The Lincoln Memorial University Student Body Diversity: Fill & Download for Free

It would be hard to suggest that Columbia University hasn’t been a success almost from the start. Founded as Kings College in 1754 on a charter from King George II, it is one of the oldest and most prestigious undergraduate universities in the United States. The undergradate college, also Columbia, has an enrollment of about 4600 with an annual acceptance rate hovering just above 6%, it is surely a success.[1]Columbia, along with its associated (once sister school) Barnard, is seen, at least from my vantage point, as one of the very best. For many Americans, it may appear scarred by the fact that it is located on the upper west side of Manhattan Island in New York City. It’s an urban college with all the joys, opportunities, and risks associated with that location. It’s expensive to attend and difficult to find reasonable nearby housing. Columbia remains among the most diverse student bodies of any of the Ivy schools, or other schools in the nation. Here’s a chart:[2]The campus, as I remember from my childhood, is impressive. The main quadrangal is dominated by the Library, with a huge statue by Daniel French’s Alma Mater dominating it. (French was also the sculptor of the Lincoln Statue in the Lincoln Memorial.) The Hudson River rolls by to the West, while the campus spreads out through the Morningside Heights neighborhood in the City.You simply can’t go wrong attending Columbia!Footnotes[1] Columbia College (New York) - Wikipedia[2] How Diverse is Columbia University in the City of New York?

Q. Which medical schools are the cheapest in the US?A2A: Multiple lists (US, private vs public, in-state v. out-of-state, DO vs MD, Caribbean, Europe and worldwide). State residency for acceptance and tuition purposes can be established by property ownership or employment for one year.10 Most Affordable Private Medical Schools (2016)Top 10 Most Affordable Medical Schools - HospitalCareers.com10 Most Affordable Public Medical Schools for In-State Students (2016)10 Least Expensive Public Medical Schools for Out-of-State Students (2011)The 10 Most Affordable Medical Schools in the U.S. (2013)7 Most Affordable Caribbean Medical Schools (2015)5 Cheap Places to Study Medicine in Europe (2015)5 Highly Ranked Medical Schools that Save You Money (2014)10 Most Affordable Private Medical SchoolsEach of these schools charged less than $50,000 for the 2015-2016 school year, U.S. News data show.By Jordan Friedman | Editor March 29, 2016, at 9:00 a.m.Most of the schools that charged the lowest tuition and fees placed in the bottom 25 percent of the U.S. News rankings of Best Medical Schools for research. (DANIELA JOVANOVSKA-HRISTOVSKA/GETTY IMAGES)The U.S. News Short List, separate from our overall rankings, is a regular series that magnifies individual data points in hopes of providing students and parents a way to find which undergraduate or graduate programs excel or have room to grow in specific areas.Medical school is generally a large investment. But at these institutions, you might be able to get an education for a relatively lower price.[Get advice on paying for medical school.]Of the 10 private medical schools that had the lowest tuition and fees in the 2015-2016 academic year, most were ranked in the bottom one-fourth of the 2017 U.S. News Best Medical Schools rankings for research. The Baylor College of Medicine was the only institution on the list to rank among the top 20.These 10 schools charged an average of nearly $42,900 in tuition and fees. The average among all 48 schools that submitted this data to U.S. News in an annual survey was slightly more than $52,500.Columbia University had the highest tuition and fees for 2015-2016, at $61,485, while the Baylor College of Medicine had the lowest, at $31,663.Meanwhile, the No. 1 ranked medical school for research, Harvard University, charged $57,485 in tuition and fees, placing it among the most expensive schools.Top 10 Most Affordable Medical Schools - HospitalCareers.comSeptember 21, 2016U.S. News and World Report releases its yearly rankings of the best colleges and universities, including medical schools, in the country every year since 1983. Over the decades, the rankings become more comprehensive and diverse.Now the publication divides its rankings into sub-categories– best graduate schools, cheapest universities, most expensive colleges, best online programs, etc.Among this year’s list of lists is the “10 Most Affordable Medical Schools,” which not only ranks the schools according to tuition cost, but also cross-references them according their position on other USNAWR lists.The publication reports that public medical school grads who took out loans had an average $167,763 debt in 2014. For private school graduates, the figure rose to $190,053, according to the Association of American Medical Colleges.In other words, the average in-debt med-school grad essentially works their first few years—in residency, before the big bucks start rolling in—to pay back school loans.10. Rocky Vista UniversitySituated in Colorado, The College of Osteopathic Medicine at Rocky Vista University costs $48,578 a year. It comes in last of the most affordable medical schools in the private sector. With 623 students and 62 full-time faculty, they have a .1:1 faculty to student ratio. Most of the graduates go into pathology, pediatrics, or family practice. They don’t rank for best research or primary care, but at least you are close to the Rockies.9. Mayo Medical SchoolThe Mayo Medical School costs $47,440 a year, but ranks #27 for best research institutions and ties #42nd for primary care. Its has only 216 students in the program and with over 3,000 full-time faculty, they have the highest faculty to student ratio at 14.9:1. From early on, students get submersed in different fields through short term, hand-picked classes to gauge their interests. Of all their graduates 70 percent get into their first choice of residency programs. Most graduates go into the fields of anesthesiology, dermatology, surgery, and internal medicine.8. Howard UniversityHoward University’s medical program has “conferred over 25,000 doctoral and professional degrees to scientists and health care professionals, the majority whom are from underrepresented and disadvantaged populations.” The college is historically an African American college and has a rich history and famous Alumni like Pulitzer Prize-winning Author Toni Morrison and former US Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall. Students can expect to pay $46,838 a year for the medical program and be a part of only about 456 other medical students. Most graduates go into the fields of anesthesiology, emergency medicine, and internal medicine.7. Touro College of Osteopathic MedicineWith 545 students and a faculty to student ratio of .04:1, the full-time cost of Touro College of Osteopathic Medicine is $45,950 a year. The school isn’t ranked for best research or primary care, but 91.5 percent of graduates who applied to residency programs got their first choice. Most graduates go into emergency medicine, family practice, and internal medicine.6. Lincoln Memorial UniversityThe Debusk College of Osteopathic Medicine at LMU costs $44,320 and is in Harrogate, TN–which is in the middle of nowhere. Only about 820 students go there and with only 41 full-time faculty, they find themselves with heavy class loads. They don’t rank for research or primary care and most graduates go into emergency medicine, family practice, and internal medicine.5. University of MiamiThe Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine at The University of Miami costs $42,610 per year. It is ranked 45th in research, but doesn’t rank on the list for primary care. With only 803 students, they have one of the better faculty to student ratios yet at 1.7:1. Most graduates go into anesthesiology, dermatology, or internal medicine.4. Edward Via College of Osteopathic MedicineAt $42,500 a year for full-time tuition, Edward Via College, lands on the list at #4. It is another school that doesn’t rank for best schools for research or primary care. With 1,374 students, they have a .1:1 faculty to student ratio. A plus to this school, is that out of all of their graduates, 82.9% who applied to residency programs were admitted to their first choice. Most of them go into anesthesiology, emergency medicine, and family practice.3. University of PikevilleAverage, full time tuition at The University of Pikeville, Kentucky is $40,120 a year. This institution doesn’t rank on the lists for best research or primary care schools. With only 479 students they have a faculty to student ratio of .1:1. Most graduates go into anesthesiology, emergency medicine, and family practice.2. Lake Erie College of Osteopathic MedicineAt $32,510 a year, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine is the second most inexpensive private college on our list of medical schools. With a student population of 2,241 students, they have a 5:1 faculty to student ratio. They don’t rank in terms of best research institutions, but they come in 57th for primary care institutions. Most students go into family practice, pediatrics, and internal medicine.1. Baylor College of MedicineWith annual tuition and fees set at $31,618 for 2014-2015, Baylor earned top honors as the most affordable medical school in this year’s rankings. Baylor scored well in other categories, too, ranking number 21 on the publication’s list of best medical research institutions, and number 11 on the list of best primary care institutions.By way of comparison, medical students at Columbia University paid the most in tuition and fees among private school students, at $59,063.This year’s list remained mostly the same from last year’s ranking, with Howard University being the only new name in the top 10.10 Most Affordable Public Medical Schools for In-State StudentsThe cost for in-state students to attend one of these medical schools is less than $23,000 a year, U.S. News data show.By Farran Powell | Reporter Aug. 2, 2016, at 9:00 a.m.The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center was the highest-ranked school on the list in both of the U.S. News Best Medical Schools categories, placing No. 25 for research and No. 22 for primary care. (STEVE DEBENPOR/ GETTY IMAGES)While paying for medical school isn't cheap, attending a public school as an in-state student can help reduce some of the financial burden amid rising tuition costs.For those attending a public medical school as an in-state student, the average tuition price rose by about 4 percent for the 2015-2016 school year compared with the prior year, according to an annual report released by the Association of American Medical Colleges.