Appendix A - Ordinances Model Ordinance Language: Fill & Download for Free

[This answer has ended up way longer than I expected! I hope it will be as fun to read as it was to write.]Buckle up and prepare for a long ride! My birthplace, Jerusalem, has been settled for around six thousand years. During that time it has been destroyed twice, besieged over 20 times, and captured and recaptured over 40 times. It contains the sacred places of three world religions, and is claimed by two countries as their capital. In short, it's got some major historical baggage!As to the number of states its been in, well that depends on how you count :-) The reckoning below reaches 40 distinct entities, but other values are certainly possible.Below is a simplified overview of Jerusalem's history from Wikipedia, a synopsis for this journey through time. At the end of the post is a collection of maps illustrating the various border changes.0. Prehistory of the Levant (c.1,400,000BC–4000BC)As one of the main routes used to colonize Eurasia, the Levant has been inhabited by humans for over a million years. Human settlement began during the Lower Palaeolithic period, which was dominated by Acheulean culture tools and produced some of the oldest evidence of controlled fire (by Homo erectus around 750,000BC at the Daughters of Jacob Bridge). The Middle Palaeolithic period, which began in 250,000BC, saw Mousterian culture tools imported from Europe and produced by both Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans. A major cultural jump occurred at the end of the Epipaleolithic period, around 10,000BC, with the Natufian culture, a sedentary pre-agricultural culture that helped lay the foundation for the Neolithic Revolution, building some of the earliest settlements (such as Jericho) and leaving some of the earliest proof of dog domestication. There are some indications, both archaeological and anthropological, that the Natufians might be related to the later Semitic-speaking populations of the Levant.The subsequent Neolithic Revolution saw the invention of agriculture, large scale trade, early megaliths and early astronomy. Pottery, meanwhile, came relatively late, during the Yarmukian culture, which was well after East Asia, where it predated agriculture.Left: Ain Sakhri lovers, the oldest known artistic representation of coitus; Natufian culture, c.9000BC [Wikipedia]Right: mother goddess clay figurine; Yarkmukian culture, c.6000BC [Wikipedia]1. Proto-Canaanite settlement (4,000BC–1,500BC)The first settlement in Jerusalem, near Gihon Spring, dates to the Copper Age around 4000BC, with a permanent settlement from the early Bronze Age around 3000BC, probably by Northwest Semitic speaking people. The first written mention is from a thousand years later in Egyptian Execration texts, where the city is called Rusalimum. The name is thought to be after the Canaanite dusk god Shalim, though the presence of the Semitic root SLM has meant that it has sometimes been reinterpreted as meaning City of Peace (as in shalom or salaam).The Biblical Binding of Isaac is set during this period. Though its location, Mount Moriah, is traditionally identified with the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, modern scholars associate it with the Amorites and suggest it may be located near Shechem instead.Left: Execration text figurine mentioning Jerusalem, hieratic; Saqqara, c.1800BC (source)Right: Copper Age figurine from the Judean dessert; Gilat, ~4000BC (source)2. Egyptian New Kingdom vassal (1,500BC–1,150BC)Around 1500BC, Jerusalem was conquered by the newly formed New Kingdom of Egypt, under Ahmose I and Thutmose I. Jerusalem became the capital of a small vassal city-state, with an Egyptian garrison and appointed rulers such as King Abdi-Heba. The rise of the Sea Peoples and the Late Bronze Age collapse saw the decline of Egyptian power in the 12th century BC.Left: Amarna letter EA 287 from Abdi-Heba, Canaano-Akkadian; Amarna, 1350BC (source)Right: Egyptian Queen statue; Jerusalem, 13th century BC (source)3. Jebusites (1,150BC–1,000BC)Biblical texts identify the Canaanite inhabitants of Jerusalem prior to its conquest by King David as the Jebusites. This name is not attested elsewhere and their precise ethnic origin is unknown: they are thought to be either Hittites or Amorites, possibly with a Hurrian ruling class.Above: The Stepped Stone Structure in the City of David may date back to the Jebusite period. (source)4. United Monarchy (1,000BC–930BC)Jerusalem was captured by King David around 1000BC and made into the capital of the United Monarchy of Israel and Judah (previously David had ruled from Hebron in Judah). The fact that Jerusalem did not belong to Israel's tribal system made it particularly suitable as the capital of what was probably a weak federation. David's successor, Solomon, built a Temple in Jerusalem dedicated to Yahweh, the Israelite national god, and the city soon overtook Shiloh and Bethel as the main place of Yahwist worship.Despite Biblical claims of a golden age during this period, there are no known contemporaneous foreign texts mentioning Israel or its kings.Above: Artist's impression of Solomon's temple with its two pillars, Boaz and Jachin. The form resembles other