the Tier II and Tier III exams.Tier II: Mains ExamAlso known as the Mains Exam, the Tier II exam consists of written objective multiple-choice exam, in four sections (also called "Papers"), covering the subjects of:Quantitative AptitudeEnglish Language and ComprehensionStatisticsGeneral Studies, which is subdivided into:Finance & AccountingEconomics & Governance.The exam was typically scored with maximum 200 Marks per section. Most positions required the candidate to take only the first two sections (Paper-I: Quantitative Aptitude, Paper-II: English Language and Comprehension), but certain positions require the third or fourth section. The latest versions of this exam such as the 2018 edition have been conducted online.Tier III exam: Descriptive PaperA pen-and-paper "offline" exam in which candidates are to do writing in the form of essay writing and letter writing, and sometimes précis and application writing. The exam can be done in English or Hindi.Tier IV exam: Data Entry Skill Test / Computer Proficiency TestIn 2016, a fourth tier was added with two possible exams depending on the positions applied:Data Entry Speed Test (DEST): candidates enter data at the rate of 2000 key presses in 15 minutes. This is mainly for positions such as Tax Assistant. (Central Excise & Income Tax)Computer Proficiency Test (CPT): covering the topics of word processing, spreadsheets, and making slides.Other examsOther exams are required for certain positions. The types included:Personality Test / Interview (discontinued starting 2016)Physical Endurance Test / Medical Examination for Central Police Organization (CPO)LogisticsThe 2016 exam was held in 44 batches across 96 cities.There were 3.8 million applicants, of which 1.48 million took the Tier 1 exam. 149,319 candidates passed Tier 1, and 35,096 candidates passed Tier 2. The final number of positions for the 2016 exam was estimated to be about 10,661.Candidates were allowed to view their answer sheets and point out errors in the grading of answers for a fee of Rs. 100 per question.For the 2017 exam, the SSC said about 3,026,598 candidates filled in the online application,of which 1,543,418 candidates took the exam. 226,229 candidates passed Tier and 47,003 candidates passed Tier 2.ControversiesOn 21 February 2018, it was reported that the screenshots of the question paper of the 2017 SSC Tier 2 exam appeared on social media before the exam began.This led to massive protests.The authorities canceled the exam and ordered investigation by the Central Bureau of Investigation.The Tier 3 exam for that year was also postponed.Exam delaysPostponements in exam dates and/or results have been a regular occurrence. In addition to the delays in launching the 2017 Tier 1 exams, the 2016 exam final appointments were delayed. The 2014 exam was also delayed and the 2018 Tier 1 exams are being postponed.There will be a big raise in salaries of SSC CGL Posts after implementation of 7th pay commission. SSC CGL salary structure is being divided into various groups and grade pay. As per the latest SSC CGL Salary structure, in Group “B” post (Gazetted officer) the salary of this rank will be more than compared to other posts. If you are applying for Group “B” post but Non-Gazetted Officer then the salary will be less than Group “B” post (Gazetted officer) and the Pay Scale of group “C” is less than other groups. SSC CGL employees are eligible for Dearness Allowance (DA), Overtime Allowance, City Compensatory Allowance, Travelling Allowance, House Rent Allowance etc. In this article, we have provided more information regarding SSC CGL Salary Structure 2018.Every year SSC organizes the Combined Graduation Level Exam for recruitment of eligible candidates for various posts in different ministries/departments/ organization. Salary package and the allowances given to the SSC employees are diverse for various posts.After 7th pay commission, there will be a hike in SSC CGL Salary structure for all posts. Increment rate of 3% has been retained. Also, two dates of increment have been introduced, 1st of January and 1st of June (Any one of them according to eligibility). The post wise latest SSC CGL Salary structure is given below.Inspector Preventive Officer-59276/-Sub Inspector (NIA)-47496/-Inspector (CBN) (Narcotics)-47496/-Junior Accountant-39808/-MILITARY SERVICES:-The Indian military services have established numerous academies and staff colleges across India for the purpose of training professional soldiers in military sciences, warfare command and strategy, and associated technologies.Education and trainingRashtriya Indian Military College: The Rashtriya Indian Military College (RIMC), Dehradun was founded on 13 March 1922 with the object of providing necessary preliminary recruit training for Indians wishing to become officers in Indian Armed Forces. The institution now runs school classes from 8th to 12th on 10+2 CBSE pattern and serves as a feeder institution to the National Defence Academy, Khadakwasla (Pune), where males who have passed 12th class of school are taken as cadets to receive their initial training for the Army, Navy and Air Force.Chail Military School Chail (oldest one) (Previously known as King George Royal Indian Military College) Shimla.Ajmer Military School Ajmer (Found 1930) (Previously known as King George Royal Indian Military College) AjmerBangalore Military School (Erstwhile King George Military School, Bangalore and now Rashtriya Military School, Bangalore)Belgaum Military SchoolDholpur Military SchoolThe Sainik Schools are a system of schools in India established and managed by the Sainik Schools Society under Ministry of Defence. They were conceived in 1961 by V. K. Krishna Menon, the then Defence Minister of India, to rectify the regional and class imbalance amongst the Officer cadre of the Indian Military, and to prepare students for entry into the National Defence Academy (NDA), Khadakwasla, Pune and Indian Naval Academy. Today there are 25 such schools covering all the states of the country.The schools come under the purview of respective state governments and Ministry of Defence, and in his Union Budget of 2008, Finance minister, P Chidambaram, allocated Rs 2 crore to each of the 22 Sainik schools, to counter rising attrition in the defence forces, especially at the officer level.Integrated national instituteIndian National Defence University at Gurugram in Haryana is likely to commence courses from 2018-19 as an autonomous integrated national institute. At least 66% students will be from the Indian Armed Forces and the remaining 33% will be from the Paramilitary forces of India, Police in India and civilians. Functioning on the similar principals as Indian Institute of Technologys (IIT) and Indian Institute of Managements (IIM), the university will offer post-graduate studies, doctoral and post-doctoral research as well as higher studies through distance learning to military and civilians to be imparted by the mixed teaching