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Hopkins – The Real Witch-Hunter - HeritageDaily - Archaeology NewsOn August 27, 1645, the small town of Bury St Edmunds, England set a grisly record.[1][1][1][1] That day, 18men and women were hanged together as witches. It was the single biggest mass-execution for witchcraft in English history, and it was all the work of one man. Matthew Hopkins was many things: a tavern owner, a former lawyer, a dedicated Puritan. But, to the people of Bury St Edmunds, he had only title worth knowing: Witchfinder General.[2][2][2][2]From the 16th century, England was in the grips of hysteria over witchcraft, caused in part by King James VI, who was obsessed with the dark arts and wrote a dissertation entitled “Daemonologie” in 1599. [3][3][3][3] James had been influenced by his personal involvement in the North Berwick witch trials from 1590[4][4][4][4] , and amassed various texts on magical studies that he published into three books to describe the topics of magic, sorcery, and witchcraft, and tried to justify the persecution and punishment of a person accused of being a witch under the rule of canonical law.James VI and I - WikipediaFrom 1604, the law concerning witchcraft intensified. To hang you no longer had to be guilty of murder by way of sorcery, merely attempting to conjure spirits was a capital offense.[5][5][5][5]To bring a witch to trial there had to be witnesses, the more the merrier. And there was nothing like a confession to secure a conviction, though how some confessions were obtained was a concern, even back then. It was useful to be able to show that a witch had been marked by the devil as belonging to him, with places on the body where the witch could not feel pain. 'Prickers' were employed, who used a variety of knives and probes to test their victims for 'devil's marks'.[6][6][6][6] There were the 'tests'. One involved weighing the so-called witch against the big Bible in the parish church.[7][7][7][7] If the Bible was heavier, it proved guilt. But the most famous test was to 'swim' your suspected witch. Trussed crossways, the right thumb tied to the left big toe, and the left thumb to the right big toe, the suspect was ducked in water, as prayers were spoken.[8][8][8][8] If she sank she was innocent, if she floated she was guilty, a sign that the water of her baptism was rejecting her.As more and more witches were brought to trial, the public looked for protection against such evil, turning to the church, or to people offering protective remedies. It was said 'cunning men' could sell you a witch-bottle to protect your home and family[9][9][9][9] , and Bellarmine bottles, with their distinctive bearded faces, seemed designed for the purpose.[10][10][10][10] Recent scientific examination of several found buried under floors of old houses has shown the typical contents to have been iron nails, pins, pointed sticks, human hair, nail-clippings and phosphates, denoting the presence of urine.[11][11][11][11]Mudlarking: Bellarmine Jugs and Witch BottlesThe published works assisted in the creation of witchcraft reform, that led to the English Puritan and writer – Richard Bernard to write a manual on witch-hunting in 1629 called “A Guide to Grand-Jury Men”.[12][12][12][12] Historians suggest that both the “Daemonologie” and “A Guide to Grand-Jury Men” would influence what Matthew Hopkins would draw inspiration from and have a significant impact in the direction his life would take many years later.Matthew Hopkins early life is one steeped in obscurity and myth. Whilst there are no surviving documents concerning the man directly, there are enough periphery records to divide the facts from the fiction. Hopkins was born in Great Wenham, the county of Suffolk, England. He was the 4th of six children. His parents, James Hopkins and Marie Hopkins were both devoutly religious Puritans and his father worked as the minister for St. Johns church of great Wenham.[13][13][13][13] In the will of one Daniel Wyles, dated 1619 is the following entry:“James hopkins, preacher of the word of God at Great Wenham and to his wife, leaving 6s 8d each to their children, James, Thomas and John when able to read a chapter in the new testament, to buy a bible.”[14][14][14][14]Matthew was not born by 1619, suggesting he would have been born in the following several years with most sources attributing his birth no later than 1620. His father’s will was also signed by the executor, a man by the name of Nathaniel Bacon.[15][15][15][15] Bacon was a hardline puritan, Anti-Catholic and held considerable power in the region, where he served in several political positions. His mother, Marie Hopkins was born to a Huguenot family who had left france in 1572, when 40 thousand Huguenots left france following the St. Bartholomew’s day Massacre and settled in East Anglia, the region of England encompassing Norfolk, Suffolk and Cambridgeshire.[16][16][16][16] Suffolk itself was a Puritan stronghold and heavily backed the parliamentarians during the civil war. The family at one point held title "to lands and tenements in Framlingham 'at the castle'".[17][17][17][17]Fralington Castle (Matthew Hopkins: English witch hunter (1620 - 1647) | Biography, Facts, Career, Wiki, Life)Hopkins educational records are equally sparse, though from his later writings, it is known that he could both speak and write English and Latin with a degree of competency. Given that at the time, it was not at all unusual for local ministers to be appointed as Primary teachers as the role of education was annexed out to the churches, it would not be a stretch to assume he was home schooled, which would certainly account for the lack of records.[18][18][18][18]Equally, as he grew older, it would not be untoward to assume he may have schooled for further education abroad somewhere on the European continent. Given his family’s ties with shipping interests in the area, as evidenced in his father’s will dated 1634, having some French or Flemish ties it would not have been unusual to seek higher education on the continent and would once again explain the lack of any formal educational records for Hopkins.[19][19][19][19] This is further backed by his first known job as a Clerk for a shipping company, where the language and knowledge gained from Europe would certainly have helped greatly. After his father’s death, Hopkins moved to Manningtree in Essex and used his inheritance of a hundred marks to present himself as a gentleman to the local aristocracy and purchase the Thorn Inn in Mistley.[20][20][20][20]Who was Matthew Hopkins, the Witchfinder General?There are many legends that state Hopkins worked as a lawyer, mostly due to the manner in which he would later work as prosecutor during the witch trials he became so famous for, however, there is little hard evidence that he ever worked higher in the legal profession than that of Clerk.[21][21][21][21] In fact, in a document titled “Notes and queries of 16th November, 1850”, a manuscript belonging to one W.S. Fitch of Ipswich refers to Matthew Hopkins as:“A lawyer of but little note”.[22][22][22][22]Hopkins’ rise to fame came at a time when England was going through one of its darkest periods to date. Economic depression, religious rivalries, and the ever-present threat of civil war left the population wary and uncertain.[23][23][23][23] These factors combined to form a new climate where superstition and paranoia were slowly gripping the citizens in the countryside, making Hopkins’ arrival all the more fortuitous.Though Hopkins has often been blamed with instigating the panic, he did not do it alone. A combination of factors was responsible for this needless suffering and death, and Hopkins simply acted in accordance with public demand.[24][24][24][24] Hopkins’ efforts were the culmination of many decades of increasing fears of witchcraft in England.Hopkins’ witch-finding career and discovery of witches began in March 1644, when an associate, John Sterne alleged that six women in Manningtree were conducting acts of sorcery and were trying to kill him with witchcraft.