[Explore the 2016 Best Medical Schools.]But despite the uptick in price, the average cost of attending a medical school as an in-state student compared with going to a private school is much less.Of the 67 public schools that submitted in-state tuition and fees data to U.S. News for the 2015-2016 school year, the average cost was $32,495 per year. That cost is much higher at private medical schools​, where the average price for tuition and fees is $52,515, according to the data submitted by 48 private medical schools to U.S. News in an annual survey.The average cost for tuition and fees among the 10 least expensive medical schools for in-state students was $19,355 per year.[See if you are ready to apply to medical school.]Medical students attending the Texas A&M Health Science Center – which tops the list of least expensive public medical schools for in-state students – received the biggest break, paying $16,432 as state residents. The cost of attending this Central Texas med school is nearly half the in-state average among all public medical schools.Don't see your school in the top 10? Access the U.S. News Medical School Compass to find information on medical school debt, complete rankings and much more. School officials can access historical data and rankings, including of peer institutions, via U.S. News Academic Insights.U.S. News surveyed 170 medical schools for our 2015 survey of research and primary care programs. Schools self-reported myriad data regarding their academic programs and the makeup of their student body, among other areas, making U.S. News' data the most accurate and detailed collection of college facts and figures of its kind. While U.S. News uses much of this survey data to rank schools for our annual Best Medical Schools rankings, the data can also be useful when examined on a smaller scale. U.S. News will now produce lists of data, separate from the overall rankings, meant to provide students and parents a means to find which schools excel, or have room to grow, in specific areas that are important to them. While the data come from the schools themselves, these lists are not related to, and have no influence over, U.S. News' rankings of Best Colleges, Best Graduate Schools or Best Online Programs. The tuition and fees data above are correct as of Aug. 2, 2016.Farran Powell REPORTERFarran Powell is an education reporter at U.S. News, covering paying for college and graduate school. You can follow her on Twitter or email her at [email protected] Least Expensive Public Medical Schools for Out-of-State StudentsWhile in-state options may be cheaper, some medical schools offer deals for students out of state.By Ryan Lytle | Staff Writer Nov. 22, 2011, at 9:00 a.m.U.S. NEWSStudents interested in saving money while attending medical school might be inclined to explore public school options. Although in-state schools may be able to offer more deals for their residents, there are some opportunities to go beyond your home state while keeping within a set budget.Among the 83 public medical programs surveyed annually by U.S. News, 68 reported annual out-of-state tuition and fees data for the 2010-2011 academic year. Overall, medical students attending a public school out of state spent an average of $48,386 annually in tuition and required fees. This is more than the $43,962 price tag students at private medical schools paid on average during the same time period.[Explore the 10 least expensive private medical schools.]While the out-of-state costs may be high at some programs, students can find cheaper alternatives. Among the 10 least expensive public medical school programs for out-of-state students, the average annual cost for tuition and required fees was $31,763. The College of Medicine at Texas A&M Health Science Center is the least expensive public medical school for out-of-state students, with an annual cost of $26,682—more than $20,000 less than the national average. Texas schools were well represented, with the Lone Star State fielding the top six least expensive public programs. Highly ranked students sometimes are offered “scholarships” by way of in-state tuition.The F. Edward Hebert School of Medicine at Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, a federal service postgraduate academy that charges $0 in tuition and fees in return for military service, was excluded from this list, as were schools designated as Unranked by U.S. News.Don't see your school in the top 10? Access the U.S. News Medical School Compass to find tuition data, residency statistics, and much more.U.S. News surveyed more than 140 medical schools for our 2010 survey of research and primary care programs. Schools self-reported a myriad of data regarding their academic programs and the makeup of their student body, among other areas, making U.S. News's data the most accurate and detailed collection of college facts and figures of its kind. While the data comes from the schools themselves, these lists have no influence over U.S. News's rankings of Best Colleges or Best Graduate Schools.The 10 Most Affordable Medical Schools in the U.S.Published on November 4, 2013 at 9:58 am by DAVID NIXON in ListsMost affordable medical schools: Wonder which are the most affordable medical schools in the US? College nowadays is a rather expensive endeavor for most students in the US. Medical schools are no exception, as they rank as some of the most costly colleges in the nation. On average, a first-year medical student will spend almost $50,000 for tuition and fees, according to 2012-2013 data. But you should not let this overwhelming price tag dwindle your hopes of becoming doctor, as there are cheaper alternatives one can choose.We would like to present you with a list we have compiled of the top 10 most affordable medical schools in the US. The following colleges represent the cheapest option for attending quality courses and obtaining a medical degree. Well, aside from obtaining a scholarship. On average, students who enroll in one of the following medical schools pay 10,000 less than their counterparts who choose one of the more expensive options. The Baylor College of Medicine in Texas, which emerged as the number one most affordable medical school in the US has a tuition that amounts, along with other fees, to a little over $30,000. That’s $20,000 than the national average.The figures used in ranking the following ten medical schools were taken from the yearly statistics released by US News. All figures are accurate as of June 30, 2013. It is important to note that college life does incur other costs, apart from tuition and fees, such as accommodation or educational material costs, which are not taken into account in our countdown. Consequently, the real cost of studying at one of the following medical schools amounts to more.Let’s take a look at the countdown, in a style similar to our coverage of America’s most expensive med schools.Note: this countdown takes into account only private medical schools in US. In addition, medical schools that do not meet the ranking criteria of US News are not considered for the purposes of this countdown.No. 10: Medical College of Wisconsin2012-2013 tuition & fees: $45,179No. 9: Wake Forest University School of Medicine2012-2013 tuition & fees: $44,696No. 8: Mercer University School of Medicine2012-2013 tuition & fees: $41,757No. 7: University of Miami Miller School of Medicine2012-2013 tuition & fees: $41,415No. 6: Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine2012-2013 tuition & fees: $39,530No. 5: Lincoln Memorial University – DeBusk College of Osteopathic Medicine2012-2013 tuition & fees: $39,245No. 4: University of Pikeville – Kentucky College of Osteopathic Medicine2012-2013 tuition & fees: $37,450No. 3: Mayo Medical School2012-2013 tuition & fees: $35,960No. 2: Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine2012-2013 tuition & fees: $30,887No. 1: Baylor College of Medicine2012-2013 tuition & fees: $30,0687 Most Affordable Caribbean Medical SchoolsPublished on August 18, 2015 at 8:36 am by ADDISON NINOSearching for most affordable Caribbean medical schools can be a bit off for some people because they just cannot think about the possible reason why people would actually choose to study medicine in the Caribbean. Granted that it is hard to find the most affordable medical schools right now so why not check out a place like the Caribbean for possible school prospects?The Caribbean is often referred to by a lot of people as paradise with more than a lot of its tourists declaring that someday, they would like to retire there because of its own unique culture and the immense beauty. At the same time, it can be easier or sometimes harder for the students who are studying there because they are surrounded by the beauty of nature. Sometimes it is therapeutic but sometimes it makes people want to forget what they are there for.LalithHerath/Shutterstock.comStill, considering the amount of money that people would have to spend not only on the tuition fees of the schools that they would visit but also their accommodations and other things that they need to survive, it can be a bit complicated to choose a school from the US or in Europe wherein the prices are just so high. The accommodations are priced high as well.It may come as a surprise to a lot of people that the most affordable Caribbean medical schools are known to provide some of the best graduates in the medical field who have proceeded in making a name for themselves or making a mark in this world through the things that they have contributed. The facilities that the Caribbean medical schools can offer are great too. Here are some of the most affordable schools to consider.7. Caribbean Medical University -$16,000 per yearThis is also known as CMU and its location is on the island of Curacao. There are a lot of students from the USA who prefer this school over all the rest because it uses the curriculum of the US in implementing its education. This school boasts facilities that can be very beneficial for students who are studying.6. Spartan Health Sciences University – $13,000 per yearThis university is fondly called Spartan for short. This has been available since the 1980s. For the best medical schools, this is known to be one of the best that can be found in the Caribbean which explains why it is one of the most sought after medical schools there. This university also offers a variety of things such as courses for pre-med, med and even graduate school studies.5. St. James School of Medicine – $11,000 per yearOne of the things that make St. James School of Medicine unique is the fact that it has three establishments that can be found in the Caribbean alone. The schools are located on separate islands. Since the year 2001, it has managed to keep its population under control with about 1000 students all in all. This school accepts students from USA and Canada and is one of the most affordable Caribbean medical schools.4. American International Medical University – $15,000 per yearThis is a school located in St. Lucia of the