faculty composed of military officials and civilians in the ratio of 1:1.Courses will include war gaming and simulation, neighborhood studies, counter insurgency and counter terrorism, Chinese studies, evaluation of strategic thought, international security issues, maritime security studies, Eurasian studies, South East Asian studies, material acquisition, joint logistics, and national security strategy in peace and war.Following existing institutes will be affiliated to the university:National Defence College (NDC) New DelhiCollege of Defence Management (CDM) SecunderabadDefence Services Staff College (DSSC) WellingtonNational Defence Academy (NDA) Khadakwasla.Indian ArmyThe chief institutions training Indian Army officers are:Army War College: It is the premier All Arms Tactical Training Institution for officers and performs important functions of evaluation of concepts and doctrines in the fields of tactics and operational logistics. The institution was earlier known as College of Combat, Mhow and has been re-designated as Army War College, Mhow from 1 January 2003.Infantry School: The Infantry School, Mhow is the largest and the oldest military training centre of the Indian Army. The institution is responsible for developing the complete spectrum of tactical drills and concepts pertaining to infantry operating in varied terrain and environment and introduce them from time to time. This institution also trains the National Shooting Team under the aegis of Army Marksmanship Unit (AMU) which is part of Infantry School.Junior Leaders Wing: The Junior Leaders Wing, Belgaum is part of Infantry School, Mhow and trains junior officers and junior leaders in sub-unit level in tactical and special mission techniques to enable them to carry out assigned operational missions.Indian Military Academy: The Indian Military Academy (IMA), Dehradun is credited with providing excellent officers who are highly disciplined, thoroughly motivated and deeply committed to serve the Nation with honour and dignity. The valediction of the Academy is evident from the bountiful sagas of bravery, valour and sacrifice displayed by its alumni in times of crisis.Officers Training Academy: The Officers Training Academy imparts training to young men and women to enable them to take their rightful place as officers in the Indian Army., Chennai.Officers Training Academy, Gaya:- OTA Gaya, raised in July 2011, is the third pre-commission training (PCT) academy of the Indian Army with a planned training capacity of 750 cadets. It imparts pre commission military training to regular army officers from Technical and SCO entriesHigh Altitude Warfare School: The High Altitude Warfare School (HAWS), Gulmarg is a training establishment imparting specialised Mountain Warfare and Winter Warfare Training to Indian Army personnel.Armoured Corps Centre and School: The Armoured Corps Centre and School (ACCS), Ahmednagar is a premier institution of the Army. It imparts training pertaining to employment of mechanical forces in battle and development of concepts for future battle.School of Artillery: School of Artillery, Deolali Nasik district, Maharashtra is a premier institution of the Army and imparts effective training, evaluation of new equipment for induction and development of new concepts/ doctrine for application of artillery fire.Army Air Defence College: The Army Air Defence College (AADC), Gopalpur imparts training for provision of effective Air Defence Artillery protection to ground forces against long and medium altitude enemy air attacks and also to preserve specified tactical and strategic vital areas and pivotal points from critical danger and destruction from enemy air attacks.College of Military Engineering: The role of College of Military Engineering (CME), Pune encompasses three aspects, i.e., training, advisory, projects research and experimentation.Military College of Telecommunication Engineering: The Military College of Telecommunication Engineering (MCTE), Mhow is a premiere training institute of the Corps of Signals. A variety of courses catering for the training needs in Information Technology and Communication for the Indian Army are conducted at MCTE.Counter-Insurgency and Jungle Warfare School (India) (CIJW School): The CIJW School in Vairengte, Mizoram, is an institution for counter-guerilla training. The institution has risen to be the nodal agency for imparting counter-insurgency training for the other branches.Junior Leader's Academy (JLA), Bareilly and Ramgarh: The Junior Leader's Academy (JLA), Bareilly and Ramgarh conduct institutionalised leadership training for Junior Leaders, who are Junior Commissioned Officers and Non-Commissioned Officers of the Army.Army Service Corps (ASC) Centre and College: The ASC Centre and College, Bangalore imparts training to Officers, personnel below officer rank of Army Service Corps and other arms and services indicating personnel from foreign countries in various disciplines of Suppliers, Fuel, Oil and Lubricants, Mechanical Transport, Animal Transport and Air dispatch. The Centre also trains recruits for induction into service into Army Service Corps.Army Medical Corps (AMC) Centre and School: The AMC Centre and School, Lucknow conducts from basic to advance courses for Army Medical Corps and Military Nursing Service Officers. The Centre also trains recruits for induction into service into Army Medical Corps.College of Materials Management (CMM), Jabalpur: The College of Materials Management (CMM), Jabalpur is the hub centre of all logistics courses for Army. It runs courses like advance material management, higher munition course and quarter master courses for officers, JCOs and NCOs. It also imparts basic training to technical clerks.Military College of Electronic and Mechanical Engineering: The Military College of Electronics and Mechanical Engineering (MCEME), Secunderabad (Telangana) is an institution of technical education in the Army. The College was awarded the Golden Peacock National Training Award (1997) as well as Golden Peacock National Quality Award.Remount and Veterinary Corps (RVC) Centre and School: The RVC Centre and School, Meerut Cantt, imparts basic military and technical training to young veterinary graduates on commission and to various technical tradesmen of the corps like Dressors, Riders, Ferriers, Army Dog trainers and lab attendants. The Centre also trains recruits for induction into service into Remount and Veterinary Corps Centre and School.Army Education Corps (AEC) Training College and Centre: The AEC Training College and Centre, Pachmarhi is a Category 'A' establishment, a Regimental Training Centre for AEC personnel and an Autonomous College affiliated to Barkatullah University, Bhopal.Corps of Military Police (CMP) Centre and School: The CMP Centre and School, Bangalore imparts basic military training to all personnel enrolled in Corps of Military Police and also conduct courses for officers on deputation to