[25][25][25][25]He transformed himself into a “Witch Finder Generall,” going about Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, and Huntingdon getting villagers and townspeople to hire him and his two assistants (for a fee) to search out witches, force their confessions, and have them hanged by the authorities.[26][26][26][26]Hopkins conducted a physical investigation of the women, looking for deformities and a blemish called the “Devil’s Mark” which would lead to 23 women (sources differ in the number) being accused of witchcraft and were tried in 1645.[27][27][27][27] The trial was presided over by the justices of the peace (a judicial officer of a lower or puisne court), resulting in nineteen women being convicted and hanged, and four women dying in prison.COMMENT: The Last Witch Hunter: why modern visions of witches don’t conjure up realityJohn Stearne (c. 1610–1670) was Matthew Hopkins’ associate but is often overlooked in favour of the dark foreboding figure of the ‘Witchfinder General’ – yet it was he who helped, more than any other, to put and sustain Hopkins onto his malign path.[28][28][28][28] A member of the gentry from Lawshall near Bury St Edmunds, his accusations helped bring about the execution of 15 ‘witches’ at Chelmsford in July 1645 and he then travelled and worked with Hopkins as they made their way through East Anglia, exploiting existing animosities in communities that were economically strained and emotionally overwrought.[29][29][29][29]How much Stearne believed in what he was doing is open to interpretation, but both he and Hopkins were not cheap – the town of Ipswich had a levy a special tax to pay for their services.[30][30][30][30] While Hopkins was an opportunist who saw a chance for self-advancement, as a member of the gentry Stearne should probably not have had the same motivation, though he undoubtedly sought the same elevation as Hopkins and it’s worth noting that his later years were packed with acrimonious money troubles.[31][31][31][31] He was also as responsible as Hopkins for bending the truth to suit his mission – when the people of Kimbolton in Huntingdonshire explained that they had searched the body of a “detestable wretch” but found no ‘witch marks’, it was Stearne who assured them that the Devil often taught witches to conceal the marks, especially if forewarned.[32][32][32][32]For John Stearne, the war against witches was another way of fighting the Civil War’ and he was probably heavily influenced by William Perkins’ godly Discourse of the Damned Art of Witchcraft, 1608, but also borrowed at length from Richard Bernard’s Guide to Grand Jurymen, 1627.[33][33][33][33]Delving into Suffolk’s mysterious history of witchcraftAlthough torture was considered unlawful under English law, Hopkins would also use techniques such as sleep deprivation to confuse a victim into confessing, cutting the arm of the accused with a blunt knife (if the victim didn’t bleed then they’d be declared a witch) and tying victims to a chair who would be submerged in water (if a victim floated, then they’d be considered a witch).[34][34][34][34] Finally, the suspect was tied to a chair and forced to sit in uncomfortable positions for several hours.[35][35][35][35] Again, this action was thought to encourage familiars to appear in order to aid the suspect.Unsurprisingly, another consequence of these techniques was often the confession of the accused.The confessions obtained by Hopkins and Stearne were tainted with the fear of further torture and as such are highly unreliable. Under the immense stress of such interrogative procedure, almost anybody would have been compelled to confess to almost anything.After their success in the trail, Hopkins and Stearne travelled throughout East Anglia and nearby counties with an entourage of female assistants, falsely claiming to hold the office of Witchfinder General and also claimed to be part of an official commission by Parliament to uncover witches residing in the populous by using a practice called “pricking”.[36][36][36][36] Pricking was the process of pricking a suspected witch with a needle, pin or bodkin. The practice derived from the belief that all witches and sorcerers bore a witch’s mark that would not feel pain or bleed when pricked.Hanging Witches - this is believed to show Matthew Hopkins being paid for a job well done (Delving into Suffolk’s mysterious history of witchcraft)This proved to be a lucrative opportunity in terms of monetary gain, as Hopkins and his company were paid for their investigations, although Hopkins states in his book “The Discovery of Witches” that “his fees were to maintain his company with three horses”, and that he took “twenty shillings a town”. Historical records from Stowmarket shows that Hopkins actually charged the town £23, taking into account inflation would be around £3800 today.[37][37][37][37] Between the years of 1644 and 1646, Hopkins and his company are believed to be responsible for the execution of around 300 supposed witches and sent to the gallows more accused people than all the other witch-hunters in England of the previous 160 years.Perhaps unsurprisingly given the misogyny of the time, one of the most well documented cases undertaken by Hopkins during his siege of Bury St. Edmunds and perhaps the most important in his undoing, was of a male witch, Reverend John Lowes, an 80 year old minister.[38][38][38][38] Whilst it is relatively unusual that it was the trial of a man and the vast majority of Hopkins witches were Female, it was not the gender of the victim that caused Hopkins reputation to suffer, but his social standing as a Reverend. Lowes was thought to have been something of a contentious character locally and many were keen to accuse him of witchcraft. He was subsequently found to have a teat on his head and two beneath his tongue and was “swam” in very public fashion in the moat of Framlingham Castle.[39][39][39][39] Under interrogation, he admitted to having six imp familiars which he had ordered to sink a ship, killing fourteen men and though this admission was later retracted, it was to no avail and he was hanged along with the seventeen others found guilty.[40][40][40][40]John Lowes was the first foray for Hopkins into what could well have been a politically motivated coupe and the public humiliation of Lowes did not go unseen. People began to express concern over the manner in which admissions were being withdrawn, along with the sheer volume of witches being rounded up and the treatment that Hopkins and Co. were dealing out towards those accused.[41][41][41][41] Editorials in parliamentary papers were speaking out against his torturous actions and Hopkins was ordered to cease his “swimming” activities. Whereby before, Hopkins had boasted he had access to “the devils book” which, he told, documented every witch in England, he now began to distance himself from such rumours as they threatened to turn against him.[42][42][42][42]nquisition-art.netAs 1646 began to draw to a close, The reverend John Gaule, a Puritan cleric of Great Staughton preached openly about Hopkins actions and even begun to associate Hopkins himself with demonic actions.[43][43][43][43] He stood by Lowes as a Godly man and contested his innocence after his death. Gaule set about collecting evidence of Hopkins torture and used it as a centre point when he wrote and published a book named “Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcraft”.[44][44][44][44] In this book, he questioned the existence of Imps and animal familiars, made distinctions between the good workings of a magician and the spells of a witch and scathingly, took Hopkins treatment of those accused to task. In the book, he wrote of the accused:“Every old woman with a wrinkled face, a furrowed brow, a hairy lip, a robber tooth, a squint eye, a squeaking voice or scolding tongue, having a rugged coat on her back, a skull cap on her head, a spindle in her hand & a dog or cat by her side, is not only suspect but pronounced for a witch”.[45][45][45][45]Public opinion at this point disintegrated for Hopkins at a rapid rate. He found that rather than saviour of the people, he was now being viewed as suspicious in his own right and condemned by the men of power throughout the region.