ancient temples in the region. (source)5. Kingdom of Judah (930BC–733BC)Following Solomon's death in 930BC, the northern tribes broke with the United Monarchy to form the northern Kingdom of Israel, while the southern tribes and Aaronic priesthood stayed and formed the Kingdom of Judah (though initially the kingdom may have been little more than a city-state). According to Biblical sources, Jerusalem was sacked in 925BC by Pharaoh Sheshonk I, following his invasion of Canaan. Around 850BC it was again sacked by Philistines, Arabs and Ethiopians and later by Arameans. And in 786BC it was sacked by Jehoash of Israel.Left: Mesha Stele, which describes a Moabite rebellion against Israel and may contain the earliest mention of Judah, Moabite; Dibon, 840BC [Wikipedia]Right: Tel Dan Stele, which describes an Aramaean victory against Israel and Judah, Aramaic; Tel Dan, ~800BC (source)6. Neo-Assyrian Empire vassal (733BCBC–627BC)Around 733BC, Jerusalem became a vassal of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-Pileser III. Following the capture of the Israelite capital Samaria in 721BC and deportation of its population (leading to the so-called Ten Lost Tribes), Judah became more powerful politically and economically. After refusing to pay tribute, Jerusalem successfully withstood an Assyrian Siege in 701BC.Left: Sennacherib's Annals, describing the siege of Jerusalem, Akkadian cuneiform; Nineveh, 690BC (source)Right: Siloam tunnel, a water tunnel that may have been constructed in preparation for the siege; ~700BC [Wikipedia]7. Neo-Babylonian Empire (627BC–539BC)In 626BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire was replaced by the Neo-Babylonian one, following a rebellion by the Assyrian official Nabopolassar. After the Battle of Megiddo in 609BC, Jerusalem briefly became part of the Egyptian Empire again, but switched allegiance back to the Babylonians following Necho II's defeat against Nebuchadnezzar II. When it switched allegiances once more, Nebuchadnezzar laid siege (twice), sacking the city, destroying the Temple and sending the elite into Babylonian captivity. Judah became the Yehud Province, and following the assassination of the appointed governor Gedaliah more Jews fled to Egypt.Left: Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle , containing references to the first Siege of Jerusalem, Akkadian cuneiform; Babylon, ~500BC (source)Right: Cuneiform tablet detailing transactions between Judeans in Babylon, Akkadian cuneiform; Babylon, ~550BC (source)8. Achaemenid Empire (539BC–332BC)Yehud became part of the Persian Empire after Babylon's defeat by Cyrus the Great. According to the Bible, Cyrus permitted the Jews to return to Jerusalem, which they did in a few waves. The Temple was rebuilt as were the city walls, and by the mid 5th century BC it was one again the provincial capital (though still very small).This period saw the rise of Aramaic as the lingua franca of the area, as well as the composition of much of the Hebrew Bible and the transition of Judaism from a monolatrist religion (recognising many gods but worshipping just one) to a monotheistic one.Left: Cyrus Cylinder, which mentions the repatriation of conquered peoples but not the Jews explicitly, Akkadian cuneiform; Babylon, 539BC (source)Right: Yehud coinage bearing the Aramaic inscription יהד (Yehud). The winged figure on top may be a representation of Yahweh. (source)9-13. Hellenistic period (332BC–63BC)In 332BC, Alexander the Great captured Jerusalem for the Kingdom of Macedon on his way to Egypt. After his death, the Kingdom was split among his generals according to the Partition of Babylon. Initially ruled by Laomedon of Mytilene of Syria, Jerusalem and its surroundings were soon captured by Ptolemy I Soter, founder of the Egyptian Ptolemaic Kingdom. Over the next twenty years, control went back and forth between Ptolemy and Antigonus I Monophthalmus of the Antigonid dynasty in Asia Minor, until Antigonus was killed in the Battle of Ipsus.In 198BC, control of Jerusalem passed to yet another Hellenistic kingdom: the Babylonian-centered Seleucid Empire under Antiochus III the Great. During this period the city was quite prosperous, though a significant cultural gap developed between the increasingly Hellenized Jewish elites and the observant majority. In 175BC, the city was made a Polis.Left: Heliodorus Stele, a letter from Seleucus IV to the legate Heliodorus, Greek; Hefzibah, 178BC [Wikipedia]Right: Tomb of Benei Hezir, a Hellenic-style rock-cut tomb with Dorian capitals; Kidron Valley, 2nd century BC (source)14. Hasmonean dynasty (141BC–37BC)In 167BC anti-Jewish decrees by Antiochus IV Epiphanes led to the Maccabean Revolt. Led by a rural priest Mattathias and his sons, the revolt was as much a civil war between traditional and Hellenized Jews. The rebels managed to capture Jerusalem and the Temple (an event commemorated by Hanukkah) but not the Acra fortress or the surrounding area. When Jerusalem was recaptured by the Seleucids, the rebels switched to guerrilla warfare.In 153BC, infighting between rival Seleucid throne claimants forced Demetrius I Soter to removed the garrisons from Judah, while Jonathan Apphus successfully negotiated with his successor Alexander