the corps.Army School of Physical Training: The Army School of Physical Training (ASPT), Pune runs the Sports Training Course for Army personnel, central police organisation and paramilitary forces to train instructors capable of imparting physical training and sports coaching at appropriate level.Army Airborne Training School: The Army Airborne Training School (AATS), Agra imparts training in aerial delivery and air transportation of men and material. It is also responsible for carrying out Research and Trial pertaining to air portability and para dropping of all types of equipment.Institute of National Integration: The Institute of National Integration (INI), Pune imparts training to Officers, Personnel Below Officer Rank and Religious Teachers. Its focus is on instilling a sense of national and cultural unity in the officer corps.Institute of Military Law: The Institute of Military Law (IML), Kamptee imparts training to officers of Judge Advocate General Branch as well as other arms and services in military and allied law.Army Sports Institute: The Army Sports Institute (ASI) at Pune and Army Sports Nodes is a public-relations sports centre, intended for portraying the Army in a positive light. Appropriate funds have been earmarked for the construction and equipment coupled with food habitat, advertising and training under foreign coaches.Army Cadet College: Army Cadet College (ACC), Dehradun is a Wing of the IMA which caters for training of service cadets selected for commission. On completion of the course, these cadets also qualify for a B.A. or http://B.Sc. degree, recognised by the Jawaharlal Nehru University.Combat Army Aviation Training School (CAATS): CAATS is the main training course for aviators of the air wing of the Army, The Army Aviation Corps. It is located at the Army Aviation Base in Nashik Road. It replaced the Indian Air Force's academy, the Helicopter Training School (HTS), as the main training school for army aviators. It mainly operates Cheetahs and Chetaks and also has Simulators.Others include:Army Clerks Training School, Aurangabad.Army School of Mechanical Transport, Bangalore.Army/ Air Transport Support School, AgraEME School, Vadodara.Military Intelligence Training School and Depot (MITSD), PuneMilitary School of Music - PachmarhiIndian NavyThe Indian Navy has numerous training establishments at various places. The Indian Naval Academy is presently located in Ezhimala, near Kannur in Kerala State.Indian Naval Academy (Officers Training) - EzhimalaINS Agrani (Leadership Training) - CoimbatoreINS Chilka (Sailors Training) - ChilkaINS Dronacharya (Gunnery School) - KochiINS Garuda (Aviation) - KochiINS Hamla (Logistics Training) - MumbaiInstitute of Naval Medicine - MumbaiINS Kunjali (Music Training School) - MumbaiINS Mandovi (Provost and Physical Training School) - GoaNaval Institute of Educational and Training Technology (NIETT) - KochiNational Institute of Hydrography - GoaINS Shivaji (Engineering Training) - LonavlaShipWright School - VisakhapatnamINS Valsura (Electrical Training) - JamnagarINS Venduruthy (Seamen Training) - KochiINS Satavahana (Submarine School) - VisakhapatnamIndian Air ForceThe Indian Air Force has a Training Command and several training establishments. While technical and other support staff are trained at the various Ground Training Schools, the pilots are trained at the Air Force Academy located at Dundigal, near Hyderabad, Telangana.College of Air Warfare- SecunderabadPilot Training Establishment - AllahabadAir Force Administrative College - CoimbatoreInstitute of Aero-Space Medicine - BangaloreAir Force Technical Training College - Jalahalli, near BangaloreParatrooper’s Training School - AgraIndian Air Force Test Pilot School - BangaloreTETTRA Schools - PuneAir Defence College - Memaura (near Lucknow)Indian Coast GuardThe Indian Coast Guard has planned to set up a training establishment for Indian Coast Guard (ICG) personnel at Kannur district of Kerala.Indian Coast Guard Academy - AzhikkalTri-service InstitutionsNational Defence College: The National Defence College (NDC) inaugurated on 27 April 1960 is the only institution in the country that imparts knowledge on all aspects of national security and strategy. Senior Defence and Civil Service Officers participate in a 47-week comprehensive programme of national security and strategy.College of Defence Management: The Institute of Defence Management (IDM), Secunderabad was established in June 1970 to impart modern, scientific management training to the Armed Forces Officers. The IDM was renamed as College of Defence Management (CDM) in 1980. The College has trained over 5,000 officers of the rank of Major to Major General and equivalents of the three Services through its on-campus programmes. It has also given exposure in defence management to a large number of officers through external capsules. Officers from Para-Military Forces, Ministry of Defence, Research and Development Organisations and friendly foreign countries also attend various on-campus programmes.Defence Services Staff College: The Defence Services Staff College (DSSC), Wellington is a premier tri-service training establishment imparting training to middle level officers (Majors and equivalent) of the three wings of Indian Armed Forces, friendly foreign countries and Indian Civil Services. The DSSC is located in picturesque settings at Wellington, near Conoor in The Nilgiris mountains of Tamil Nadu State.National Defence Academy: The National Defence Academy (NDA), Khadakwasla is a premier Inter-Service training institution where future officers of Armed Forces are trained. The training involves an exacting schedule of three years before the cadets join their respective Service Academics, viz., Indian Military Academy, Naval Academy and Air Force Academy.Medical PersonnelArmed Forces Medical College (AFMC)The AFMC is located in Pune, Maharashtra. It is an inter-services institution. AFMC has multiple roles to perform. They are primarily training of medical undergraduates and post-graduates, dental postgraduates, nursing cadets and paramedical staff. Patient care forms an integral part of its training curriculum and the attached hospital benefits from the expertise available at AFMC. The institution is responsible for providing the entire pool of specialists and super-specialists to Armed Forces by giving them in-service training.The AFMC is well known as one of the premier medical institutions of India, and its entrance test is given by thousands of high school students throughout India (both male and female), who compete for its (approximately) 130 seats. Selected candidates are also required to pass a medical and fitness test, which is at par with the one for Officer Cadets. On the completion of the five-year course, the medical cadets are granted short service commission for seven years or permanent commission in the Indian Army, Navy, or Air Force, which includes a one year internship, after