Caribbean. Aside from its well known inexpensive rates as compared to other medical schools, it is also known to provide a high academic success rate. Almost all of its students are able to finish their education here and become highly skilled in their professions. Students can study here for almost 6 years.3. Windsor University School of Medicine – $9,980 per yearProbably the main reason why this medical school is popular is because of its size. It is known to be one of the largest medical schools in the Caribbean. It is also able to offer various programs to undergraduates and even graduates who would like to perfect their craft. It also has various programs that can let students go back to some of its partners in the United States.2. The University of Science, Arts, and Technology (USAT) – $9,800 per yearWhat makes this university quaint is the fact that it is located in an island, the Island of Montserrat. The school prides itself in being able to produce a lot of doctors who were able to make it to the list of some of the best doctors in the United States. Rotations can be done both in the Caribbean and in the United States as well.1. Atlantic University School of Medicine – $8,000 per yearThis is known to be one of the best medical schools that students can attend in the Caribbean. Aside from the fact that it can give the type of education that medical students need in order to make it big in the field of medicine, this is also known to be the most affordable. There are various programs that are available that can be checked out.5 Cheap Places to Study Medicine in Europe28th April 2016 Posted by: Tom HaguesGOING to university isn’t exactly the cheapest of choices, especially not when you do a medicine course and you’re studying all the ins and outs for the best part of a decade. However, as is always the case with any course and university, there are cheaper destinations for prospective doctors to go and learn the skills they need to become fully qualified. Here’s a rundown of the top five.1. POLANDHome to interesting beetroot dishes and hardy drinking spirits, Poland offers comparatively cheap medicine courses that are popular – proven by the fact that each year, medicine schools in Poland see an intake of students from USA, Scandinavian countries and Saudi Arabia, among many others. Students flock here because they’ll be given a very comprehensive, well-regarded medical education, but will pay considerably less than if they were studying in Western Europe, Australia or North America. The degrees offered by Polish universities are recognised world-wide and the institutions often work with others around the globe. A good place to start would be the Poznan University of Medical Sciences, where one of the doctors who performed the first full face transplant studied.2. SWEDENSweden operates a free university system for EU students and has recently introduced fees for students outside of the European Union. So, for European students, it doesn’t really get much cheaper than that (although it’s best to check with the university you’re applying to in case its policy is different for medicine). What’s more, Sweden’s education system is one of the most impressive in the world, so your medical degree will have been earned in an institution like no other. The normal fees for things like text books, equipment and lodgings still apply, but that seems like small fry when you consider what you’re getting value-for-money-wise. Why not take a look at the medicine faculty at this university and see what you think?3. GERMANYPut your wallet away: Germany’s medical courses are free. This makes it one of the best places to go if you’re studying on a shoestring budget and can’t afford to roll out the big cheques for each semester. Instead, you can happily chug along, safe in the knowledge that you’re getting a fantastic, world-class education from one of the most intellectually rigorous countries on the planet. Beware, however, as a very good knowledge of the German language will probably be required and you’ll have to pass a series of preliminary tests to get onto the course where these linguistic abilities will keep you in good stead. Here is one of the best places to study medicine in Germany.4. ITALYTuition fees for Italian medical courses are lower than those in the UK and the US, but aren’t necessarily the cheapest when compared to Germany or Sweden. However, the relatively low cost of living in Italy (depending on where you are in the country) more than makes up for it and the courses aren’t impossible to get on to; there’s an admissions exam for most courses but the system isn’t as rigorous as other nations in Western Europe.5. BELGIUMQuiet, unassuming Belgium is often overlooked when it comes to finding your dream European destination for studying, but that needn’t be the case. The prices for medical degrees vary wildly depending on the university and where you’re travelling from, but for an EU student the cost is usually around 800 Euros for the year. This is great news for European students, but those coming from America or Australia might have to check that the prices aren’t inflated too much for them. However, it’ll be worth it because Belgium is home to some exciting medical institutions and the country is a beautiful destination to spend a duration of a tough medical course. A good place to start would be the University of Antwerp – located in a beautiful city, it is a well-regarded institution.Want to go somewhere top-notch for your medicine degree? Check out these highly ranked medical schools that save you money.5 Highly Ranked Medical Schools that Save You Money27th October 2015 Posted by: Amy MurnanAS aspiring medical students around the world work on their university applications, the Times World University Rankings will undoubtedly receive a hefty amount of online hits. Why? Because this week, they released a ranking specifically for Clinical, Pre-Clinical and Health subjects. In other words, the Holy Grail of future doctors.Of course, the results are no surprise. Oxford, Cambridge, Harvard, Berkeley... all got a spot in the top five. You don’t need to be told (yet again) how great, or how expensive, those medical schools are. And, with United States medical tuition being the most expensive in the world, the ranking isn’t entirely helpful for students who can’t afford to pay around 50,000 USD each year.But, believe it or not, there are a few universities on the table that don’t have such off-putting fees.They are highly respected for their medical teaching, but often get overlooked when compared to the hallowed heavyweights that make up the Ivy League. We want to shine the spotlight on some of the schools that are just as capable, but perhaps less internationally well-known (read: a bit less pricey) than their peers.Erasmus University Rotterdam, the NetherlandsErasmus University Rotterdam’s medical department is ranked the best in the Netherlands. Now, the Netherlands may be a small country, but it has so many good universities for international students that this truly is saying something. Ranked 36th by the Times, it beats Utrecht, Leiden and the University of Amsterdam – schools that out-compete Erasmus on the general Times World University Rankings. Tuition fees in the Netherlands are also much cheaper than places like the UK and US, even for international students. See our list of 9 other reasons to study there.University of Glasgow, UKThe city of Glasgow might have you thinking of cold, urban streets, but actually the University of Glasgow is one of the oldest and most prestigious medical schools in the English-speaking world. The original university was founded in 1451, and its graduates include historical names like Joseph Lister, who introduced antiseptic surgery and sterile conditions in hospitals. Now, Glasgow’s medical school is one of the biggest in Europe, and is ranked 47th in the world. Lucky Scottish nationals only pay 1,820 GBP per year (international students are, unfortunately, not so lucky).Autonomous University of Barcelona, SpainIn joint 67th place is the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB). UAB is ranked as the best university in Spain, and has a medicine department to match. The school has access to three Health Research Institutes, and an emphasis on biotechnology and innovation. UAB also encourages exchange students and mobility programmes, having over 2,000 international students. The only downside is that it is recommended students know Spanish and English for the medical degree. But, as Spain is one of the cheapest study destinations in Europe, it’s perfect for Spanish-speakers.Sungkyunkwan University, South KoreaYou may not have heard the name, but South Korea’s Sungkyunkwan University is one of the oldest and most popular universities in Asia. Established in 1389, Sungkyunkwan has had plenty of time to make its reputation in medical teaching and now has 460 full-time faculty staff in the department. Though South Korea mainly attracts students from China, Mongolia and Japan, the government recently announced that they aim to have 200,000 international students in the country by 2023. The country itself is highly modern with plenty of English speakers, too. So, if you like the sound of a Top 100 medical degree that costs less than 4,000 GBP per year, it’s worth checking out.15 jobs you can do with a degree in medicine14th July 2014DID your parents make you study medicine even though you can't stand the sight of blood? Are you half-way through your medical degree and wondering why you ever dreamed of being a doctor? Or maybe you've graduated and can't find a job. Whatever your situation, there is a huge range of alternatives to traditional medical careers, not only in the health profession but in other sectors such as education, research, technical work and the media. Here are just a few roles open to medical graduates.1. Public Health WorkerPublic health is about protecting and promoting the health of the general population through . You might work on preventing the spread of infectious diseases or environmental health hazards, or you could be involved in strategies to improve efficiency, effectiveness and accountability of your health service.2. Health JournalistJournalism is a hugely competitive field, but those with scientific credentials and experience have the edge over the vast majority of journalists who come mostly from an arts or social sciences backgrounds. Some medics undertake this as an addition, rather than an alternative to their clinical work. Keep in mind that you may need to gain extra qualifications (albeit on a short training course) or experience in order to kickstart a successful journalism career.3. Medical TeacherMedical education could range from supporting trainee medical students or doctors, to educating the public, be it in your home country or abroad. This could be the right choice for you if you want