Balas and was made High Priest. Subsequent military and diplomatic victories led to Judea, now led by Jonathan's brother Simon Thassi, being recognised as a semi-independent kingdom under Seleucid suzerainty. The collapse of the Seleucid Empire in 116BC finally led to full independence.This period also saw the conversion of many subject people such as the Edomites to Judaism, and the rise of two conflicting religious factions, the Pharisees and Sadducees.Left: Dead Sea Scrolls 4Q7 containing the start of Genesis, Hebrew; Qumran, 1st Century BC (source)Right: Hasmonean coinage with the Temple Menorah and showbread table; 40-37BC (source)15. Herodian kingdom (37BC–AD6)In 67BC, a civil war between the Hasmonean kings Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II led to intervention by Rome. Together with Hyrcanus, Pompey the Great successfully laid siege to Jerusalem in 63BC and made the Hasmonean kingdom a Roman protectorate. Hyrcanus remained king, but in 47BC Caesar made Antipater the Idumaean procurator.Following Caesar's assassination, Judea was invaded by Parthia, and Hyrcanus was replaced by his nephew Antigonus. However, Antipater's son Herod the Great had fled to Rome, where he was appointed 'King of the Jews' by the Senate and given an army. In 37BC he successfully besieged Jerusalem, bringing to an end the Hasmonean dynasty.Known for his many ambitious architectural projects, Herod oversaw a major reconstruction of the Temple and helped make Jerusalem a prosperous, Hellenised city. His reign may have also seen the birth of Jesus of Nazereth, though despite Herod's documented brutality biographers dismiss the veracity of the Massacre of the Innocents attributed to him by the Gospel of Matthew.Left: model of Herod's Temple based on the writings of Josephus [Wikipedia]Right: Western Wall, the western retaining wall of Herod's Temple and the holiest site in Judaism; ~19BC (source)16-17. Iudaea (6–132) and Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135)Following Herod's death in 4BC, the kingdom was split between his four sons (the Herodian tetrarchy) with Herod Archelaus ruling Judea, Idumea and Samaria as ethnarch (his brother Herod Antipas, known for his role in the deaths of Jesus and John the Baptist, inherited Galilee and Perez). However, Archelaus ruled so badly that in AD6 he was dismissed and his tetrarchy was turned into a province under direct Roman rule. The capital was moved to Caesarea and a Roman perfect was appointed governor. Iudaea regained nominal autonomy when Herod Agrippa was made king in AD41 but he was succeeded by imperial procurators.This period was dominated by Jewish rebellions against Roman rule. The Great Jewish Revolt broke out in AD66, led by Simon bar Giora of the radical Zealots. The revolt, which also saw infighting between the mainly Sadducee Jerusalemites and the Zealots, was crushed by the Romans under the future emperors Vespasian and Titus. Titus besieged and conquered Jerusalem in AD70, sacking the city and destroying the Temple (possibly unintentionally). The final rebel stronghold in Masada held out till AD74. Judea was henceforth ruled by a legate, and the Pharisees became the dominant form of Judaism, gradually evolving into Rabbinical Judaism.In 115, a second Jewish revolt, the Kitos War, broke out, mainly by ethnic Judeans in Egypt, Libya and Cyprus. Then in 132, the Bar Kokhba revolt broke out, led by Simon bar Kokhba, whom many Jews considered the Messiah. An independent kingdom was formed but lasted just two years before being reconquered by Rome. The Jewish communities were devastated, with hundreds of thousands killed and many more sold into slavery. Jews were barred from Jerusalem and the defeat's effect on Jewish Messianism helped cement the split between Christianity and Judaism.The other major event during this period was obviously the ministry of Jesus (and the subsequent Apostolic Age), though its worldwide significance was only evident later. Much of the New Testament is set in Jerusalem: Jesus' preaching, the Last Supper, his arrest in Gethsemane, his trial, the Via Dolorosa, the crucifixion at Calvary, his burial and his resurrection. Following Jesus' death, Jerusalem also hosted the Council of Jerusalem.Left: Arch of Titus, commemorating Titus's victories including the Siege of Jerusalem; the south panel depicts the spoils from the Temple, including the Menorah; Rome, 82 [Wikipedia]Right: (from top to bottom) Vespasian's Judaea Capta coinage, 71; Bar Kokhba Revolt coin, 135; Hadrian's Aelia Capitolina coin, 136 [Wikipedia]16 & 18. Syria Palaestina (135–390) and Palmyrene Empire (270–273)Just before the Bar Kokhva revolt, the Emperor Hadrian decided to rebuild Jerusalem, which had lain in ruins since the siege of AD70, renaming it Aelia Capitolina and dedicating it to Jupiter. Following the revolt, Iudaea was merged with Roman Syria and renamed Syria Palaestina. Jews were expelled from the city and not allowed to return until the 7th century (except on Tisha B'Av). Similar restrictions on Christians were relaxed after Hadrian's death.During the 3rd century, Jerusalem briefly became part of the Palmyrene Empire, a splinter state that broke away from Rome during the Crisis of the Third Century.Left: Arch of the Ecce Homo church on the Via Dolorosa, originally built as an entrance to the Aelia Capitolina forum; 2nd century [Wikipedia]Right: "Mona Lisa of the Galilee" mosaic from Sepphoris, where many Jews relocated to following the Bar Kokhba revolt; Sepphoris, 3rd century (source)19. Byzantine Empire (390–614,628–636)Emperor Constantine the Great's conversion to Christianity and reunification of the Empire after the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy, followed by the First Council of Nicaea, led to significant Christian immigration to Jerusalem. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Eleona Basilica were constructed, and in 380 Nicean Christianity was declared the state church of the Roman Empire by Theodosius I. In 390 Syria Palaestina was reorganised, with Jerusalem part of the Palaestina Prima province.On his death, Theodosius also performed the final division of the Roman Empire between East and West (divisions and unifications had been taking place since the 2nd century). The Western part soon collapsed, while the Eastern part became known as Byzantium.Left: Madaba Map, floor mosaic depicting Jerusalem; Madaba, 6th century (source)Right: Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which according to tradition contains the site of Jesus' crucifixion as well as his empty tomb; original church from 335, rebuilt and renovated in the 11th century [Wikipedia]20. Sasanian Empire (614–628)The 5th and 6th centuries had seen a number of mainly Samaritan Revolts against Byzantium that were ruthlessly suppressed. These culminated in a revolt against the Emperor Heraclius, where Samaritans and Jews (significant minorities in the area) supported the Persian Sasanian Empire against the Byzantines. In 604, Jerusalem was captured without resistance and Jews were allowed to return. Control of the city was passed to Jewish rebels until a Christian revolt and a reversal of Persian policy. In 630 control of Jerusalem returned to Byzantium and the Jews were once again expelled.This period also saw the rise of Islam in Arabia and the significance of Jerusalem as a Muslim holy site. The Noble Sanctuary in Jerusalem served as the first Qibla (direction of prayer) from around 610 until it was replaced by the Kaaba in Mecca. And in 621, Mohammed is said to have performed the Isra and Mi'raj, a magical journey to Jerusalem.Left: (from top to bottom) Heraclius coin (source); siege coin (source); Khosrow II coin (source)Right: inscription at the entrance of a Christian mass burial cave, Greek; Jerusalem, 7th century (source)21. Rashidun Caliphate (637–661)In 637, Jerusalem was besieged and conquered by the Rashidun Caliph Umar the Great . Jews were allowed to return to Jerusalem and Christians were guaranteed certain civil and religious liberties in exchange for jizya. The Temple Mount area was cleaned up and a small wooden mosque may have built on the site: the original Al-Aqsa Mosque, the third holiest site in Islam.Above: The Al-Aqsa Mosque; the original wooden mosque might be from as early as 638, but was completely rebuilt in 710 and again in 1035. [Wikipedia]22. Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)In 661, Muawiyah I was crowned Caliph in Jerusalem following the assassination of Ali during the First Fitna, marking the beginning of the Umayyad Caliphate. Jerusalem became part of the Jund Filastin district and was known as Iliya (from Aelia) and later Bayt-al-Maqdis (House of the Temple). The modern name Al-Quds (The Holy) dates to the 9th century.In 686, Arabic was made the official language of the Caliphate, fueling the process of Arabization of the region. The era also saw the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque, which was built in 691 (during the Second Fitna), making it one the oldest great works of Islamic architecture.Left: Dome of the Rock; Jerusalem, 685-691 [Wikipedia]Right: Ilyia Filastin coin, 695 (source)23-25. Abbasid Caliphate (750–878, 904–939), Tulunids (878–904) and Ikhshidid dynasty (939–969)Following the Battle of the Zab in modern-day Iraq, the Umayyad Caliphate was replaced by the Abbasid Caliphate under As-Saffah, and the capital moved from Damascus to Baghdad. An attempted Abbasid-Carolingian alliance at the end of the 8th century allowed Charlemagne to build and renovate a number of structures in the city.In 878 Jerusalem was conquered by Ahmad ibn Tulun of the breakaway Tulunid dynasty, who held onto it until 904. In 939, the Abbasid governor of Egypt and Palestine was granted independent control ovehis domains and the title Al-Ikhshid.Left: Kufic Qur'an manuscript used for recitation in the Dome of the Rock for a number of centuries; 9th century (source)Right: Al-Quds coin, 832 (source)26. Fatimid Caliphate (969–1073, 1098–1099)In 969, Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah of the Ismaili Shia Fatimid dynasty conquered the Egyptian territories of the Abbasid Caliphate, including Jerusalem. Cairo was founded as a new capital, and Jerusalem eventually became the capital of Jund Filastin.Under Al-Hakim, churches and synagogues around the Empire were destroyed, though the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was rebuilt twenty years later following a