which the officers are detailed for Medical Officers' Basic Course (MOBC) at the Officers' Training School at AMC Centre and School at Lucknow for basic military training as well as training in battle-field medicine.Average Indian Army Soldier monthly pay in India is approximately ₹ 33,252, which is 52% above the national average. Salary information comes from 23 data points collected directly from employees, users, and past and present job advertisements on Indeed in the past 36 months.All in all an officer of Indian Army in the rank of Lieutenant Colonel gets around two lakh rupees per month as payment. A lieutenant colonel is promoted to the rank of Colonel. Colonel of Indian Army gets pay band or pay scale of 37000-67000 rupees.Army Captain Pay Calculator. Starting pay for a Captain is $4,046.70 per month, with raises for experience resulting in a maximum base pay of $6,583.50 per month. You can use the simple calculator below to see basic and drill pay for a Captain, or visit our Army pay calculator for a more detailed salary estimate.A brigadier general (the lowest rank for a general) with 20 years of experience earns$137,000 in annual salary, plus a $20,000 allowance—a largely untaxed subsidy for food and housing. Top generals max out at $180,000 in base salary.But military service will give you the golden oppurtunity to serve the nation.

I suggest New York City, and Palm Beach, Florida.In everyday conversation, people rarely distinguish between the terms “culture” and “society,” but the terms have slightly different meanings, and the distinction is important to a sociologist. A society describes a group of people who share a common territory and a culture. By “territory,” sociologists refer to a definable region—as small as a neighbourhood (e.g., East Vancouver or “the west side of town”), as large as a country (e.g., Ethiopia, Canada, or Nepal), or somewhere in between (in Canada, this might include someone who identifies with the West Coast, the Prairies, or Atlantic Canada). To clarify, a culture represents the beliefs, practices and artifacts of a group, while society represents the social structures and organization of the people who share those beliefs and practices. Neither society nor culture could exist without the other. In this chapter, we examine the relationship between culture and society in greater detail, paying special attention to the elements and forces that shape culture, including diversity and cultural changes. A final discussion touches on the different theoretical perspectives from which sociologists research culture.3.1. What Is Culture?Humans are social creatures. Since the dawn of Homo sapiens nearly 250,000 years ago, people have grouped together into communities in order to survive. Living together, people form common habits and behaviours—from specific methods of childrearing to preferred techniques for obtaining food. In modern-day Paris, many people shop daily at outdoor markets to pick up what they need for their evening meal, buying cheese, meat, and vegetables from different specialty stalls. In the Canada, the majority of people shop once a week at supermarkets, filling large carts to the brim. The Parisian Roland Barthes disdainfully referred to this as “the hasty stocking up” of a “more mechanical civilization” (Barthes 1977).Almost every human behaviour, from shopping to marriage to expressions of feelings, is learned. In Canada, people tend to view marriage as a choice between two people, based on mutual feelings of love. In other nations and in other times, marriages have been arranged through an intricate process of interviews and negotiations between entire families, or in other cases, through a direct system such as a “mail order bride.” To someone raised in Winnipeg, the marriage customs of a family from Nigeria may seem strange, or even wrong. Conversely, someone from a traditional Kolkata family might be perplexed with the idea of romantic love as the foundation for the lifelong commitment of marriage. In other words, the way in which people view marriage depends largely on what they have been taught.Behaviour based on learned customs is not a bad thing. Being familiar with unwritten rules helps people feel secure and “normal.” Most people want to live their daily lives confident that their behaviours will not be challenged or disrupted. But even an action as seemingly simple as commuting to work evidences a great deal of cultural propriety.Figure 3.2. How would a visitor from a rural Canadian town act and feel on this crowded Tokyo train? (Photo courtesy of simonglucas/flickr)Take the case of going to work on public transportation. Whether commuting in Dublin, Cairo, Mumbai, or Vancouver, many behaviours will be the same in all locations, but significant differences also arise between cultures. Typically, a passenger would find a marked bus stop or station, wait for the bus or train, pay an agent before or after boarding, and quietly take a seat if one is available. But when boarding a bus in Cairo, passengers might have to run, because buses there often do not come to a full stop to take on patrons. Dublin bus riders would be expected to extend an arm to indicate that they want the bus to stop for them. And when boarding a commuter train in Mumbai, passengers must squeeze into overstuffed cars amid a lot of pushing and shoving on the crowded platforms. That kind of behaviour would be considered the height of rudeness in Canada, but in Mumbai it reflects the daily challenges of getting around on a train system that is taxed to capacity.In this example of commuting, culture consists of thoughts (expectations about personal space, for example) and tangible things (bus stops, trains, and seating capacity). Material culture refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people. Metro passes and bus tokens are part of material culture, as are automobiles, stores, and the physical structures where people worship. Nonmaterial culture, in contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society. Material and nonmaterial aspects of culture are linked, and physical objects often symbolize cultural ideas. A metro pass is a material object, but it represents a form of nonmaterial culture, namely, capitalism, and the acceptance of paying for transportation. Clothing, hairstyles, and jewellery are part of material culture, but the appropriateness of wearing certain clothing for specific events reflects nonmaterial culture. A school building belongs to material culture, but the teaching methods and educational standards are part of education’s nonmaterial culture. These material and nonmaterial aspects of culture can vary subtly from region to region. As people travel farther afield, moving from different regions to entirely different parts of the world, certain material and nonmaterial aspects of culture become dramatically unfamiliar. What happens when we encounter different cultures? As we interact with