to make an impact on educating a large number of people.4. Clinical Forensic Medical ExaminerAn interesting route to take if you have completed training as a doctor. The role of a forensic medical examiner is to deal with examining the living. Forensic pathologists are trained to carry out medical examinations on the dead.5. Crowd DoctorThis is a great career path for those who gain fulfillment from being able to help others as a doctor, but who perhaps don’t want to work in a clinical hospital environment. Crowd doctors provide medical cover to people attending large events taking place in stadiums and outdoor festivals.6. Medical PhotographerA career which will allow you to apply both your creativity and medical skills. Medical photographers use photography as well as video for both patient care as well as general information and marketing for health publications.7. Medical/ Pharmaceutical ResearcherThe medical research field is a dynamic one which is constantly developing. Medical researchers work by conducting experiments and analysing results to learn more about the human body and potential treatments. This could mean working in the pharmaceutical industry, academia, hospital labs, research institutes or medical research charities.8. Sports and Exercise MedicineSports and Exercise Medicine (SEM) is a newly recognised medical specialty. It is concerned with dealing with medical conditions and injury in people such as athletes who strongly participate in physical activity.9. Volunteer WorkMedicine is and has for a very long time been considered vital in improving the health of people living in less fortunate circumstances or in developing countries. There are many overseas opportunities in voluntary work available for qualified doctors.10. Medical Sales RepresentativeIf the dynamic and target-driven world of sales appeals to you, working as a medical sales representative could be for you. The role involves acting as the associate between health care professionals and the pharmaceutical industry.11. Medical Legal AdvisorMedical Legal Advisors are responsible for managing cases in an area of their expertise. They may often be required to attend court trials, as well as hold lectures, run workshops and write articles.12. Occupational PhysicianIf helping people who have had a medical accident or illness to stay at work, or return to work is something which interests you, this could be your ideal job. The role may also involve providing health advice, education or training to organisations and individuals to prevent injuries and ensure high standards of health and safety at work.13. Transplant CoordinatorThese professionals coordinate activities related to organ donation and transplantation. They liaise with medical, paramedical and non-medical personnel and may be involved in various stages of the process, from meeting with donors and recipients to post-surgical care and follow-up. The role tends to involve both administrative and medical tasks.14. Radiology/Diagnostic Imaging DirectorA radiology/diagnostic imaging director is in charge of keeping on top of medical imaging programs such as x-rays, CT scans, ultrasounds and MRIs. Their role is to ensure that the correct professional standards are met.15. Investment bankerInvestment banks help companies obtain funds and offer advice on mergers, acquisitions and equity research. As a healthcare equity research analyst, you could use your medical background to give advice on parts of the health industry such as biotech companies.

Review and Critique of Randy E. Barnett'sOUR REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION:Securing the Liberty and Sovereignty of We the PeopleREVIEWRandy E. Barnett's Our Republican Constitution (Broadside Books, 2016) is both an informative history of how the United States has been transformed from a republic that secured the liberty and sovereignty of the people to a democracy that threatens that liberty and sovereignty of individual Americans, and a polemic on progressives as the culprits in this hijacking.In his Foreword to Our Republican Constitution, George F. Will states:All American political arguments involve, at bottom, interpretations of the Declaration of Independence and of the Constitution. . . . The Constitution, which Barnett calls “the law that governs those who govern us,” is, he argues, properly read in the bright light cast by the great document that preceded it, the Declaration of Independence (that is prefaced by) . . . what Barnett calls Jefferson’s “fifty-five compelling words”:We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed (pp. xi-xii).We the PeopleThe Constitution of the United States starts with three words — We the People:We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.Barnett lays out two visions of “We the People” that distinguish his democratic* Constitution from his republican Constitution._______________* Throughout this review and critique, I italicize a lower case republican or democratic Constitution even where Barnett does not since Barnett is inconsistent in his use of italics versus capitalization of these terms. _______________________________________________________________________________________At its core, (the) debate (in American politics) is about the meaning of the first three words of the Constitution: “We the People.” Those who favor the democratic Constitution view We the People as a group, as a body, as a collective entity. Those who favor the republican Constitution view We the People as individuals. . . .Each vision of We the People yields a different conception of what is called “popular sovereignty.” . . . (T)he democratic Constitution:• starts with a collective vision of We the People;• which leads to a conception of popular sovereignty based on the “will of the people” as a group;• which, in practice, can only be the will of the majority.What separates a republican Constitution from a democratic Constitution is its conception of “popular sovereignty.” Where a democratic Constitution views sovereignty as residing in the people collectively or as a group, a republican Constitution views sovereignty as residing in the people as individuals (pp 19-22).Individual rights retained by the peopleBarnett argues that:The idea of individual popular sovereignty helps us to better understand just what rights and powers, privileges and immunities are retained by the sovereign people as individuals. Indeed, under a republican Constitution, the rights and powers retained by the people closely resemble those enjoyed by sovereign monarchs, (jurisdiction over private property; the use of force in defense of themselves and their possessions; the right to freely alter their legal relations with their fellow citizens and joint sovereigns).. . . (A) republican Constitution is established, in part, so that these liberties of the individual may be regulated by law. But the proper purpose of such regulation must be limited to the equal protection of the rights of each and every person. Any law that does not have this as its purpose is beyond the just powers of a republican legislature to impose on the citizenry (pp 24-25).The first seven chapters of Our Republican Constitution provide the details of how this all came about, culminating in a revised republican Constitution improved by a Republican Party that amended the Constitution following the War Between the States, and how those improvements were subsequently undermined by progressives who, eventually, changed it into a democratic Constitution designed to “control the people” by imposing “the will of the people” as a majoritarian mandate, undermining the sovereignty of individuals by redefining We the People from a collection of sovereign individuals to a collective of majorities with power over individuals.In the critique that follows, I will suggest in what ways Barnett's analysis is incomplete and the Founders' intentions of securing life, liberty, and freedom to pursue happiness are better carried out by a combination of the republican and the democratic Constitutions that Barnett wants to abandon.CRITIQUEThe Declaration of Independence and the Constitution are each declarations of liberties and plans to secure and protect them. The Declaration invoked the liberty of one people to separate from another and announced the intention of 13 colonies in America to separate from the British Empire to secure that liberty. The Constitution created a republic of those same, now sovereign, States and a federal government restricted to a specific set of enumerated powers to ensure the sovereignty of the States and of the people.Each document contains explicit statements of its purpose.The Declaration of IndependenceWe hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.The Constitution of the United States of AmericaWe the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.The communality between these documents is to protect “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” of We the People and to “secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity.” While the Declaration’s emphasis is on “a people” as a collective standing against a henceforth to be a foreign government, the Constitution’s emphasis is on enumerating and restricting the duties and powers of the federal government vis-à-vis the States and individuals residing in them, the first eight Amendments to the Constitution explicating restrictions of the federal government vis-à-vis individuals; the 9th and 10th Amendments emphasizing that rights not explicitly enumerated in the Constitution were reserved to the States and to the people.I have no disagreement with any of the above and appreciate and admire Barnett’s description of the function of each document. What I disagree with is how Barnett distinguishes his republican Constitution as a protector of liberty from his democratic Constitution as a threat to that liberty.A Chronology of Change1789 to 1865. A republican Constitution interpreted and implemented as applying exclusively to free men. Some women and even some enslaved men enjoyed some of the “blessings of liberty (secured) for ourselves and our posterity,” but not all. Barnett’s republican Constitution existed in spirit, even though it was restricted to “free men” by the terms of 1789 and did not apply, yet, to We the People as a whole.1865 to 1948. Abolitionists tried to abolish slavery before 1865, and Republicans succeeded in 1865 through winning the War Between the States and passing the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution before accepting the rebellious states back into the union subject to the acceptance of the amended Constitution.Slavery was gone, but liberty was hardly universal. Post-war, Republicans watched as the KKK organized and re-established white supremacy over blacks throughout the South. Sending troops back south, this time not to defeat the Confederacy but to reconstruct