treaty with the Byzantine emperor.Left: letter from the Cairo Geniza collection, Judeo-Arabic; Cairo, early 13th century [Wikipedia]Right: rock crystal ewer, a famous example of Fatimid art; Egypt, 1000-1050 [Wikipeida]27-28. Seljuk Empires (1073–1098)Jerusalem was besieged and conquered in 1073 by the Turko-Persian Seljuk Empire under Malik-Shah I and Emir Atsiz ibn-Uvaq. A revolt was suppressed four years later and much of the local population was massacred. In 1086 control passed to the Seljuk ruler of Damascus Tutush I and Emir Artuk Bey, though subsequent infighting following the split of the Seljuk Empire allowed Jerusalem to be recaptured by the Fatimids.The great Sufist philosopher Al-Ghazali briefly lived in Jerusalem during this period.Left: Seljuk Bronze Bowl; Palestine, 11th to 13th century (source)Right: coin of Malik-Shah I; 1086 [Wikipedia]29 & 31. Kingdoms of Jerusalem (1099–1187, 1229–1244)The First Crusade invasion of Jerusalem was the indirect result of an appeal by the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos for help against the Seljuks and Pope Urban II's subsequent speech at the Council of Clermont. The Crusaders besieged and captured Jerusalem in 1099, slaughtering much of the Muslim and Jewish population. Initially ruled by the Frankish knight Godfrey of Bouillon, Jerusalem soon became a kingdom under his brother Baldwin I. Mosques were converted into churches and palaces, and non-Catholic Christian worship was restricted.While the Kingdom was almost entirely overrun in 1187, it survived and was reestablished in Acre. In 1229 Jerusalem was recaptured by Frederick II without a fight but his self-coronation was not recognized by the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem and the rest of the kingdom continued to be ruled from Acre.Christian rule of Jerusalem saw the founding of the Knights Hospitaller and Knights Templar. The Jewish philosopher Maimonides visited the city in 1168.Left: St Anne's Church, built on the traditional site of the birthplace of Mary; 1131-1138 [Wikipedia]Right: Chapel of the Ascension, built on the traditional site of Jesus' Ascension; 1150 [Wikipedia]30 & 32. Ayyubid dynasty (1187–1229, 1246–1260) and Khwarezmians (1244–1246)The Crusaders were comprehensively beaten in the Battle of Hattin, by the famous Kurdish Ayyubid Sultan, Saladin. The Third Crusade under Richard I failed to recapture Jerusalem from the Egypt-based Ayyubids, but the subsequent Treaty of Jaffa allowed access to Western Christian pilgrims.A rebellion in Syria persuaded Sultan Al-Kamil to cede Jerusalem to the Crusaders in 1229, with guarantees of Muslim (but not Jewish) access. In 1244 As Salih-Ayyub gathered a mercenary army of Khwarezmian mercenaries, who retook the city. The Khwarezmians razed the city and slaughtered much of the population until they too were driven out by the Sultan using a Mamluk army.Left: Mosque of Omar, built opposite the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; 1193 [Wikipedia]Right: Ayyubid pyxis depicting Christ's Entry into Jerusalem; Syria, mid-13th century (source)33-34. Mamluk Sultanate (1260–1516) and Mongol Empire (1260?, 1300)Following the defeat of the Seventh Crusade at the Battle of Fariskur in 1250, the Ayyubid Sultan was deposed by his Mamluk soldiers and replaced by his stepmother Shajar al-Durr, marking the beginning of the Mamluk Sultanate. Jerusalem remained under the control of the Ayyubids, who relocated to Damascus. In 1260 Jerusalem was officially conquered by the Mongols during the their raids into Palestine and remitted to the Christians under the Franco-Mongol alliance. However, it is unclear if the Mongols ever occupied Jerusalem and following their defeat at the Battle of Ain Jalut, Jerusalem formally became part of the Mamluk Caliphate under Qutuz and Baibars. The Mongols raided Palestine again in 1300, probably occupying Jerusalem, before retreating.The Black Death ravaged Jerusalem in 1347.Left: Madrasa al-Salamiyya, built in the Ablaq style; Jerusalem, 1338 (source)Right: Tomb of emir Aidughdi Kubaki, Mamilla Cemetery; Jerusalem, 1289 [Wikipedia]35-37. Ottoman Empire (1516–1917), Egypt Eyalet (1771–1772) and Muhammad Ali dynasty (1834–1840)Between 1516 and 1517 the Mamluk Sultanate was conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I, whose reign saw the Ottoman Empire triple in size. Ottoman rule over Palestine continued for the next 400 years, with two short breaks. Between 1771 and 1772 Jerusalem was ruled by the breakaway Mamluk Egyptian ruler Ali Bey al-Kabir. And between 1834 and 1840 Jerusalem came under the rule of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, with the Ottomans retaking the city with British help. A campaign by Napoleon to capture Jerusalem in 1799 was defeated at the Siege of Acre.During the 17th century, Sabbatai Zevi, founder of the Sabbateans, preached in Jerusalem before declaring himself Messiah. The late 19th century meanwhile saw the start of Zionist settlement Jerusalem, with the creation of Jewish neighborhoods such as Mishkenot Sha'ananim, the arrival of Zionists such as Eliezer Ben-Yehuda and the First Aliyah.Left: Walls of Jerusalem and Tower of David, built and expanded by Suleiman the Magnificent in