[46][46][46][46] Sensing a losing battle, he retired to Manningtree, cutting his losses and wrote his pamphlet, in which he attempts to justify many of his actions as “the Witchfinder general”. In his short career as witch hunter, spanning less than two years, Hopkins was responsible for between 200 and 300 women trialed as a witch, making up 60% of all witch trials between the early 15th Century and the late 18th Century.[47][47][47][47] In total more people were hanged by his hand than in the entire 100 years previous.Matthew Hopkins - WikipediaBy 1647, Hopkins and Stearne were questioned by justices of the assizes (the precursor to the English Crown Court) into their activities, but by the time the court resumed both Hopkins and Stearne retired from witch-hunting. That same year, Hopkins published his book, “The Discovery of Witches” which was used as a manual for the trial and conviction of Margaret Jones in the Massachusetts Bay Colony on the east coast of America. Some of Hopkins’ methods were also employed during the Salem Witch Trials, in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692–93, resulting in hundreds of inhabitants being accused and 19 people executed.It may be tempting to conclude that Matthew Hopkins was almost singularly responsible for instigating the bloodiest witch panics in English history. This however is an overly simplified view that does not allow for the undeniable participation of both the judicial community and the public at large.[48][48][48][48] The truth is that Hopkins could never have prospered were he not living in an environment that enabled such superstitions to spiral out of control. While he was certainly involved in the trials that resulted from the panics in East Anglia (often placing himself in a favourable position fiscally and politically), he was simply carrying on a historically condoned practice.[49][49][49][49] The rapid rise and fall of Hopkins’ influence and credibility shows that though they were traditionally regarded as less prone to the type of panic that swept through much of the Continent, the English were as susceptible to superstition as other regions during this period.Burial place of Matthew's Hopkins (The ghost of the Witchfinder General from Great Wenham still haunts Mistley)Matthew Hopkins died at his home in Manningtree on the 12th August 1647 of pleural tuberculosis and was buried in the graveyard of the Church of St Mary at Mistley Heath.[50][50][50][50] Historian James Sharpe has characterised as a "pleasing legend" grew up around the circumstances of Hopkins' death, according to which he was subjected to his own swimming test and executed as a witch, but the parish registry at Mistley confirms his burial there.[51][51][51][51] Hopkins "acquired an evil reputation which in later days made his name synonymous with fingerman or informer paid by authorities to commit perjury.[52][52][52][52]Within a year of the death of Hopkins, Stearne retired to his farm and wrote his own manual “A Confirmation and Discovery of Witchcraft” hoping to further profit from the infamous career path both men had undertaken that caused the death of hundreds of innocent souls and in which he attempted to justify their actions.[53][53][53][53]Footnotes[1] Matthew Hopkins Biography – Witchfinder General - Biographies by Biographics[1] Matthew Hopkins Biography – Witchfinder General - Biographies by Biographics[1] Matthew Hopkins Biography – Witchfinder General - Biographies by Biographics[1] Matthew Hopkins Biography – Witchfinder General - Biographies by Biographics[2] Matthew Hopkins, Witch-Finder General[2] Matthew Hopkins, Witch-Finder General[2] Matthew Hopkins, Witch-Finder General[2] Matthew Hopkins, Witch-Finder General[3] Amazon.com: The Demonology of King James I: Includes the Original Text of Daemonologie and News from Scotland (9780738723457): Tyson, Donald: Books[3] Amazon.com: The Demonology of King James I: Includes the Original Text of Daemonologie and News from Scotland (9780738723457): Tyson, Donald: Books[3] Amazon.com: The Demonology of King James I: Includes the Original Text of Daemonologie and News from Scotland (9780738723457): Tyson, Donald: Books[3] Amazon.com: The Demonology of King James I: Includes the Original Text of Daemonologie and News from Scotland (9780738723457): Tyson, Donald: Books[4] North Berwick Witch Trials — Astonishing Legends[4] North Berwick Witch Trials — Astonishing Legends[4] North Berwick Witch Trials — Astonishing Legends[4] North Berwick Witch Trials — Astonishing Legends[5] "An Acte against Conjuration Witchcrafte and dealing with evill and wicked Spirits" (1604)[5] "An Acte against Conjuration Witchcrafte and dealing with evill and wicked Spirits" (1604)[5] "An Acte against Conjuration Witchcrafte and dealing with evill and wicked Spirits" (1604)[5] "An Acte against Conjuration Witchcrafte and dealing with evill and wicked Spirits" (1604)[6] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1296533/pdf/jrsocm..&ved=2ahUKEwiSqLqJ5enqAhVJK80KHVv5BGgQFjAMegQIBRAB&usg=AOvVaw3jW_3QwnIrajNVIW88U8uW[6] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1296533/pdf/jrsocm..&ved=2ahUKEwiSqLqJ5enqAhVJK80KHVv5BGgQFjAMegQIBRAB&usg=AOvVaw3jW_3QwnIrajNVIW88U8uW[6] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1296533/pdf/jrsocm..&ved=2ahUKEwiSqLqJ5enqAhVJK80KHVv5BGgQFjAMegQIBRAB&usg=AOvVaw3jW_3QwnIrajNVIW88U8uW[6] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1296533/pdf/jrsocm..&ved=2ahUKEwiSqLqJ5enqAhVJK80KHVv5BGgQFjAMegQIBRAB&usg=AOvVaw3jW_3QwnIrajNVIW88U8uW[7] 10 Over the Top Historical Tests for "Proving" Someone Was a Witch[7] 10 Over the Top Historical Tests for "Proving" Someone Was a Witch[7] 10 Over the Top Historical Tests for "Proving" Someone Was a Witch[7] 10 Over the Top Historical Tests for "Proving" Someone Was a Witch[8] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://wvde.us/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/How-to-Spot-a-Witch.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwibrsKg5enqAhWUAZ0JHflSBrgQFjARegQIBhAB&usg=AOvVaw02KPHYLVjdJDlpcdEWOzM0[8] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://wvde.us/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/How-to-Spot-a-Witch.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwibrsKg5enqAhWUAZ0JHflSBrgQFjARegQIBhAB&usg=AOvVaw02KPHYLVjdJDlpcdEWOzM0[8] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://wvde.us/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/How-to-Spot-a-Witch.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwibrsKg5enqAhWUAZ0JHflSBrgQFjARegQIBhAB&usg=AOvVaw02KPHYLVjdJDlpcdEWOzM0[8] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://wvde.us/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/How-to-Spot-a-Witch.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwibrsKg5enqAhWUAZ0JHflSBrgQFjARegQIBhAB&usg=AOvVaw02KPHYLVjdJDlpcdEWOzM0[9] Witch Doctors, Soothsayers and Priests. On Cunning Folk in European Historiography and Tradition[9] Witch Doctors, Soothsayers and Priests. On Cunning Folk in European Historiography and Tradition[9] Witch Doctors, Soothsayers and Priests. On Cunning Folk in European Historiography and Tradition[9] Witch Doctors, Soothsayers and Priests. On Cunning Folk in European Historiography and Tradition[10] 14 - Witch Bottle: Bellarmine Jar - Museum of Witchcraft and Magic[10] 14 - Witch Bottle: Bellarmine Jar - Museum of Witchcraft and Magic[10] 14 - Witch Bottle: Bellarmine Jar - Museum of Witchcraft and Magic[10] 14 - Witch Bottle: Bellarmine Jar - Museum of Witchcraft and Magic[11] Mudlarking: Bellarmine Jugs and Witch Bottles[11] Mudlarking: Bellarmine Jugs and Witch Bottles[11] Mudlarking: Bellarmine Jugs and Witch Bottles[11] Mudlarking: Bellarmine Jugs and Witch Bottles[12] A guide to grand-iury men diuided into two bookes: in the first, is the authors best aduice to them what to doe, before they bring in a billa vera in cases of witchcraft, with a Christian direction to such as are too much giuen vpon euery crosse to thinke themselues bewitched. In the second, is a treatise touching witches good and bad, how they may be knowne, euicted, condemned, with many particulars tending thereunto. By Rich. Bernard.