cultures other than our own, we become more aware of the differences and commonalities between others’ worlds and our own.Cultural UniversalsOften, a comparison of one culture to another will reveal obvious differences. But all cultures share common elements. Cultural universals are patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies. One example of a cultural universal is the family unit: every human society recognizes a family structure that regulates sexual reproduction and the care of children. Even so, how that family unit is defined and how it functions vary. In many Asian cultures, for example, family members from all generations commonly live together in one household. In these cultures, young adults will continue to live in the extended household family structure until they marry and join their spouse’s household, or they may remain and raise their nuclear family within the extended family’s homestead. In Canada, by contrast, individuals are expected to leave home and live independently for a period before forming a family unit consisting of parents and their offspring.Anthropologist George Murdock first recognized the existence of cultural universals while studying systems of kinship around the world. Murdock found that cultural universals often revolve around basic human survival, such as finding food, clothing, and shelter, or around shared human experiences, such as birth and death, or illness and healing. Through his research, Murdock identified other universals including language, the concept of personal names, and, interestingly, jokes. Humor seems to be a universal way to release tensions and create a sense of unity among people (Murdock 1949). Sociologists consider humour necessary to human interaction because it helps individuals navigate otherwise tense situations.Despite how much humans have in common, cultural differences are far more prevalent than cultural universals. For example, while all cultures have language, analysis of particular language structures and conversational etiquette reveal tremendous differences. In some Middle Eastern cultures, it is common to stand close to others in conversation. North Americans keep more distance, maintaining a large “personal space.” Even something as simple as eating and drinking varies greatly from culture to culture. If your professor comes into an early morning class holding a mug of liquid, what do you assume she is drinking? In the United States, it’s most likely filled with coffee, not Earl Grey tea, a favourite in England, or Yak Butter tea, a staple in Tibet.The way cuisines vary across cultures fascinates many people. Some travellers, like celebrated food writer Anthony Bourdain, pride themselves on their willingness to try unfamiliar foods, while others return home expressing gratitude for their native culture’s fare. Canadians often express disgust at other cultures’ cuisine, thinking it is gross to eat meat from a dog or guinea pig, for example, while they do not question their own habit of eating cows or pigs. Such attitudes are an example of ethnocentrism, or evaluating and judging another culture based on how it compares to one’s own cultural norms. Ethnocentrism, as sociologist William Graham Sumner (1906) described the term, involves a belief or attitude that one’s own culture is better than all others. Almost everyone is a little bit ethnocentric. For example, Canadians tend to say that people from England drive on the “wrong” side of the road, rather than the “other” side. Someone from a country where dogs are considered dirty and unhygienic might find it off-putting to see a dog in a French restaurant.A high level of appreciation for one’s own culture can be healthy; a shared sense of community pride, for example, connects people in a society. But ethnocentrism can lead to disdain or dislike for other cultures, causing misunderstanding and conflict. People with the best intentions sometimes travel to a society to “help” its people, seeing them as uneducated or backward, essentially inferior. In reality, these travellers are guilty of cultural imperialism—the deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture. Europe’s colonial expansion, begun in the 16th century, was often accompanied by a severe cultural imperialism. European colonizers often viewed the people in the lands they colonized as uncultured savages who were in need of European governance, dress, religion, and other cultural practices. On the West Coast of Canada, the aboriginal “potlatch” (gift-giving) ceremony was made illegal in 1885 because it was thought to prevent natives from acquiring the proper industriousness and respect for material goods required by civilization. A more modern example of cultural imperialism may include the work of international aid agencies who introduce modern technological agricultural methods and plant species from developed countries while overlooking indigenous varieties and agricultural approaches that are better suited to the particular region.Ethnocentrism can be so strong that when confronted with all the differences of a new culture, one may experience disorientation and frustration. In sociology, we call this “culture shock.” A traveller from Chicago might find the nightly silence of rural Montana unsettling, not peaceful. An exchange student from China might be annoyed by the constant interruptions in class as other students ask questions—a practice that is considered rude in China. Perhaps the Chicago traveller was initially captivated with Montana’s quiet beauty and the Chinese student was originally excited to see an American-style classroom firsthand. But as they experience unanticipated differences from their own culture, their excitement gives way to discomfort and doubts about how to behave appropriately in the new situation. Eventually, as people learn more about a culture, they recover from culture shock.Culture shock may appear because people aren’t always expecting cultural differences. Anthropologist Ken Barger (1971) discovered this when conducting participatory observation in an Inuit community in the Canadian Arctic. Originally from Indiana, Barger hesitated when invited to join a local snowshoe race. He knew he’d never hold his own against these experts. Sure enough, he finished last, to his mortification. But the tribal members congratulated him, saying, “You really tried!” In Barger’s own culture, he had learned to value victory. To the Inuit people, winning was enjoyable, but their culture valued survival skills essential to their environment: how hard someone tried could mean the difference between life and death. Over the course of his stay, Barger participated in caribou hunts, learned how to take shelter in winter storms, and sometimes went days with little or no food to share among tribal members. Trying hard and working together, two nonmaterial values, were indeed much more important than winning.Values and BeliefsThe first, and perhaps