an orderly society of free and recently freed men, all local and state government was suspended for Reconstruction, and federal troops administered and enforced the law. During this period, blacks were at liberty to run for public office, and many were elected.Barnett describes what happened:The reaction of the South to . . . measures to restrict its power over the freed blacks was a campaign of terrorism unwitnessed in this country before or since, from lynchings up to and including mass murders. . . . (T)he Supreme Court used the Due Process Clause to place some limits on the police powers of states. But its efforts were bitterly opposed by progressives (in the north) who favored the rights of states to enact progressive economic legislation, and by their coalition partners, the southern Democrats, who favored the rights of states to enact the economic system of Jim Crow (p 197).By 1876—ironically exactly 100 years after the Declaration—“the (Republican) North grew tired of the occupation (of Reconstruction) and left the Southerners, white and black, to their own devices (and) Democrats in the South got busy reestablishing their old order of racial subordination” (pp 123-124). This became possible when Democrats offered and Republicans accepted the Compromise of 1877 in which Democrats offered to withdraw their Electoral College votes and validate the Electoral College votes Republicans presented from three formerly Confederate states even though Republican Rutherford B. Hays had clearly received fewer popular votes than Democrat Samuel J. Tilden in the three disputed states as well as in the rest of the country Compromise of 1877 Ended Reconstruction, Ushered In Jim Crow Era. The price of Republican Hays becoming president instead of Democrat Tilden? Withdrawal of federal troops from the South and the end of Reconstruction Was President Tilden Robbed? The Great Stolen Election of 1876.The rest, as we say, is history: White Democrats ruled the South for the next 79 years, while Republicans respected the southern states’ rights to deny liberty to blacks throughout the period. The Jim Crow laws established under states’ rights denied human, civil, and voting rights to blacks by both law and custom, enforced by the KKK and other now legitimated terrorist groups, didn’t begin to break down until the north/south coalition of Democrats broke up in 1948 when southern delegates to the Democratic National Convention walked out and ran their own nominee for president—Strom Thurmond of South Carolina—over the civil rights plank in the party platform.Southern Democrats had become increasingly disturbed over President Truman's support of civil rights, particularly following his executive order racially integrating the U.S. armed forces and a civil rights message he sent to Congress in February 1948. At the Southern Governor's Conference in Wakulla Springs, Florida, on February 6, Mississippi Governor Fielding Wright proposed the formation of a new third party to protect racial segregation in the South. On May 10, 1948, the governors of the eleven states of the former Confederacy, along with other high-ranking Southern officials, met in Jackson, Mississippi, to discuss their concerns about the growing civil rights movement within the Democratic Party. At the meeting, South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond criticized President Truman for his civil rights agenda, and the governors discussed ways to oppose it.The Southern Democrats who had walked out of the Democratic National Convention to protest the civil rights platform approved by the convention, and supported by Truman, promptly met at Municipal Auditorium in Birmingham, Alabama, on July 17, 1948, and formed yet another political party, which they named the States' Rights Democratic Party. More commonly known as the "Dixiecrats," the party's main goal was continuing the policy of racial segregation in the South and the Jim Crow laws that sustained it. Governor Thurmond, who had led the walkout, became the party's presidential nominee after the convention's initial favorite, Arkansas Governor Benjamin Laney withdrew his name from consideration. United - Wikipedia States presidential election, 1948.America's Civil Rights Timeline (from America's Civil Rights Timeline)1857MARCH 6, 1857The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the Dred Scott decision to deny citizenship and constitutional rights to all black people, legally establishing the race as "subordinate, inferior beings -- whether slave or freedmen."1863JAN. 1, 1863Emancipation Proclamation issued by President Lincoln freed slaves in the Confederacy.1865DEC. 6, 1865The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution abolished slavery. However, Southern states managed to revive slavery era codes creating unattainable prerequisites for blacks to live, work or participate in society. The following year, the First Civil Rights Act invalidated these "Black Codes," conferring the "rights of citizenship" on all black people.1868JULY 9, 1868The 14th Amendment granted due process and equal protection under the law to African Americans.1870FEB. 3, 1870The 15th Amendment granted blacks the right to vote, including former slaves.1875MARCH 1, 1875Congress passed a third Civil Rights Act in response to many white business owners and merchants who refused to make their facilities and establishments equally available to black people. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 prohibited such cases of racial discrimination and guaranteed equal access to public accommodations regardless of race or color. White supremacist groups, however, embarked upon a campaign against blacks and their white supporters.1896MAY 18, 1896The U.S. Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson upheld an 1890 Louisiana statute mandating racially segregated but equal railroad cars. The ruling stated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution dealt with political and not social equality. Plessy v. Ferguson gave a broad interpretation of "equal but separate" accommodations with reference to "white and colored people" legitimizing "Jim Crow" practices throughout the South.1909FEB. 12, 1909The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded by a multi-racial group of activists in New York, N.Y. Initially, the group called themselves the National Negro Committee. Founders Ida Wells-Barnett, W.E.B. DuBois, Henry Moscowitz, Mary White Ovington, Oswald Garrison Villiard and William English Walling led the call to renew the struggle for civil and political liberty.1954MAY 17, 1954The U.S. Supreme Court's unanimously ruled in the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas that public school segregation was unconstitutional and paved the way for desegregation. The decision overturned the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that said "separate educational facilities were inherently unequal." It was a victory for NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall, who argued the case and later returned to the Supreme Court as the nation's first African-American Supreme Court justice.1955AUG. 27, 1955While visiting family in Mississippi, fourteen-year-old Chicagoan Emmett Till was kidnapped, brutally beaten, shot and dumped in the Tallahatchie River for allegedly whistling at a white woman. Two white men, J. W. Milam and Roy Bryant, were arrested for the murder and acquitted by an all-white jury. They later boasted about committing the murder in a Look magazine interview. The case became a cause célèbre of the civil rights movement.DEC. 1, 1955Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat at the front of the "colored section" of a bus in Montgomery, Ala., to a white passenger, defying a southern custom of the time. In response to her arrest, the Montgomery black community launched a bus boycott that lasted over a year until the buses desegregated on Dec. 21, 1956. Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., the newly elected president of the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), was instrumental in leading the boycott.1957FEB. 14, 1957The Southern Christian Leadership Conference, comprised of Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., Charles K. Steele and Fred L. Shuttlesworth, was established. King was the organization's first president. The SCLC proved to be a major force in organizing the civil rights movement with a principle base of nonviolence and civil disobedience. King believed it was essential for the civil rights movement not sink to the level of the racists and hate mongers who opposed them. "We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline," he urged.1957SUMMER 1957NAACP Branch President Robert F. Williams successfully led an armed self-defense of the home of the branch vice president and Monroe, N.C.'s black community from an armed attack by a Ku Klux Klan motorcade. At a time of high racial tension, massive Klan presence and official rampant abuses of the black citizenry, Williams was recognized as a dynamic leader and key figure in the American South where he promoted a combination of nonviolence with armed self-defense, authoring the widely read "Negroes With Guns" in 1962.SEPT. 2, 1957Integration was easier said than done at the formerly all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Ark. Nine black students, who became known as the "Little Rock Nine," were blocked from entering the school on the orders of Arkansas Governor Orval Fabus. President Eisenhower sent federal troops and the National Guard to intervene on behalf of the students, but a federal judge granted an injunction against the governor's use of National Guard troops to prevent integration. They were withdrawn on Sept. 20, 1957.On Monday, Sept. 23, when school resumed, Little Rock policemen surrounded Central High where more than 1,000 people gathered in front of the school. The police escorted the nine black students to a side door where they quietly entered the building to begin classes. When the mob learned the blacks were inside, they began to challenge the police with shouts and threats. Fearful the police would be unable to control the crowd, the school administration moved the black students out a side door before noon.1960FEB. 1, 1960Four black university students from N.C. A&T University began a sit-in at a segregated F.W. Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, N.C. Although they were refused service, they were allowed to stay at the counter. The event triggered similar nonviolent protests throughout the South. Six months later, the original four protesters are served lunch at the same Woolworth's counter. Student sit-ins would be an effective tactic throughout the South in integrating parks, swimming pools, theaters, libraries and other public facilities.1961MARCH 6, 1961President Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925, prohibiting discrimination in federal government hiring on the basis of race, religion or national origin and establishing The President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity , the EEOC. They were immediately directed to scrutinize and study employment practices of the United States government and to consider and recommend additional affirmative steps for executive departments and agencies.APRIL 1961The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was founded at Shaw University in Raleigh, N.C., providing young blacks with a more prominent place in the civil rights movement. The SNCC later grew into a more radical organization under the leadership of Stokely Carmichael (1966-1967) and H. Rap Brown (1967-1998). The organization changed its name to the Student National Coordinating Committee.1962OCT. 1, 1962James Meredith became the first black student to enroll at the University of Mississippi. President Kennedy sent 5,000 federal troops to contain the violence and riots surrounding the incident.1963JUNE 12, 1963Mississippi's NAACP field secretary, 37-year-old Medgar Evers, was murdered outside his home in Jackson, Miss. Byron De La Beckwith was tried twice in 1964, both trials resulting in hung juries. Thirty years later, he was convicted of murdering Evers.AUG. 28, 1963More than 250,000 people join in the March on Washington. Congregating at the Lincoln Memorial, participants listened as Martin Luther King delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.SEPT. 15, 1963Four young girls, Denise McNair, Cynthia Wesley, Carole Robertson and Addie Mae Collins, attending Sunday school were killed when a bomb exploded at the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, a popular location for civil rights meetings. Riots erupted in Birmingham, Ala., leading to the deaths of two more black youth.1964JAN. 23, 1964The 24th Amendment abolished the poll tax, which had originally been instituted in 11 southern states. The poll tax made it difficult for blacks to vote.MAY 4, 1964 (FREEDOM SUMMER)The Mississippi Freedom Summer Project was organized in 1964 by the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO), a coalition of four civil rights organizations: the Student NonViolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC); the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE); the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The project was to carry out a unified voter registration program in the state of Mississippi. Both COFO and the Summer Project were the result of the "Sit-In" and "Freedom Ride" movements of 1960 and 1961, and of SNCC's earlier efforts to organize voter registration drives throughout Mississippi.The Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) launched a massive effort to register black voters during what becomes known as the Freedom Summer. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) began sending student volunteers on bus trips to test the implementation of new laws prohibiting segregation in interstate travel facilities. One of the first two groups of "Freedom Riders," as they are called, encountered its first problem two weeks later when a mob in Alabama sets the riders' bus on fire. The program continued and by the end of the summer, more than 1,000 volunteers, black and white, participated.CORE also sent delegates to the Democratic National Convention as the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party to protest - and attempt to unseat - the official all-white Mississippi contingent.JULY 2, 1964President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The most sweeping civil rights legislation since Reconstruction, the Civil Rights Act prohibited discrimination of all kinds based on race, color, religion or national origin and transform American society. The law allowed the federal government to enforce desegregation and prohibits discrimination in public facilities, in government and in employment. The "Jim Crow" laws in the South were abolished, and it became illegal to compel segregation of the races in schools, housing or hiring. Enforcement powers were initially weak, but they grew over the years, and later programs, such as affirmative action, were made possible by the Act. Title VII of the Act established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).AUG. 4, 1964The bodies of three civil-rights workers - two white, one black - were found in an earthen dam. James E. Chaney, 21; Andrew Goodman, 21; and Michael Schwerner, 24, had been working to register black voters in Mississippi, and on June 21, went to investigate the burning of a black church. They were arrested by the police on speeding charges, incarcerated for several hours, and released after dark into the hands of the Ku Klux Klan, who murdered them.1965FEB. 21, 1965 - MALCOLM X AssassinatedBorn Malcolm Little in Omaha, Neb., on May 19, 1925, this world-renowned black nationalist leader was assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom in Manhattan on the first day of National Brotherhood Week. A Black Muslim Minister, revolutionary black freedom fighter, civil rights activist and for a time the national spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, he famously spoke of the need for black freedom "by any means necessary." Disillusioned with Elijah Muhammad's teachings, Malcolm formed his own organization, the Organization of Afro-American Unity and the Muslim Mosque Inc. In 1964, he made a pilgrimage to Islam's holy city, Mecca, and adopted the name El-Hajj Malik El Shabazz.MARCH 1965Selma to Montgomery MarchesThe Selma to Montgomery marches, which included Bloody Sunday, were actually three marches that marked the political and emotional peak of the American civil rights movement.MARCH 7, 1965Bloody SundayBlacks began a march to Montgomery in support of voting rights, but were stopped at the Edmund Pettus Bridge by a police blockade in Selma, Ala. State troopers and the Dallas County Sheriff's Department, some mounted on horseback, awaited them. In the presence of the news media, the lawmen attacked the peaceful demonstrators with billy clubs, tear gas and bull whips, driving them back into Selma.The incident was dubbed "Bloody Sunday" by the national media, with each of the three networks interrupting telecasts to broadcast footage from the horrific incident. The march was considered the catalyst for pushing through the Voting Rights Act five months later.MARCH 9, 1965Ceremonial Action within 48 hours, demonstrations in support of the marchers, were held in 80 cities and thousands of religious and lay leaders, including Dr. Martin Luther King, flew to Selma. He called for people across the country to join him. Hundreds responded to his call, shocked by what they had seen on television.However, to prevent another outbreak of violence, marchers attempted to gain a court order that would prohibit the police from interfering. Instead of issuing the court order, Federal District Court Judge Frank Minis Johnson issued a restraining order, preventing the march from taking place until he could hold additional hearings later in the week. On March 9, Dr. King led a group again to the Edmund Pettus Bridge where they knelt, prayed and to the consternation of some, returned to Brown Chapel. That night, a Northern minister who was in Selma to march, was killed by white vigilantes.MARCH 21-25 1965 (Selma to Montgomery March)Under protection of a federalized National Guard, voting rights advocates left Selma on March 21, and stood 25,000 strong on March 25 before the state capitol in Montgomery. As a direct consequence of these events, the U.S. Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, guaranteeing every American 21 years old and over the right to register to vote.AUG. 10, 1965Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, making it easier for Southern blacks to register to vote. Literacy tests, poll taxes and other such requirements that were used to restrict black voting were made illegal.SEPT. 24, 1965President Lyndon Johnson issued Executive Order 11246 to enforce affirmative action for the first time because he believed asserting civil rights laws were not enough to remedy discrimination. It required government contractors to "take affirmative action" toward prospective minority employees in all aspects of hiring and employment. This represented the first time "affirmative action" entered the federal contracting lexicon and sought to ensure equality of employment. (Presidential Executive Order 11375 extends this language to include women on October 13, 1968.)1967JUNE 12, 1967In Loving v. Virginia, the Supreme Court ruled that prohibiting interracial marriage was unconstitutional. Sixteen states that still banned interracial marriage at the time were forced to revise their laws.AUG. 30, 1967Senate confirmed President Lyndon Johnson's appointment of Thurgood Marshall as the first African American Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court after he served for two years as a Solicitor General of the United States.1968APRIL 4, 1968Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., at age 39, was shot as he was standing on the balcony outside his hotel room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tenn. Escaped convict and committed racist James Earl Ray was convicted of the crime. The networks then broadcast President Johnson's statement in which he called for Americans to "reject the blind violence," yet cities were ignited from coast to coast.APRIL 11, 1968President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1968, prohibiting discrimination in the sale, rental and financing of housing.1969President Nixon's "Philadelphia Order" presented "goals and timetables" for reaching equal employment opportunity in construction trades. It was extended in 1970 to non-construction federal contractors.1971APRIL 20, 1971The Supreme Court, in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education upheld busing as a legitimate means for achieving integration of public schools. Although largely unwelcome (and sometimes violently opposed) in local school districts, court-ordered busing plans in cities such as Charlotte, Boston, and Denver continued until the late 1990s.1988MARCH 22, 1988Overriding President Ronald Reagan's veto, Congress passed the Civil Rights Restoration Act, which expanded the reach of nondiscrimination laws within private institutions receiving federal funds.1992JUNE 23, 1992In the most important affirmative action decision since the 1978 Bakke case, the Supreme Court upheld the University of Michigan Law School's policy, which ruled race could be one of factors colleges consider when selecting students because it furthered "a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body."The Involvement of Republicans in the Liberation of Blacks in AmericaAfter a really good start by abolitionists to liberate blacks