[12] A guide to grand-iury men diuided into two bookes: in the first, is the authors best aduice to them what to doe, before they bring in a billa vera in cases of witchcraft, with a Christian direction to such as are too much giuen vpon euery crosse to thinke themselues bewitched. In the second, is a treatise touching witches good and bad, how they may be knowne, euicted, condemned, with many particulars tending thereunto. By Rich. Bernard.[12] A guide to grand-iury men diuided into two bookes: in the first, is the authors best aduice to them what to doe, before they bring in a billa vera in cases of witchcraft, with a Christian direction to such as are too much giuen vpon euery crosse to thinke themselues bewitched. In the second, is a treatise touching witches good and bad, how they may be knowne, euicted, condemned, with many particulars tending thereunto. By Rich. Bernard.[12] A guide to grand-iury men diuided into two bookes: in the first, is the authors best aduice to them what to doe, before they bring in a billa vera in cases of witchcraft, with a Christian direction to such as are too much giuen vpon euery crosse to thinke themselues bewitched. In the second, is a treatise touching witches good and bad, how they may be knowne, euicted, condemned, with many particulars tending thereunto. By Rich. Bernard.[13] Mistley and the Witchfinder[13] Mistley and the Witchfinder[13] Mistley and the Witchfinder[13] Mistley and the Witchfinder[14] The Dark Histories Podcast[14] The Dark Histories Podcast[14] The Dark Histories Podcast[14] The Dark Histories Podcast[15] Origins of Nathaniel Bacon of Middletown[15] Origins of Nathaniel Bacon of Middletown[15] Origins of Nathaniel Bacon of Middletown[15] Origins of Nathaniel Bacon of Middletown[16] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://practitioners.exeter.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Eastanglianwitchtrialappendix2.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwihj5C90enqAhVBVs0KHVFlDNUQFjAOegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw3II4JPQKM_1jSewhBr1uJt&cshid=1595722538663[16] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://practitioners.exeter.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Eastanglianwitchtrialappendix2.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwihj5C90enqAhVBVs0KHVFlDNUQFjAOegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw3II4JPQKM_1jSewhBr1uJt&cshid=1595722538663[16] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://practitioners.exeter.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Eastanglianwitchtrialappendix2.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwihj5C90enqAhVBVs0KHVFlDNUQFjAOegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw3II4JPQKM_1jSewhBr1uJt&cshid=1595722538663[16] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://practitioners.exeter.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Eastanglianwitchtrialappendix2.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwihj5C90enqAhVBVs0KHVFlDNUQFjAOegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw3II4JPQKM_1jSewhBr1uJt&cshid=1595722538663[17] Matthew Hopkins: English witch hunter (1620 - 1647) | Biography, Facts, Career, Wiki, Life[17] Matthew Hopkins: English witch hunter (1620 - 1647) | Biography, Facts, Career, Wiki, Life[17] Matthew Hopkins: English witch hunter (1620 - 1647) | Biography, Facts, Career, Wiki, Life[17] Matthew Hopkins: English witch hunter (1620 - 1647) | Biography, Facts, Career, Wiki, Life[18] Matthew Hopkins Biography – Witchfinder General - Biographies by Biographics[18] Matthew Hopkins Biography – Witchfinder General - Biographies by Biographics[18] Matthew Hopkins Biography – Witchfinder General - Biographies by Biographics[18] Matthew Hopkins Biography – Witchfinder General - Biographies by Biographics[19] Matthew Hopkins – The Real Witch-Hunter - HeritageDaily - Archaeology News[19] Matthew Hopkins – The Real Witch-Hunter - HeritageDaily - Archaeology News[19] Matthew Hopkins – The Real Witch-Hunter - HeritageDaily - Archaeology News[19] Matthew Hopkins – The Real Witch-Hunter - HeritageDaily - Archaeology News[20] Manningtree, Mistley and the Ghost of the Witchfinder General[20] Manningtree, Mistley and the Ghost of the Witchfinder General[20] Manningtree, Mistley and the Ghost of the Witchfinder General[20] Manningtree, Mistley and the Ghost of the Witchfinder General[21] The Macabre Career of Witch Finder General Belonged to this Scheming Man in the 17th Century[21] The Macabre Career of Witch Finder General Belonged to this Scheming Man in the 17th Century[21] The Macabre Career of Witch Finder General Belonged to this Scheming Man in the 17th Century[21] The Macabre Career of Witch Finder General Belonged to this Scheming Man in the 17th Century[22] Notes and Queries, Number 55, November 16, 1850[22] Notes and Queries, Number 55, November 16, 1850[22] Notes and Queries, Number 55, November 16, 1850[22] Notes and Queries, Number 55, November 16, 1850[23] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[23] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[23] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[23] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[24] The discovery of witches: Matthew Hopkins's Defense of his Witch-Hunting Methods[24] The discovery of witches: Matthew Hopkins's Defense of his Witch-Hunting Methods[24] The discovery of witches: Matthew Hopkins's Defense of his Witch-Hunting Methods[24] The discovery of witches: Matthew Hopkins's Defense of his Witch-Hunting Methods[25] Manningtree memorial for accused witches[25] Manningtree memorial for accused witches[25] Manningtree memorial for accused witches[25] Manningtree memorial for accused witches[26] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.york.ac.uk/media/history/documents/case-studies/PrattWitchcraftDestroyed.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiBo_vb1OvqAhWIbc0KHThSCpQQFjAfegQIAxAB&usg=AOvVaw3NnKYvYC0GwyFK_Px_bfi8&cshid=1595792404859[26] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.york.ac.uk/media/history/documents/case-studies/PrattWitchcraftDestroyed.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiBo_vb1OvqAhWIbc0KHThSCpQQFjAfegQIAxAB&usg=AOvVaw3NnKYvYC0GwyFK_Px_bfi8&cshid=1595792404859[26] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.york.ac.uk/media/history/documents/case-studies/PrattWitchcraftDestroyed.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiBo_vb1OvqAhWIbc0KHThSCpQQFjAfegQIAxAB&usg=AOvVaw3NnKYvYC0GwyFK_Px_bfi8&cshid=1595792404859[26] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.york.ac.uk/media/history/documents/case-studies/PrattWitchcraftDestroyed.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiBo_vb1OvqAhWIbc0KHThSCpQQFjAfegQIAxAB&usg=AOvVaw3NnKYvYC0GwyFK_Px_bfi8&cshid=1595792404859[27] Witchfinder General[27] Witchfinder General[27] Witchfinder General[27] Witchfinder General[28] The Other Side: The Witchfinder General[28] The Other Side: The Witchfinder General[28] The Other Side: The Witchfinder General[28] The Other Side: The Witchfinder General[29] The Witchfinders General: who were the contemporaries of Matthew Hopkins?[29] The Witchfinders General: who were the contemporaries of Matthew Hopkins?[29] The Witchfinders General: who were the contemporaries of Matthew Hopkins?[29] The Witchfinders General: who were the contemporaries of Matthew Hopkins?