the 1530s [Wikipedia]Right: Photochrom print of a market by the Tower of David; 1890-1900 (source)38. Mandatory Palestine (1917–1948)Jerusalem was captured by British forces near the end of World War I, at the Battle of Jerusalem during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. This followed the Balfour Declaration, in which Britain promised to make Palestine a national home for the Jews, as well as the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, in which they agreed to recognise Arab independence, and the Sykes–Picot Agreement, in which they decided to split the area with France.Jerusalem was initially placed under military rule as part of the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration, but following the San Remo conference in 1920, became part of the British mandate of Palestine under the auspices of the League of Nations.This period was dominated by nationalist uprisings, Arab and Jewish, leading to the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine, Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine and 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine. A British White Paper limiting Jewish migration resulted in clandestine immigration of Nazi refugees. At the start of the Mandate, Jews comprised just 11% of the population. By 1945 this had risen to 31%, including 40% of the population of Jerusalem.One very visible remnant of British rule is an ordinance passed under the governorship of Ronald Storrs that all buildings must be faced with local Jerusalem stone.Left: General Allenby enters Jerusalem on foot, 11 December 1917 [Wikipedia]Right: banknote and stamps of Mandatory Palestine, marked in English, Arabic and Hebrew; the Hebrew inscription also includes an acronym for Eretz Israel (Land of Israel) [Wikipedia]39-40. Jordanian and Israeli rule (1948-1967)In 1947 (and in the aftermath of the Holocaust) the United Nations recommended the adoption of a Partition Plan for Palestine , which would create separate Arab and Jewish states and a Separate International Regime for Jerusalem. Civil War quickly broke out, and following the departure of the British in 1948 and Declaration of Independence by Israel, an international war ensued with the invasion by neighbouring Arab armies. Massacres took place on both sides and the UN mediator, Folke Bernadotte, was assassinated by Jewish terrorists.During the war Jerusalem was besieged by Arab irregular forces and by the end East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was under Jordanian control while West Jerusalem was under Israeli control. In 1949 this situation was formalised in the Rhodes Agreement. East Jerusalem (along with the rest of the West Bank) was annexed by Jordan, while Israel moved its capital and parliament to West Jerusalem. Mount Scopus (where I was later born) was an Israeli controlled enclave in the East.Left: A border sign between East and West Jerusalem, with the Tower of David in the background; 1951 [Wikipedia]Right: Shrine of the Book in West Jerusalem, built in 1965 to house the Dead Sea Scrolls (source)40. Israeli rule (1967-present)The Six-Day War in 1967 began as an Israeli preemptive strike on Egypt following the mobilization of Egyptian forces, but was soon joined by Syria and Jordan after they were given false information by Gamal Abdel Nasser. On the third day Israel conquered East Jerusalem, and by the end of the war was in control of the entire Jordanian West Bank, the Syrian Golan Heights, the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip.In 1980 Israel declared Jerusalem its "complete and united" capital, though stopped short of formally annexing it. This move was rejected by the UN and no country keeps its embassy in Jerusalem.In 1988 the Palestinian Declaration of Independence (written by the poet Mahmoud Darwish) also declared Jerusalem to be the capital of Palestine. Following the granting of partial self-government to the Palestinian Authority, an administrative capital was set up in Ramallah, which is were other countries keep their embassies and missions.Left: Mamilla Mall, with the Old City Walls in the background [Wikipedia]Right: Mahane Yehuda Market [Wikipedia][Appendix] Historical mapsThe maps are all from Wikipedia.2. New Kingdom of Egypt (15th century BC)4-5. United Monarchy (1000BC) and Judah (9th century BC)6. Neo-Assyrian Empire (671BC)7. Neo-Babylonian Empire (6th century BC)8. Achaemenid Empire (500BC)9-10. Alexander's Empire and Partition of Babylon (323BC)10. Antigonid Dynasty (303BC)14-15. Hasmonean Dynasty (1st century BC), Herodian Kindgom (30BC) and Herodian Tetrarchy (4BC)16 & 19. Judea (1st century AD), Palaestina Prima (5th century AD)16. Roman Empire (117)19. Byazntine Empire (555)20. Sasanian Empire (621)21-22. Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates (637-750)23-25. Abbasid Caliphate, Tulunid Empire and Ikshidid Dynasty (750-969)26. Fatimid Empire (1025)27. Seljuk Empire (1073)23 & 29. Jund Filastin (9th century) & Kingdom of Jerusalem (1135)30. Ayyubid Sultanate (1193)33. Mamluk Sultanate (1263)35 & 37. Ottoman Sultanate (1683) & Muhammad Ali dynasty (1834-1840)38. British Empire (1920)38-40. Peel Commission partition plan (1936), UN partition plan (1947) and Israel and Palestine (post 1967)39-40. Jerusalem (pre and post 1967)