from slavery, establish the Republican Party, elect Abraham Lincoln president, prosecute the resulting War Between the States, pass the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution, and Reconstruct the Union, Republicans for all practical purposes disappeared from the liberation of blacks from prejudice and discrimination in America. Yet Randy E. Barnett in Our Republican Constitution: Securing the Liberty and Sovereignty of We the People appears not to have noticed this fact. Instead of following up a quite proper defense of We the People being reference to individuals in the United States’ Constitution and following it to its logical conclusion that it is individuals — “each and every one of them” — that the Constitution is referring to, Barnett takes a distinct turn in his last two chapters to argue that the federalist structure of the American republic, controlled primarily by the “police powers” of the separate states, has been supplanted by an “administrative state” controlled primarily by the federal government, and the culprits who have done this dastardly deed are progressives bent on using the majoritarian “will of the people” of the country as a whole to thwart the interests and intentions of the peoples of the separate states to continue to take liberties with the rights of minority residents of their respective states.Rights verses Liberties — An Important DistinctionPhilosophers, political scientists, and the legal profession make a distinction between negative or liberty rights and positive or claim rights. A positive or claim right is a right that entails responsibilities, duties, or obligations on other parties regarding the right-holder, while a negative or liberty right is a right that does not entail obligations on other parties except to refrain from interfering with the freedom of the right-holder (Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld, Fundamental Legal Conceptions, As Applied in Judicial Reasoning and Other Legal Essays, 1920).Civil rights are the rights recognized by a government for the protection of its citizens in respect to guaranteeing fairness and checking discrimination. Civil liberties are the basic, broader rights guaranteed in the Constitution to all citizens and legal residents in the country. Unlike civil rights which may oblige specific actions of others, civil liberties are protective, negative rights that oblige only inaction (Civil Rights vs. Civil Liberties - FindLaw.Barnett’s book and this critique are exclusively about negative or liberty rights and civil liberties.The Purposes and Functions of GovernmentBarnett draws directly from John Locke in stating the purposes or functions of government.According to Locke, the social compact establishes a government that addresses the inconveniences in the state of nature, primarily the inconvenience of executing or enforcing the laws of nature that protect one’s natural rights. . . . (T)hough in the state of nature a person has the natural rights to his life, liberty, and possessions, the enjoyment of such rights is “very uncertain, and constantly exposed to the invasion of others.” Without a government, the enjoyment of one’s property “is very unsafe, very unsecure.” Because the state of nature “is full of fears and continual dangers,” it is reasonable for a person “to join in society with others . . . for the mutual preservations of their lives, liberties, and estates.” (pp. 205-206)Barnett summarizes: “No one of us is strong enough to enforce our rights against everyone else, especially against a group of persons allied against us” (p. 207). Which establishes why Barnett states definitively in his Introduction:Under a republican Constitution, . . . the first duty of government is to equally protect these personal and individual rights from being violated by (either) domestic or foreign transgression (and again later in the his Introduction that) the Declaration stipulates that the ultimate end or purpose of republican governments is “to secure these” . . . preexisting natural rights (which was) the measure against which all government . . . will be judged. This language identifies what is perhaps the central underlying “republican” assumption of the Constitution: that governments are instituted to secure the preexisting natural rights that are retained by the people. In short, that first comes rights and then comes government (pp 23 & 41, respectively).Problems of Factionalism and Majoritarian RuleJames Madison was concerned about factionalism and majoritarian rule.All civilized societies, (Madison) explained, “are divided into different interests and factions, as they happen to be creditors or debtors—Rich or poor—husbandmen, merchants or manufacturers—members of different religious sects—followers of different political leaders—inhabitants of different districts—owners of different kinds of property.”In a democracy, the debtors outnumber the creditors and the poor outnumber the rich. The larger group can simply outvote the smaller. The “majority however composed, ultimately give the law. Whenever therefore an apparent interest or common passion unites a majority what is to restrain them from unjust violation of the rights and interests of the minority, or the individual?” (p 54).(T)he problem Madison identified with “republican Government” as it had been implemented (under the Articles of Confederation) was that it was simply too democratic or majoritarian (p 55).“By a faction,” (Madison) wrote in Federalist 10, “I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community. . . .” (p 56, italics in the original).Madison believed that “to secure the public good and private rights against the danger of such a faction and at the same time to preserve the spirit and the form of popular government, is the great object to which our inquiries (in the Continental Congress) are directed” (pp 56-57).Federalism as a Solution to the “Problem of Faction” and the “Majoritarian Difficulty”Barnett tells us:Madison observed, where the greatest power resides lies the greatest danger to the rights of the people. In a republic, that power resides in a majority of the electorate. . . .The U.S. Constitution is primarily a structure that was intended to protect the individual sovereignty of the people. . . .The majoritarian difficulty is the problematic claim that a subset of the people, whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole, gets to rule the others. It is problematic because each and every one of the people has certain fundamental rights, and it is only “to secure these rights that governments are instituted among men.” . . . (T)he republican Constitution is supposed to secure the sovereignty of the people, each and every one.Federalism is the term used to describe the division of powers between the national and state governments. . . . (F)ederalism has yielded some enormous advantages for protecting the rights retained by the people. If the federal government has only power to provide for the common defense as well as to protect the free flow of commerce between states, along with a few other specific tasks, most of the laws affecting the liberties of the people will be made at the state level. This would include the regulation of most economic activity as well as what are today called “social issues” (pp 162-163, 167-168, 170, 172-173).A substantive constraint takes the form of “thou shalt not do X,” and must be enforced by the courts. A structural constraint is “self-enforcing” and therefore potentially more effective (p 170).Federalism is a structural constraint.Why Federalism MattersBarnett argues four reasons federalism matters.Federalism makes diversity possible. When it comes to economic regulation, so long as they remain within the proper scope of their power to protect the rights, health, and safety of the public, fifty states can experiment with different regimes of legal regulation so the results can be witnessed and judged rather than endlessly speculated about. . . .As important, if not more so, businesses small and large can decide to relocate if they deem a particular scheme of regulation to be too onerous (p 175).Foot voting empowers the sovereign individual. Ilya Somin has explained how the competition of federalism empowers the sovereign individual. Because one’s vote in an election is swamped by the ballots of millions of others, it is simply irrational for most persons to invest too heavily the time and resources to learn what it takes to vote wisely. Unless one is voting on a referendum, voters can only choose between candidates from one of two (or three) parties, each of which presents a complex package of economic and social policies that voters are not allowed to disaggregate. You must vote for one of the packages, or not vote at all.In sum, a system of voting does not allow the sovereign people to “rule,” and it is a pernicious myth to claim that they do. . . .By contrast, Somin explains, when voting with one’s feet by moving to another city or state, one has far greater control over the results. Each person can individually control the state in which they live be selecting from among fifty choices . . . (a)nd they can personally experience the economic opportunities that result from different state policies. In a federal system, people are then free to move to another state for a better job, or for a cleaner and safer environment (p 177).It’s important to keep social issues local. When it comes to social policy, the preferences of individuals loom even larger. Not only is it difficult to identify the objectively “correct” social policy; it is not clear that such policies even exist. Different people subjectively prefer to live in different types of communities, not only because of differing opinions about morality, but simply as a matter of taste. . . .A rich diversity of preferred lifestyles can only be achieved at the local level. . . . From the perspective of diversity, it is preferable to have the variety of options provided by fifty state governments than a one-size-fits-all national policy. . . .With fifty states to choose from, it is far more likely that a person can find a state or municipality with a social environment in which he or she is more comfortable than if one social policy is imposed on the United States as a whole. . . .By their nature, communities must have one character or another. Given that communities must be one type or another, it is best to have as many different communities as possible from which to choose to satisfy the range of individual tastes, preferences, and moral commitments. The3refore, these are the sorts of zero-sum, or all-or-nothing, decisions that are best decided as locally as is legally feasible (p 178-179).Federalism avoids a political war of all against all. There is another, and potentially even more powerful way that federalism protects the individual sovereignty of the people. When one issue is moved to the national level, it creates a set of winners and a set of losers. Consequently, the more issues that are elevated to the national level, the more contentious , bitterness, and “gridlock” develops as people fight even harder not to lose. The result is a political version of what Thomas Hobbes called a “war of all against all.” . . .As with religious liberty, we avoid a political, and sometimes physical, Hobbesian war of all against all by ensuring that as many issues as possible are handled at the personal level of individual sovereigns, which is why individual liberty is the ultimate means to the pursuit of happiness for people living in society with others. Because of the competitive processes I have already described, reinforced by federal checks on state power, such individual liberty is far better protected at the more local level than at the national.To repeat . . . it is not that the social and economic policy issues protected by a diversity of state regulations are less important than those handled at the national. To the contrary, the more important the issue, the more likely it will engender a political war of all against all to avoid having another’s social policy imposed on you. So, the more important the issue, the less it is fit to be decided at the national level (p 182-183, italics in the original).In other words, Barnett likes federalism. But is that because federalism helps protect the rights and liberties of all or is it because it protects or at least enables some to be at liberty to take liberties with the liberties of others?