[30] The Ipswich Witch. Why Mary was burned to death on Rushmere Heath[30] The Ipswich Witch. Why Mary was burned to death on Rushmere Heath[30] The Ipswich Witch. Why Mary was burned to death on Rushmere Heath[30] The Ipswich Witch. Why Mary was burned to death on Rushmere Heath[31] The Other Side: The Witchfinder General[31] The Other Side: The Witchfinder General[31] The Other Side: The Witchfinder General[31] The Other Side: The Witchfinder General[32] The horrors of the 17th Century witch hunts[32] The horrors of the 17th Century witch hunts[32] The horrors of the 17th Century witch hunts[32] The horrors of the 17th Century witch hunts[33] Amazon.com: The English Civil War: A People’s History (Text Only): A People's History eBook: Purkiss, Diane: Kindle Store[33] Amazon.com: The English Civil War: A People’s History (Text Only): A People's History eBook: Purkiss, Diane: Kindle Store[33] Amazon.com: The English Civil War: A People’s History (Text Only): A People's History eBook: Purkiss, Diane: Kindle Store[33] Amazon.com: The English Civil War: A People’s History (Text Only): A People's History eBook: Purkiss, Diane: Kindle Store[34] Matthew Hopkins’ Advanced Interrogation Techniques[34] Matthew Hopkins’ Advanced Interrogation Techniques[34] Matthew Hopkins’ Advanced Interrogation Techniques[34] Matthew Hopkins’ Advanced Interrogation Techniques[35] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[35] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[35] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[35] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[36] Witchfinder General[36] Witchfinder General[36] Witchfinder General[36] Witchfinder General[37] Delving into Suffolk’s mysterious history of witchcraft[37] Delving into Suffolk’s mysterious history of witchcraft[37] Delving into Suffolk’s mysterious history of witchcraft[37] Delving into Suffolk’s mysterious history of witchcraft[38] Tragic priest to be commemorated[38] Tragic priest to be commemorated[38] Tragic priest to be commemorated[38] Tragic priest to be commemorated[39] John Lowe (martyr) - Wikipedia[39] John Lowe (martyr) - Wikipedia[39] John Lowe (martyr) - Wikipedia[39] John Lowe (martyr) - Wikipedia[40] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://archive.brandeston.net/John_Lowes-PDF.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwirsbve7unqAhXEVs0KHXbKCokQFjAEegQIAhAB&usg=AOvVaw1pPd7CaFt03cxGq7NuW2sR&cshid=1595730422218[40] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://archive.brandeston.net/John_Lowes-PDF.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwirsbve7unqAhXEVs0KHXbKCokQFjAEegQIAhAB&usg=AOvVaw1pPd7CaFt03cxGq7NuW2sR&cshid=1595730422218[40] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://archive.brandeston.net/John_Lowes-PDF.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwirsbve7unqAhXEVs0KHXbKCokQFjAEegQIAhAB&usg=AOvVaw1pPd7CaFt03cxGq7NuW2sR&cshid=1595730422218[40] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://archive.brandeston.net/John_Lowes-PDF.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwirsbve7unqAhXEVs0KHXbKCokQFjAEegQIAhAB&usg=AOvVaw1pPd7CaFt03cxGq7NuW2sR&cshid=1595730422218[41] A trial of witches : a seventeenth-century witchcraft prosecution : Geis, Gilbert : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive[41] A trial of witches : a seventeenth-century witchcraft prosecution : Geis, Gilbert : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive[41] A trial of witches : a seventeenth-century witchcraft prosecution : Geis, Gilbert : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive[41] A trial of witches : a seventeenth-century witchcraft prosecution : Geis, Gilbert : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive[42] Pip Wright , Witches in and around Suffolk[42] Pip Wright , Witches in and around Suffolk[42] Pip Wright , Witches in and around Suffolk[42] Pip Wright , Witches in and around Suffolk[43] Alarming Witch Hunt – Another Ancestor Accused –[43] Alarming Witch Hunt – Another Ancestor Accused –[43] Alarming Witch Hunt – Another Ancestor Accused –[43] Alarming Witch Hunt – Another Ancestor Accused –[44] Select cases of conscience touching vvitches and vvitchcrafts. By Iohn Gaule, preacher of the Word at Great Staughton in the county of Huntington.[44] Select cases of conscience touching vvitches and vvitchcrafts. By Iohn Gaule, preacher of the Word at Great Staughton in the county of Huntington.[44] Select cases of conscience touching vvitches and vvitchcrafts. By Iohn Gaule, preacher of the Word at Great Staughton in the county of Huntington.[44] Select cases of conscience touching vvitches and vvitchcrafts. By Iohn Gaule, preacher of the Word at Great Staughton in the county of Huntington.[45] The Dark Histories Podcast[45] The Dark Histories Podcast[45] The Dark Histories Podcast[45] The Dark Histories Podcast[46] Religion and the Decline of Magic[46] Religion and the Decline of Magic[46] Religion and the Decline of Magic[46] Religion and the Decline of Magic[47] Matthew Hopkins | English witch-hunter[47] Matthew Hopkins | English witch-hunter[47] Matthew Hopkins | English witch-hunter[47] Matthew Hopkins | English witch-hunter[48] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[48] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[48] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[48] The Historical Significance of Matthew Hopkins: England's 'Witchfinder General'[49] The Witch Hunt in East Anglia and Beyond[49] The Witch Hunt in East Anglia and Beyond[49] The Witch Hunt in East Anglia and Beyond[49] The Witch Hunt in East Anglia and Beyond[50] Matthew Hopkins: English witch hunter (1620 - 1647) | Biography, Facts, Career, Wiki, Life[50] Matthew Hopkins: English witch hunter (1620 - 1647) | Biography, Facts, Career, Wiki, Life[50] Matthew Hopkins: English witch hunter (1620 - 1647) | Biography, Facts, Career, Wiki, Life[50] Matthew Hopkins: English witch hunter (1620 - 1647) | Biography, Facts, Career, Wiki, Life[51] James Sharpe, Witchcraft in Early Modern England[51] James Sharpe, Witchcraft in Early Modern England[51] James Sharpe, Witchcraft in Early Modern England[51] James Sharpe, Witchcraft in Early Modern England[52] http://Robbins, Rossell Hope (1959), The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology,[52] http://Robbins, Rossell Hope (1959), The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology,[52] http://Robbins, Rossell Hope (1959), The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology,[52] http://Robbins, Rossell Hope (1959), The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology,[53] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://www.berkano.hu/downloads/stearne.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjs-uHL2unqAhWqB50JHTpPBZcQFjAOegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw2GpTfJ_VmmJIr-wfNBZNn0&cshid=1595724941371[53] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://www.berkano.hu/downloads/stearne.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjs-uHL2unqAhWqB50JHTpPBZcQFjAOegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw2GpTfJ_VmmJIr-wfNBZNn0&cshid=1595724941371[53] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://www.berkano.hu/downloads/stearne.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjs-uHL2unqAhWqB50JHTpPBZcQFjAOegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw2GpTfJ_VmmJIr-wfNBZNn0&cshid=1595724941371[53] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://www.berkano.hu/downloads/stearne.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjs-uHL2unqAhWqB50JHTpPBZcQFjAOegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw2GpTfJ_VmmJIr-wfNBZNn0&cshid=1595724941371

With so many versions to choose from? The 1662 BCP — a classic of literature, alongside the 1611 Authorized Version of the Bible, and the works of Shakespeare — is the one from which so many others descended. http://www.ccepiscopal.org/handouts/bcp-1662.pdf The 1979 version of the Episcopal Church is below. It has Rite 1 ( Elizabethan language) and Rite 2 (contemporary) versions of most parts. The Online Book of Common Prayer Do you want to read every historic and current BCP (and related books) from around the world? Look no further than these resources, found here: Books of Common Prayer: The Book of Common Prayer Charles Wohlers's comprehensive and superb site, with links to prayer books used within the Anglican Communion. The gold standard online resource for versions of the BCP that are n(more)