Understanding the technical aspects of Gödel’s Incompleteness results did not immediately lead to an understanding of their broad impact in the general mathematical context, in my own experience. The best resource I have found in this regard is the wonderful collection of essays by Solomon Feferman, “In the Light of Logic” [LL]. And yes, Gödel’s Incompleteness results do impact science, including physics and the “unified theory” (I assume by unified theory you mean the attempt to unify the Standard Model with General Relativity).Essentially, what Gödel did was, he embedded a copy of the First-Order Predicate calculus together with Peano’s Axioms for elementary number theory into elementary number theory itself and then demonstrated the existence of the meta-mathematical statement:[math]"PA ⊢ g ⟺ ∀n∈N[/math], [math]n[/math] is not the code of a proof for [math]g[/math].”Essentially what this amounts to is the statement that [math]PA[/math] proves the logical equivalence of a logical sentence about [math]PA[/math], [math]g[/math], and the logical sentence, “[math]g[/math] is unprovable in [math]PA[/math].” From there it is a short step for man and a giant leap for mankind since we have the following scenario:Suppose the system is consistent, then, if there exists a proof of [math]g[/math] in [math]PA[/math], from logical equivalence it follows that [math]PA[/math] proves a false sentence and is, then, unsound; otherwise, suppose there is no proof of [math]g[/math], then, from logical equivalence [math]g[/math] must be true and there exists a true sentence about [math]PA[/math] which is unprovable, hence, [math]PA[/math] is incomplete. It also follows almost immediately from the above statement that, if an axiomatic system strong enough to express elementary number theory, i. e. Peano’s Axioms, is consistent, then it cannot prove that it is so.Here’s a relevant passage from [LL], Chpt. 6, page 134:“In 1930 he (Gödel) began to pursue Hilbert’s program for establishing the consistency of formal axiom systems for mathematics by finitary means. The system that had already been singled out for particular attention dealt with the general subjects of ‘higher’ arithmetic, analysis, and set theory. Gödel started by working on the consistency problem for analysis, which he sought to reduce to that for arithmetic, but his plan led him to an obstacle related to the well-known paradoxes of truth and definability in ordinary language. While Gödel saw that these paradoxes did not apply to the precisely specified languages of the formal systems he was considering, he realized that analogous nonparadoxical arguments could be carried out by substituting the notion of provability for that of truth. Pursuing this realization, he was led to the following unexpected conclusions. Any formal system S in which a certain amount of theoretical arithmetic can be developed and which satisfies some minimal consistency conditions is incomplete: one can construct an elementary arithmetical statement A such that neither A nor its negation is provable in S. In fact, the statement so constructed is true, since it expresses its own unprovability in S via a representation of the syntax of S in arithmetic. Furthermore, one can construct a statement C which expresses the consistency of S in arithmetic, and C is not provable in S if S is consistent. It follows that, if the body of finitary combinatorial reasoning that Hilbert required for execution of his consistency program could all be formally developed in a single consistent system S, then the program could not be carried out for S or any stronger (consistent) system.”So, what the public should be concerned about here is dumping tax payer funds into theories which are not empirically testable; it is empirical verification alone, empirical adequacy, which indicates whether or not a scientific theory is sound and consistent - this cannot be demonstrated mathematically! And the best examples of this, currently available, come from quantum computation and string “theory” - what I presume you to call “the unified theory.”In their book, “Gödel’s Way: Exploits into an Undecidable World” [GW], the authors, Gregory Chaitin, Newton da Costa, and Francisco Doria demonstrate a number of incompleteness results regarding scientific theories. The key to doing so is to formalize the scientific theory in question using what are called Suppes Predicates. From [GW], Chpt. 3, page 69:“A Suppes predicate for some theory is the conjunction of two sets of axioms (so that it becomes a single formal sentence):The first set of axioms describes the objects we deal with in the theory (vector spaces, topological spaces, fields, etc.) and builds them from scratch within Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory.The second set of axioms describe how these objects interlock in the theory. This set includes the motion equations, or dynamic rules, for the theory.One has to prove that the axioms are consistent, but in general (as we deal with relative consistency) it is enough to exhibit an example or particular situation from the theory we are dealing with.”In mathematical logic, relative consistency is consistency