most crucial, elements of culture we will discuss are its values and beliefs. Values are a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society. Values are deeply embedded and critical for transmitting and teaching a culture’s beliefs. Beliefs are the tenets or convictions that people hold to be true. Individuals in a society have specific beliefs, but they also share collective values. To illustrate the difference, North Americans commonly believe that anyone who works hard enough will be successful and wealthy. Underlying this belief is the value that wealth is good and important.Values help shape a society by suggesting what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly, sought or avoided. Consider the value the culture North Americans place upon youth. Children represent innocence and purity, while a youthful adult appearance signifies sexuality. Shaped by this value, individuals spend millions of dollars each year on cosmetic products and surgeries to look young and beautiful.Sometimes the values of Canada and the United States are contrasted. Americans are said to have an individualistic culture, meaning people place a high value on individuality and independence. In contrast, Canadian culture is said to be more collectivist, meaning the welfare of the group and group relationships are a primary value. Seymour Martin Lipset used these contrasts of values to explain why the two societies, which have common roots as British colonies, developed such different political institutions and cultures (Lipset 1990).Living up to a culture’s values can be difficult. It’s easy to value good health, but it’s hard to quit smoking. Marital monogamy is valued, but many spouses engage in infidelity. Cultural diversity and equal opportunities for all people are valued in Canada, yet the country’s highest political offices have been dominated by white men.Values often suggest how people should behave, but they do not accurately reflect how people do behave. As we saw in Chapter 1, Harriet Martineau’s basic distinction between what people say they believe and what they actually do are often at odds. Values portray an ideal culture, the standards society would like to embrace and live up to. But ideal culture differs from real culture, the way society actually is, based on what occurs and exists. In an ideal culture, there would be no traffic accidents, murders, poverty, or racial tension. But in real culture, police officers, lawmakers, educators, and social workers constantly strive to prevent or repair those accidents, crimes, and injustices. Teenagers are encouraged to value celibacy. However, the number of unplanned pregnancies among teens reveals that not only is the ideal hard to live up to, but that the value alone is not enough to spare teenagers from the potential consequences of having sex.One way societies strive to put values into action is through rewards, sanctions, and punishments. When people observe the norms of society and uphold its values, they are often rewarded. A boy who helps an elderly woman board a bus may receive a smile and a “thank you.” A business manager who raises profit margins may receive a quarterly bonus. People sanction certain behaviours by giving their support, approval, or permission, or by instilling formal actions of disapproval and non-support. Sanctions are a form of social control, a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms. Sometimes people conform to norms in anticipation or expectation of positive sanctions: good grades, for instance, may mean praise from parents and teachers.When people go against a society’s values, they are punished. A boy who shoves an elderly woman aside to board the bus first may receive frowns or even a scolding from other passengers. A business manager who drives away customers will likely be fired. Breaking norms and rejecting values can lead to cultural sanctions such as earning a negative label—lazy, no-good bum—or to legal sanctions such as traffic tickets, fines, or imprisonment.Values are not static; they vary across time and between groups as people evaluate, debate, and change collective societal beliefs. Values also vary from culture to culture. For example, cultures differ in their values about what kinds of physical closeness are appropriate in public. It’s rare to see two male friends or coworkers holding hands in Canada where that behaviour often symbolizes romantic feelings. But in many nations, masculine physical intimacy is considered natural in public. A simple gesture, such as hand-holding, carries great symbolic differences across cultures.Figure 3.5. In many parts of Africa and the Middle East, it is considered normal for men to hold hands in friendship. How would Canadians react to these two soldiers? (Photo courtesy of Geordie Mott/Wikimedia Commons)NormsSo far, the examples in this chapter have often described how people are expected to behave in certain situations—for example, when buying food or boarding a bus. These examples describe the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured, or what sociologists call norms. Norms define how to behave in accordance with what a society has defined as good, right, and important, and most members of the society adhere to them.Formal norms are established, written rules. They are behaviours worked out and agreed upon in order to suit and serve the most people. Laws are formal norms, but so are employee manuals, college entrance exam requirements, and “no running” signs at swimming pools. Formal norms are the most specific and clearly stated of the various types of norms, and the most strictly enforced. But even formal norms are enforced to varying degrees, reflected in cultural valuesFor example, money is highly valued in North America, so monetary crimes are punished. It’s against the law to rob a bank, and banks go to great lengths to prevent such crimes. People safeguard valuable possessions and install antitheft devices to protect homes and cars. Until recently, a less strictly enforced social norm was driving while intoxicated. While it is against the law to drive drunk, drinking is for the most part an acceptable social behaviour. Though there have been laws in Canada to punish drunk driving since 1921, there were few systems in place to prevent the crime until quite recently. These examples show a range of enforcement in formal norms.There are plenty of formal norms, but the list of informal norms—casual behaviours that are generally and widely conformed to—is longer. People learn informal norms by observation, imitation, and general socialization. Some informal norms are taught directly—“Kiss your Aunt Edna” or “Use your napkin”—while others are learned by observation, including observations of the consequences when someone else violates a norm. Children learn quickly that picking your nose is subject to ridicule when they see someone shamed for it by other children. But although informal norms