The majority of “Berbers” ( as you call them) were brought to N. Africa as SLAVES.Europeans were taken off English, French, Portuguese, Spanish and American ships and were brought to Africa’s “Barbary coastal states’ such as Tunisia, Algeria, Libya , Egypt and Morocco as SLAVES by Indigenous African Muslim Tribesman (“Moors”) and Arab Muslim Tribesman!Now, I realise that our resident hard core white supremacist will not this find answer sexy, but it's what it is so suck it up!White SlaveryA Meccan merchant (right) and his Circassian slave. Entitled, ‘Vornehmner Kaufmann mit seinem cirkassischen Sklaven’ [Distinguished merchant and his circassian slave] by Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, ca. 1888.For other uses, see White slavery (disambiguation).See also: Slavery in medieval Europe, Slavery in Africa, and Slave narrative § North African slave narrativesPart of a series onSlaveryWhite slavery, white slave trade, and white slave traffic refer to the chattel slavery of White Europeans by non-Europeans (such as indigenous North Africans (“Moors”) and the Muslim world), as well as by Europeans themselves, such as the Viking thralls or European Galley slaves. From Antiquity, European slaves were common during the reign of Ancient Rome and were prominent during the Ottoman Empire into the early modern period. In Feudalism, there were various forms of status below the Freeman that is known as Serfdom (such as the bordar, villein, vagabond and slave) which could be bought and sold as property and were subject to labor and branding by their owners or demesne. Under Muslim rule, the African slave traders that included Caucasian captives were often fueled by raids into European territories or were taken as children in the form of a blood tax by the families of citizens of conquered territories to serve the empire for a variety of functions. In the mid 1800s, the term 'white slavery' was used to describe the Christian slaves that were sold into the Barbary slave trade.Modern use of the term can also include sexual slavery, forced prostitution and human trafficking.The phrase "white slavery" was used by Charles Sumner in 1847 to describe the chattel slavery of Christians throughout the Barbary States and primarily in the Algiers, the capitol of Ottoman Algeria. It also encompassed many forms of slavery, including the European concubines often found in Turkish harems.The term was also used from the beginning of the twentieth century when most of the countries of Europe signed in Paris in 1904 an International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic aimed at combating the sale of women who were forced into prostitution in the countries of continental Europe. In the early twentieth century, the term was used against the forced prostitution and sexual slavery of girls who worked in Chicago brothels.White Slave Trade Slavic SlavesMain articles: Volga trade route and Trade route from the Varangians to the GreeksThe Rus trading slaves with the Khazars: Trade in the East Slavic Camp by Sergei Ivanov (1913)The Volga trade route was established by the Varangians (Vikings) who settled in Northwestern Russia in the early 9th century. About 10 km (6 mi) south of the Volkhov River entry into Lake Ladoga, they established a settlement called Ladoga (Old Norse: Aldeigjuborg).It connected Northern Europe and Northwestern Russia with the Caspian Sea, via the Volga River. The Rus used this route to trade with Muslim countries on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, sometimes penetrating as far as Baghdad. The route functioned concurrently with the Dnieper trade route, better known as the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, and lost its importance in the 11th century.Saqaliba refers to Slavic slaves, kidnapped from the coasts of Europe or in wars, as well as white mercenaries in the medieval Muslim world, in the Middle East, North Africa, Sicily and Al-Andalus. Saqaliba served, or were forced to serve, in a multitude of ways: servants, harem concubines, eunuchs, craftsmen, soldiers, and as Caliph's guards. In Iberia, Morocco, Damascus and Sicily, their military role may be compared with that of mamluks in the Ottoman Empire. In Spain, Slavic eunuchs were so popular and widely distributed that they became synonymous with Saqāliba.Crimean KhanateMain articles: History of slavery in Asia and Crimean KhanateSee also: Crimean–Nogai raids into East Slavic landsIn the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the Danubian principalities, Poland-Lithuania, and Muscovy. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10 percent or 20 percent. The campaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", declared military operations led by the khans themselves, and çapuls, raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. Caffa was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.Tatar raiders enslaved between 1 and 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland-Lithuania over the period 1500–1700. Caffa (city on Crimean peninsula) was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.Barbary Slave TradeMain articles: Barbary slave trade and Barbary corsairsThe Barbary CoastGiulio Rosati, Inspection of New Arrivals, 1858–1917, Circassian beauties.The purchase of Christian captives by Catholic monks in the Barbary states.Slave markets flourished on the Barbary Coast of North Africa, in what is modern-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and western Libya, between the 15th and middle of the 18th century.These markets prospered while the states were nominally under Ottoman suzerainty, though, in reality, they were mostly autonomous. The North African slave markets traded in European slaves which were acquired by Barbary pirates in slave raids on ships and by raids on coastal towns from Italy to Spain, Portugal, France, England, the Netherlands, and as far afield as the Turkish Abductions in Iceland. Men, women, and children were captured to such a devastating extent that vast numbers of sea coast towns were abandoned.1815 illustration of a British Captain horrified by seeing Christians worked as slaves in Algiers.According to Robert Davis, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 15th and 19th centuries. However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers - about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."Davis' numbers have been challenged by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that true picture of Europeans slaves is clouded by the fact the corsairs also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe and black people from west Africa.In addition, the number of slaves traded was hyperactive, with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records. Middle East expert, John Wright, cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.Such observations, across the late 1500s and early 1600s observers, account for around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli, Tunis, but mostly in Algiers. The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy.From bases on the Barbary coast, North Africa, the Barbary pirates raided ships traveling through the Mediterranean and along the northern and western coasts of Africa, plundering their cargo and enslaving the people they captured. From at least 1500, the pirates also conducted raids along seaside towns of Italy, Spain, France, England, the Netherlands and as far away as Iceland, capturing men, women and children. On some occasions, settlements such as Baltimore, Ireland were abandoned following the raid, only being resettled many years later. Between 1609 and 1616, England alone had 466 merchant ships lost to Barbary pirates.While Barbary corsairs looted the cargo of ships they captured, their primary goal was to capture people for sale as slaves or for ransom. Those who had family or friends who might ransom them were held captive, but not obliged to work; the most famous of these was the author Miguel de Cervantes, who was held for almost five years. Others were sold into various types of servitude. Attractive women or boys could be used as sex slaves. Captives who converted to Islam were generally freed, since enslavement of Muslims was prohibited; but this meant that they could never return to their native countries.16th- and 17th-century customs statistics suggest that Istanbul's additional slave import from the Black Sea may have totaled around 2.5 million from 1450 to 1700.The markets declined after the loss of the Barbary Warsand ended in the 1830s, when the region was conquered by France.Christian Slavery in Muslim SpainMain article: Slavery in SpainAbraham Duquesne delivering Christian captives in Algiers after the Bombardment of Algiers (1683).During the Al-Andalus (also known as Muslim Spain or Islamic Iberia), the Moors controlled much of the peninsula. They imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the Reconquista in the late 15th century. The slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain, as well as Eastern Europe, sparking significant reaction from many in Christian Spain and many Christians still living in Muslim Spain. Soon after, Muslims were successful, taking Christian captives of 30,000 from Spain. In the eighth century slavery lasted longer due to "frequent cross-border skirmishes, interspersed between periods of major campaigns". By the tenth century, in the eastern Mediterranean Byzantine Christian's were captured by Muslims. Many of the raids designed by Muslims were created for a fast captive of prisoners. Therefore, Muslims restricted the control in order to keep captives from fleeing. The Iberian peninsula served as a base for further exports of slaves into other Muslim regions in Northern Africa.Ottoman Slave TradeMain article: Ottoman slave tradeSlavery was a legal and a significant part of the Ottoman Empire's economy and society.The main sources of slaves were war captives and organized enslavement expeditions in Africa, Eastern Europe and Circassia in the Caucasus. It has been reported that the selling price of slaves fell after large military operations Enslavement of Europeans was banned in the early 19th century, while slaves from other groups were allowed.Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unabated into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. Sexual slavery was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution.European SlaverySee also: Slavery in Ireland, Slavery in Britain, Slavery in Spain, and Slavery in RussiaRelief from Smyrna (present-day Izmir, Turkey) depicting a Roman soldier leading captives in chainsSlavery in Ancient RomeMain article: Slavery in ancient RomeFurther information: Slavery in the Byzantine EmpireThe Slave Market, by Gustave Boulanger(1882)In the Roman Republic and later Roman Empire, slaves accounted for most of the means of industrial output in Roman commerce. Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, North Africa, Syria, Germania, Britannia, the Balkans, and Greece. Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians, with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy estimated at 5% of the total in the capital, where their number was largest, at its peak.Slaves numbering in the tens of thousands were condemned to work in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal. Damnati in metallum ("those condemned to the mine") were convicts who lost their freedom as citizens (libertas), forfeited their property (bona) to the state, and became servi poenae, slaves as a legal penalty. Their status under the law was different from that of other slaves; they could not buy their freedom, be sold, or be set free. They were expected to live and die in the mines.Imperial slaves and freedmen (the familia Caesaris) worked in mine administration and management. In the Late Republic, about half the gladiators who fought in Roman arenas were slaves, though the most skilled were often free volunteers.Successful gladiators were occasionally rewarded with freedom. However, gladiators being trained warriors and having access to weapons, were potentially the most dangerous slaves. At an earlier time, many gladiators had been soldiers taken captive in war. Spartacus, who led the great slave rebellion of 73-71 BCE, was a rebel gladiator.The slaves imported in Italy were native Europeans, and very few of them were from outside Europe. This has been confirmed by biochemical analysis of 166 skeletons from three imperial-era cemeteries in the vicinity of Rome (where the bulk of the slaves lived), which shows that only one individual came from outside of Europe (North Africa), and another two possibly did, but results are inconclusive. In the rest of the Italian peninsula, the fraction of non European slaves was much lower than that.Slavery Under Islamic RuleHistory of the Ottoman EmpireSocial structureCourt and aristocracyOttoman courtSlaveryDevshirmeMilletsMuslimsChristians ArmeniansBulgariansGreeksJewsGreat Fire of 1660Main articles: History of slavery in the Muslim world and Slavery in the Ottoman EmpireThe "pençik" or "penç-yek" tax, meaning "one fifth", was a taxation based on a verse of the Quran; whereby one fifth of the spoils of war belonged to God, to Muhammad and his family, to orphans, to those in need and to travelers. This eventually included slaves and war captives were given to soldiers and officers to help motivate their participation in wars.Main articles: Dhimmi, Dhimmitude, and JizyaChristians and Jews, known as People of the Book in Islam, were considered dhimmis in territories under Muslim rule, a status of second-class citizens that were afforded limited freedoms, legal protections, personal safety, and were allowed to "practice their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy". In order to keep these protections and rights, dhimmis were required to pay the Jizya and Kharaj taxes as an acknowledgement of Muslim rule. According to Abu Yusuf, Failure to pay this tax should render the dhemmi's life and property void and subject the dhemmi to forced conversion, enslavement, imprisonment or death. If anyone had agreed to pay the jizya, leaving Muslim territory for enemy land was punishable by enslavement if captured.Failure to pay the jizya was commonly punished by house arrest and some legal authorities allowed enslavement of dhimmis for non-payment of taxes.In South Asia, for example, seizure of dhimmi families upon their failure to pay annual jizya was one of the two significant sources of slaves sold in the slave markets of Delhi Sultanate and Mughal era. Main article: DevshirmeSee also: Kapi Agha, Ghilman, Mamluk, and SaqalibaThe Devshirme was a blood tax largely imposed in the Balkans and Anatoliain which the Ottoman Empire sent military to collect Christian boys between the ages of 8 to 18 that were taken from their families and raised to serve the empire.The tax was imposed by Murad I in the mid 1300s and lasted until the reign of Ahmet III in the early 1700s. From the mid to late 14th, through early 18th centuries, the devşirme–janissary system enslaved an estimated 500,000 to one million non–Muslim adolescent males.These boys would attain a great education and high social standing after their training and forced conversion to Islam.Basilike Papoulia wrote that "...the devsirme was the 'forcible removal', in the form of a tribute, of children of the Christian subjects from their ethnic, religious and cultural environment and their transportation into the Turkish-Islamic environment with the aim of employing them in the service of the Palace, the army, and the state, whereby they were on the one hand to serve the Sultan as slaves and freedmen and on the other to form the ruling class of the State."Indentured ServitudeMain articles: Indentured servitude and Irish indentured servantsIn the modern era, many whites in England, Ireland and British North America were indentured servants, a form of slavery now banned by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.Between 50 and 67 percent of white immigrants to the American colonies, from the 1630s and American Revolution, had traveled under indenture.White Slave TrafficMain article: International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave TrafficThe International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic is a series of anti–human trafficking treaties, the first of which was first negotiated in Paris in 1904. It was one of the first multilateral treaties to address issues of slavery and human trafficking. The Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labour and Similar Institutions and Practices Convention of 1926 and the International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women of Full Age of 1933 are similar documents.White Slave Traffic Act of 1910Main article: Mann ActTo battle sex trafficking in the United States, in 1910 the US Congress passed the White Slave Traffic Act (better known as the Mann Act), which made it a felony to transport women across state borders for the purpose of "prostitution or debauchery, or