relative to some stronger system - but then one must take the consistency of the stronger system on faith, and so on to infinity. I emphasize the above (in bold) to stress that the relative consistency of the axiomatized scientific theory depends on empirical adequacy; a scientific theory is empirically adequate if it provides pragmatic information, i. e. empirical results, about the investigative domain it covers. For instance, Classical Mechanics, one of the theories da Costa and Doria prove incomplete, is empirically adequate in that it provides the information we need to build all of our infrastructure, or most of it. You cannot say the same for either quantum computation or string theory - string theory isn’t even a theory!This, of course, is not to say unproven theories shouldn’t be investigated; historically, this is how our knowledge has expanded. However, when empirical data exists which calls into question the very foundations of those unproven theories, is it ethical to suppress that data and alternative theories consistent with that data in order to maintain the funding status quo? Is it ethical to suppress novel mathematical results which undermine the primary motivation for an unproven theory in order to maintain the funding status quo? Is it ethical to do all of this, all the while clamoring on about global warming? If mathematicians and scientists really want to address global warming, then they should stop being hypocritical - “and still it moves!”The point is, there is no such thing as “post-empirical science;” science without empirical validation is just mathematics, and highly questionable mathematics at that - this is the impact of Gödel’s Incompleteness results on physics! And the same exact situation holds in regards to quantum computation. Furthermore, there exists empirical data which either refutes directly or calls into serious question both of these programs; these are the Pre-stimulus response experiments.Way back in 2012, a meta-analysis of pre-stimulus response experiments was published in the Frontiers of Psychology Journal and it was contested by some neuro-scientist. That meta-analysis and a few of the experiments included are now hosted by the U. S. National Institutes of Health. The authors of the original meta-analysis replied to the critique by the neuro-scientist and a separate group updated the meta-analysis to reflect additional experiments conducted from 2012 to 2017; they published that update this last March in SSRN, a prominent neurosci journal:Intuition Part 1;Intuition Part 2;Meta-analysis;Response to critique;Roulette Paradigm;Meta-analysis Update.And these experiments show that the human heart and brain become aware of an emotionally stimulating event 4.5 to 18 seconds prior to that event happening in spacetime! This should be big news, but have you heard of it prior to now? And there exists an alternative theory which explains this data, and much more, in a consistent way. I discuss this alternative theory in Wes Hansen's answer to Does anyone understand quantum physics and its implications on "reality"?In addition, from The Case Against Quantum Computing, by Dr. Michel Dyakonov:“The subject did not attract much attention, though, until 1994, when mathematician Peter Shor (then at Bell Laboratories and now at MIT) proposed an algorithm for an ideal quantum computer that would allow very large numbers to be factored much faster than could be done on a conventional computer.”And with that in mind, consider a recent mathematical invention of my own. I recently constructed a provably recursive arithmetic which extends the “standard” model, something which was believed to be impossible. I established set theoretic foundations in ZFC/AFA but essentially you can think of it as the structure {N x N, <, +, *, (1,0), (0,0)} with the lexicographic order, coordinate-wise addition, and multiplication defined by:(a, b) * (c, d) = (a * c, b * c + a * d + b * d).It’s pretty straightforward and simple to demonstrate that these relations/operations are recursive over the entire domain.After writing a short paper formally constructing the recursive arithmetic, I immediately embarked on extending it out to algebraic closure and, in the process, realized that there exists a countable subsumption hierarchy of recursive Universes which conforms to the geometric sequence {[math]2^n[/math]}; the Universe we traditionally call “standard” is simply the zeroeth-order Universe in this hierarchy (if you think of the domains as ordinals, then the exponents conform to the geometic sequence)! We have:0) {N, <, +, *, 1, 0};1) {N x N, <, +, *, (1, 0), (0, 0)};2) {N x N x N x N, <, +, *, (1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 0)};3) {N x N x N x N x N x N x N x N, <, +, *, (1, 0, 0, 0,0, 0, 0, 0 ), (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)};...And this is important because it would seem a great deal more difficult to factor a large positive integer from one of these higher-order universes than it would one from the zeroeth-order universe. As an example, I consider in the appendix to my paper, The Q-Universe: A Set Theoretic Construction, the simplest situation from [math]ω^8 [/math], which is to say, the third-order universe.