define personal interactions, they extend into other systems as well. Think back to the discussion of fast food restaurants at the beginning of this chapter. In Canada, there are informal norms regarding behaviour at these restaurants. Customers line up to order their food, and leave when they are done. They do not sit down at a table with strangers, sing loudly as they prepare their condiments, or nap in a booth. Most people do not commit even benign breaches of informal norms. Informal norms dictate appropriate behaviours without the need of written rules.Symbols and LanguageHumans, consciously and subconsciously, are always striving to make sense of their surrounding world. Symbols—such as gestures, signs, objects, signals, and words—help people understand the world. Symbols provide clues to understanding experiences. They convey recognizable meanings that are shared by societies.The world is filled with symbols. Sports uniforms, company logos, and traffic signs are symbols. In some cultures, a gold ring is a symbol of marriage. Some symbols are highly functional; stop signs, for instance, provide useful instruction. As physical objects, they belong to material culture, but because they function as symbols, they also convey nonmaterial cultural meanings. Some symbols are only valuable in what they represent. Trophies, blue ribbons, or gold medals, for example, serve no other purpose other than to represent accomplishments. But many objects have both material and nonmaterial symbolic value.A police officer’s badge and uniform are symbols of authority and law enforcement. The sight of an officer in uniform or a squad car triggers reassurance in some citizens, and annoyance, fear, or anger in others.It’s easy to take symbols for granted. Few people challenge or even think about stick figure signs on the doors of public bathrooms. But those figures are more than just symbols that tell men and women which bathrooms to use. They also uphold the value, in North America, that public restrooms should be gender exclusive. Even though stalls are relatively private, it is still relatively uncommon for places to offer unisex bathrooms.Figure 3.6. Some road signs are universal. But how would you interpret the signage on the right? (Photo (a) courtesy of Andrew Bain/flickr; Photo (b) courtesy of HonzaSoukup/flickr)Symbols often get noticed when they are used out of context. Used unconventionally, symbols convey strong messages. A stop sign on the door of a corporation makes a political statement, as does a camouflage military jacket worn in an antiwar protest. Together, the semaphore signals for “N” and “D” represent nuclear disarmament—and form the well-known peace sign (Westcott 2008). Internet “memes”—images that spread from person to person through reposting—often adopt the tactics of “detournement” or misappropriation used by the French Situationists of the 1950s and 1960s. The Situationists sought to subvert media and political messages by altering them slightly—“detouring” or hijacking them—in order to defamiliarize familiar messages, signs, and symbols. An ordinary image of a cat combined with the grammatically challenged caption “I Can Has Cheezburger?” spawned an internet phenomenon (LOL Cats) because of the funny, nonsensical nature of its non-sequitur message. An image of Prime Minister Stephen Harper in a folksy sweater holding a cute cat, altered to show him holding an oily duck instead, is a detournement with a more political message.Even the destruction of symbols is symbolic. Effigies representing public figures are beaten to demonstrate anger at certain leaders. In 1989, crowds tore down the Berlin Wall, a decades-old symbol of the division between East and West Germany, communism, and capitalism.While different cultures have varying systems of symbols, there is one that is common to all: language. Language is a symbolic system through which people communicate and through which culture is transmitted. Some languages contain a system of symbols used for written communication, while others rely only on spoken communication and nonverbal actions.Societies often share a single language, and many languages contain the same basic elements. An alphabet is a written system made of symbolic shapes that refer to spoken sound. Taken together, these symbols convey specific meanings. The English alphabet uses a combination of 26 letters to create words; these 26 letters make up over 600,000 recognized English words (OED Online 2011).Rules for speaking and writing vary even within cultures, most notably by region. Do you refer to a can of carbonated liquid as a “soda,” “pop,” or “soft drink”? Is a household entertainment room a “family room,” “rec room,” or “den”? When leaving a restaurant, do you ask your server for the “cheque,” the “ticket,” “l’addition,” or the “bill”?Language is constantly evolving as societies create new ideas. In this age of technology, people have adapted almost instantly to new nouns such as “email” and “internet,” and verbs such as “downloading,” “texting,” and “blogging.” Twenty years ago, the general public would have considered these nonsense words.Even while it constantly evolves, language continues to shape our reality. This insight was established in the 1920s by two linguists, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf. They believed that reality is culturally determined, and that any interpretation of reality is based on a society’s language. To prove this point, the sociologists argued that every language has words or expressions specific to that language. In Canada, for example, the number 13 is associated with bad luck. In Japan, however, the number four is considered unlucky, since it is pronounced similarly to the Japanese word for “death.”The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is based on the idea that people experience their world through their language, and that they therefore understand their world through the culture embedded in their language. The hypothesis, which has also been called linguistic relativity, states that language shapes thought (Swoyer 2003). Studies have shown, for instance, that unless people have access to the word “ambivalent,” they do not recognize an experience of uncertainty due to conflicting positive and negative feelings about one issue. Essentially, the hypothesis argues, if a person cannot describe the experience, the person is not having the experience.In addition to using language, people communicate without words. Nonverbal communication is symbolic, and, as in the case of language, much of it is learned through one’s culture. Some gestures are nearly universal: smiles often represent joy and crying often represents sadness. Other nonverbal symbols vary across cultural contexts in their meaning. A thumbs-up, for example, indicates positive reinforcement in Canada, whereas in Russia and Australia, it is an offensive curse (Passero 2002). Other gestures vary in meaning