• Barnett tells us that federalism makes diversity possible in that businesses and individuals can move among states, cities, towns, and rural areas to where the richer and more powerful can use their money, positions, and powers to dominate and control the less rich with less status, and less powerful.• Barnett tells us that voting with one’s feet empowers the sovereignty of individuals because the “Big Fish in the small pond” don’t need to compete or compromise with the “Little Fish”; they can just devour them.• Barnett tells us that it’s important to keep social issues local where they are zero/sum games where they can be won by those same Big Fish.• Barnett tells us, in other words, that federalism avoids political war, allowing the powerful to win most battles without much of a fightThat sounds to me a lot more like racial segregation in the Jim Crow south and residential covenants and redlining in the north than it does like “liberty and justice for all.” Where is the constitutionally guaranteed “security” and “protection” for all? Where is the “liberation” of the individual from factions as well as governments that liberals talk about when attacking progressives who they claim don’t care about liberty?Letting the Courts Decide, Lacking the Will to Enforce the LawBarnett’s book is a dissertation of legal decisions. He resolves the legal issues by defining We the People as a collection of free individuals when it is convenient to do so before the mid 19th century, switching to a collectives of individuals—i.e., “factions—residing in states governed by majority rule that can win state elections and rewrite the Black Codes of Jim Crow days if they desire. For Barnett, states’ rights prevail by majority rule when it is convenient to do so.I’m certain that Ronald Reagan agreed with the republican Constitution and would have been pleased with Barnett’s book. Throughout the 1980 presidential election and again in his inauguration, Reagan boldly stated: “Government isn’t the solution; government is the problem” when he clearly meant “Government is the problem when it gets in MY way of using MY position, power, and resources to secure and protect MY liberties to take liberties with others’.” MY, MY, MY!Barnett’s (and Wills’) Polemic on Progressives and Why They Are WrongAs Barnett insists, the great divide in America today is between those who do believe, as the founders did, that “first come rights and then comes government,” and those who believe, as progressives do, that “first comes government, then come rights.” The former are adherents of the republican Constitution. The latter have given us the democratic Constitution. (George Will, p xii)Barnett has become a leader of those who are reasserting the natural rights tradition that was overthrown during progressivism’s long success in defining the nature of the democratic Constitution and the judiciaries permissive role in construing the government’s powers under it. (George Will, p xiv)While progressivism is today remembered for its advocacy of economic legislation, it also favored legal coercion to achieve other types of social improvements. (Barnett, p 124)When it became clear that (Theodore Roosevelt) would be denied the Republican nomination, . . . (he) bolted the party to create his own “Progressive Party.” In an address to its national convention in Chicago on August 6, 1912, he congratulated them on forming a new party. “The time is ripe, and overripe, for a genuine Progressive movement,” and the “first essential in the Progressive programme is the right of the people to rule.” With respect to the judiciary, Roosevelt said, “our prime concern is that in dealing with the fundamental law of the land, in assuming finally to interpret it, and therefore finally to make it, the acts of the courts should be subject to and not above the final control of the people as a whole.” He then succinctly summarized the central tenet of the democratic Constitution: “Political parties exist to secure responsible government and to execute the will of the people,” which in operation Roosevelt frankly affirmed means the majority of the people, or a majority of legislative bodies. (Barnett, p 134)In other words, progressives were responsible for:• asserting the will of the people as the purpose of government in place of securing the inalienable rights of individuals,• using legal coercion to achieve social improvements,• overthrowing the natural rights tradition, and• instituting the democratic Constitution’s premise that “first comes government, then come rights” for the republican Constitution’s premise “first come rights and then comes government.”I have no disagreement that progressives did all these things. What I disagree with is the pejorative characterization Barnett gives each of these things, especially given that each was likely an essential ingredient in the effort to diminish white supremacy in America after Republicans abandoned the south to the Democrats and, for the most part, did not participate in the Civil Rights Movement that, finally, eliminated de jure racial discrimination and began the process of diminishing de facto discrimination.A recent discussion by Jacob S. Hacker and Paul Pierson (“Making America Great Again: The Case for the Mixed Economy,” Foreign Affairs, May/June 2016, pp 69-90) describes how this came about.FROM THE FOUNDERS TO THE PROGRESSIVES*Government has unique capacities — to enforce compliance, constrain or encourage action, and protect citizens from private predation — that allow it to solve problems that markets can’t solve on their own. These problems are both economic and political; they concern areas in which markets tend to fall short and areas where market actors tend to distort democratic processes in pursuit of private advantage. . . .Because governments have chosen to intervene to . . . counter negative externalities and do some benign nudging, hundreds of millions of lives are now healthier, safer, and better protected. . . . In the United States . . . the majority of regulation involves protection of the public from the operations of unscrupulous private actors. These programs are overwhelmingly popular even though they are also, as a rule, coercive. That is not a paradox; it’s the point — because government is doing things that people need to get done but can’t or won’t do themselves. . . .This trajectory was a reflection of the Constitution’s purpose and design, not (as many charge today) a betrayal of them. The leading statesmen who gathered in Philadelphia in 1787 were keenly aware of the need for effective government authority. Indeed, they had become convinced that its absence was a mortal threat to the fledgling nation. Perhaps the most influential of them all, James Madison, put the point bluntly at the Virginia ratifying convention: “There never was a government without force. What is the meaning of government? An institution to make people do their duty. A government leaving it to a man to do his duty, or not, as he pleases, would be a new species of government, or rather no government at all.” . . .So long as government sat on the sidelines, the harms (of private predation) just kept multiplying. It was only a matter of time before a reaction set in, and eventually it did, in the form of the Progressive movement. . . .It makes sense to think of the two Roosevelts (Theodore and Franklin) as bookending a long Progressive era. It was progressive because at crucial moments, nearly everyone in a position of high public leadership came to believe that the U.S. social contract needed updating. It was long because challenging entrenched elites proved difficult, and only persistent agitation and huge disruptions to the U.S. political order allowed the translation of these new beliefs into new governing arrangements. (From Making America Great Again.)My Conclusions Regarding Barnett’s Desire to Redeem the Republican ConstitutionContrary to Barnett’s polemic on progressives, the Progressive movement was a necessary adjunct to the efforts of Republicans to gain and then ensure liberty for blacks and other minorities in America. Barnett’s republican Constitution took America only so far. To get over the hump and free blacks from the white supremacy of the Jim Crow south, coercive action, legitimized by a national majority against a minority of individuals and their representatives in Congress, proved necessary in the end to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to end de jure discrimination in America and continue the process of diminishing de facto discrimination.In this respect, Randy Barnett's analysis in Our Republican Constitution is incomplete in that, contrary to Barnett’s advocacy of “Redeeming Our Republican Constitution” in his concluding chapter, the Founders' intentions of securing life, liberty, and freedom to pursue happiness are better carried out by a combination of the republican and the democratic Constitutions than by a redemption of the republican Constitution and the abandonment of the democratic.____________*In this extract from the Hacker and Pierson article I have removed references to the impact of progressives on the economic welfare of the United States to focus on the nature of progressivism that allowed it to enhance the liberty of blacks oppressed under the white supremacist Jim Crow south.