depending on the situation and the person. A wave of the hand can mean many things, depending on how it is done and for whom. It may mean “hello,” “goodbye,” “no thank you,” or “I’m royalty.” Winks convey a variety of messages, including “We have a secret,” “I’m only kidding,” or “I’m attracted to you.” From a distance, a person can understand the emotional gist of two people in conversation just by watching their body language and facial expressions. Furrowed brows and folded arms indicate a serious topic, possibly an argument. Smiles, with heads lifted and arms open, suggest a lighthearted, friendly chat.It may seem obvious that there are a multitude of cultural differences between societies in the world. After all, we can easily see that people vary from one society to the next. It is natural that a young woman from rural Kenya would have a very different view of the world from an elderly man in Mumbai—one of the most populated cities in the world. Additionally, each culture has its own internal variations. Sometimes the differences between cultures are not nearly as large as the differences inside cultures however.High Culture and Popular CultureDo you prefer listening to opera or hip hop music? Do you like watching horse jumping or NASCAR? Do you read books of poetry or celebrity magazines? In each pair, one type of entertainment is considered high-brow and the other low-brow. Sociologists use the term high culture to describe the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of a society. People often associate high culture with intellectualism, aesthetic taste, political power, and prestige. In North America, high culture also tends to be associated with wealth. Events considered high culture can be expensive and formal—attending a ballet, seeing a play, or listening to a live symphony performance.The term popular culture refers to the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in mainstream society. Popular culture events might include a parade, a baseball game, or a rock concert. Rock and pop music—“pop” short for “popular”—are part of popular culture. In modern times, popular culture is often expressed and spread via commercial media such as radio, television, movies, the music industry, publishers, and corporate-run websites. Unlike high culture, popular culture is known and accessible to most people. You can share a discussion of favourite hockey teams with a new coworker, or comment on American Idol when making small talk in line at the grocery store. But if you tried to launch into a deep discussion on the classical Greek play Antigone, few members of Canadian society today would be familiar with it.Although high culture may be viewed as superior to popular culture, the labels of “high culture” and “popular culture” vary over time and place. Shakespearean plays, considered pop culture when they were written, are now among our society’s high culture. In the current second “Golden Age of Television,” (the first Golden Age was in the 1950s and 1960s), television programming has gone from typical low-brow situation comedies, soap operas, and crime dramas to the development of “high-quality” series with increasingly sophisticated characters, narratives, and themes (e.g., The Sopranos, True Blood, Dexter, Breaking Bad, Mad Men, and Game of Thrones).Contemporary culture is frequently referred to as a “postmodern culture.” In the era of modern culture, or modernity, the distinction between high culture and popular culture framed the experience of culture in more or less a clear way. The high culture of modernity was often experimental and avant-garde, seeking new and original forms in literature, art, and music to express the elusive, transient, underlying experiences of the modern human condition. It appealed to a limited-but-sophisticated audience. Popular culture was simply the culture of “the people,” immediately accessible and easily digestible, either in the guise of folk traditions or commercialized mass culture. In postmodern culture this distinction begins to break down and it becomes more common to find various sorts of “mash ups” of high and low: serious literature combined with zombie themes, pop music constructed from samples of original “hooks” and melodies, symphony orchestras performing the soundtracks of cartoons, architecture that borrows and blends historical styles, etc. Rock and roll music is the subject of many high-brow histories and academic analyses, just as the common objects of popular culture are transformed and re-presented as high art (e.g., Andy Warhol’s Campbell Soup cans and Marilyn Munro pictures). The dominant sensibility of postmodern popular culture is both playful and ironic, as if the blending and mixing of cultural references (in the television show The Simpsons, for example) is one big “in” joke.Subculture and CountercultureA subculture is just as it sounds—a smaller cultural group within a larger culture; people of a subculture are part of the larger culture, but also share a specific identity within a smaller group.Thousands of subcultures exist within Canada. Ethnic groups share the language, food, and customs of their heritage. Other subcultures are united by shared experiences. Biker culture revolves around a dedication to motorcycles. Some subcultures are formed by members who possess traits or preferences that differ from the majority of a society’s population. Alcoholics Anonymous offers support to those suffering from alcoholism. The body modification community embraces aesthetic additions to the human body, such as tattoos, piercings, and certain forms of plastic surgery. The post-Second World War period was characterized by a series of “spectacular” youth cultures: Teddy boys, beatniks, mods, hippies, skinheads, Rastas, punks, new wavers, ravers, hip-hoppers, and hipsters. But even as members of a subculture band together, they still identify with and participate in the larger society.Sociologists distinguish subcultures from countercultures, which are a type of subculture that rejects some of the larger culture’s norms and values. In contrast to subcultures, which operate relatively smoothly within the larger society, countercultures might actively defy larger society by developing their own set of rules and norms to live by, sometimes even creating communities that operate outside of greater society.Cults, a word derived from culture, are also considered counterculture groups. They are usually informal, transient religious groups or movements that deviate from orthodox beliefs and often, but not always, involve allegiance to a charismatic leader. The group Yearning for Zion (YFZ) in Eldorado, Texas, existed outside the mainstream, and the limelight, until its leader was accused of statutory rape and underage marriage. The sect’s formal norms clashed too severely to be tolerated by U.S. law, and in 2008, authorities raided the compound, removing more than 200 women and children from the property.