for any other immoral purpose." As more women were being trafficked from foreign countries, the US began passing immigration acts to curtail aliens from entering the country such as the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924. Following the banning of immigrants during the 1920s, human trafficking was not considered a major issue until the 1990s.Criminal Law Amendment (White Slave Traffic) BillAn attempt was made to introduce a similar law into the UK between 1910 and 1913 as the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1912. Arthur Lee would state in the House of Commons: "the United Kingdom, and particularly England, is increasingly becoming a clearing-house and depot and dispatch centre of the white slave traffic, and the headquarters of the foreign agents engaged in the most expensive and lucrative phase of the business."South America was stated as the main destination for the trafficked girls. The Spectator commented that "the Bill has been blocked by a member [alluding to Frederick Booth ] or members who, for various reasons consider that it is not a measure which ought to be placed upon the statute book" as it would affect the liberty of the individual.See alsoTurkish AbductionsMamlukGuðríður SímonardóttirJan JanszoonÓlafur EgilssonRumeliaRumelia EyaletSeljuk Empire1926 Slavery ConventionSlavery in antiquityWhite slave propagandaWhite-Slave Traffic ActIrish slave mythReferences[edit]Jump up^ Sumner, Charles (1847). White Slavery in The Barbary States. A Lecture Before The Boston Mercantile Library Association, Feb. 17, 1847. Boston: William D. Ticknor and Company. p. 4. I propose to consider the subject of White Slavery in Algiers, or perhaps is might be more appropriately called, White Slavery in the Barbary States. As Algiers was its chief seat, it seems to have acquired a current name for the place. This I shall not disturb; though I shall speak of white slavery, or the slavery of Christians, throughout the Barbary States.Jump up^ Sumner, Charles (1847). White Slavery in The Barbary States. A Lecture Before The Boston Mercantile Library Association, Feb. 17, 1847. Boston: William D. Ticknor and Company. p. 54. Among the concubines of a prince of Morocco were two slaves of the age of fifteen, one of English, and the other of French extraction. - Lampiere's Tour, p. 147. There is an account of "One Mrs. Shaw, an Irishwoman," in words hardly polite enough to be quoted. She was swept into the harem of Muley Shmael, who "forced her to turn moor";"but soon after, having taken a dislike to her, he gave her to a soldier." - Braithwaite's Morocco, p. 191.Jump up^ Brøndsted (1965), pp. 64–65Jump up^ The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery: A-K ; Vol. II, L-Z, by Junius P. RodriguezJump up^ Historical survey > Slave societiesJump up^ Galina I. Yermolenko (15 July 2010). Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-7546-6761-2. Retrieved 31 May 2012.Jump up^ Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by Mikhail Kizilov (2007). "Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate". The Journal of Jewish Studies. p. 2.Jump up^ Historical survey > Slave societiesJump up^ CaffaJump up^ Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800.[1]Jump up^ "When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed", Research News, Ohio State University^ Jump up to:a b Carroll, Rory; correspondent, Africa (2004-03-11). "New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-12-11.Jump up^ Wright, John (2007). "Trans-Saharan Slave Trade". Routledge.Jump up^ Davis, Robert (17 Feb 2011). "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". BBC.Jump up^ Rees Davies, "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast", BBC, 1 July 2003Jump up^ Diego de Haedo, Topografía e historia general de Argel, 3 vols., Madrid, 1927-29.Jump up^ Daniel Eisenberg, "¿Por qué volvió Cervantes de Argel?", in Ingeniosa invención: Essays on Golden Age Spanish Literature for Geoffrey L. Stagg in Honor of his Eighty-Fifth Birthday, Newark, Delaware, Juan de la Cuesta, 1999, ISBN 9780936388830, pp. 241-253, http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/por-qu-volvi-cervantes-de-argel-0/, retrieved 11/20/2014.Jump up^ The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420–AD 1804Jump up^ Trade and traders in Muslim Spain, Fourth Series, Cambridge University Press, 1996.Jump up^ Supply of Slaves^ Jump up to:a b Spyropoulos Yannis, Slaves and freedmen in 17th- and early 18th-century Ottoman Crete, Turcica, 46, 2015, p. 181, 182.Jump up^ Ottomans against Italians and Portuguese about (white slavery).Jump up^ Eric Dursteler (2006). Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean. JHU Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-8018-8324-8.Jump up^ Wolf Von Schierbrand (28 March 1886). "Slaves sold to the Turk; How the vile traffic is still carried on in the East. Sights our correspondent saw for twenty dollars--in the house of a grand old Turk of a dealer" (PDF). The New York Times. Retrieved 19 January 2011.Jump up^ Madeline C. Zilfi Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire Cambridge University Press, 2010Jump up^ Santosuosso, Antonio (2001). Storming the Heavens. Westview Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8133-3523-0.Jump up^ Alfred Michael Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World: Organizational Aspects 27–BC AD 235 (Oxford University Press, 2010), sect. 3.3.Jump up^ Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries, sect. 4.2.1.Jump up^ Alison Futrell, A Sourcebook on the Roman Games (Blackwell, 2006), p. 124.Jump up^ Prowse, Tracy L.; Schwarcz, Henry P.; Garnsey, Peter; Knyf, Martin; MacChiarelli, Roberto; Bondioli, Luca (2007). "Isotopic evidence for age-related immigration to imperial Rome". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 132 (4): 510–519. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20541. PMID 17205550.Jump up^ Killgrove, Kristina; Montgomery, Janet (2016). "Killgrove and Montgomery. "All Roads Lead to Rome: Exploring Human Migration to the Eternal City through Biochemistry of Skeletons from Two Imperial-Era Cemeteries (1st-3rd c AD)"". PLOS ONE. 11 (2): e0147585. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147585. PMC 4749291. PMID 26863610.Jump up^ Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton University Press. p. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-691-00807-3.Jump up^ Humphrey Fisher (2001), Slavery in the History of Muslim Black Africa. NYU Press. p. 47.Jump up^ Lewis, Bernard (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0195053265. [...] those who remained faithful to their old religions and lived as protected persons (dhimmis) under Muslim rule could not, if free, be legally enslaved unless they had violated the terms of the dhimma, the contract governing their status, as for example by rebelling against Muslim rule or helping the enemies of the Muslim state or, according to some authorities, by withholding payment of the Kharaj or the Jizya, the taxes due from dhimmis to the Muslim state.Jump up^ Mark R. Cohen (2005), Poverty and Charity in the Jewish Community of Medieval Egypt, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691092720, pp. 120–3; 130–8, Quotes: "Family members were held responsible for individual's poll tax (mahbus min al-jizya)"; "Imprisonment for failure to pay (poll tax) debt was very common"; "This imprisonment often meant house arrest... which was known as tarsim"Jump up^ I. P. Petrushevsky (1995), Islam in Iran, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-88706-070-0, pp 155, Quote - "The law does not contemplate slavery for debt in the case of Muslims, but it allows the enslavement of Dhimmis for non-payment of jizya and kharaj.(...) "Jump up^ Scott C. Levi (2002), "Hindu Beyond Hindu Kush: Indians in the Central Asian Slave Trade." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 12, Part 3 (November 2002): p. 282Jump up^ Perry Anderson (1979). Lineages of the Absolutist State. Verso. pp. 366–. ISBN 978-0-86091-710-6.Jump up^ Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together Worlds Apart. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 395. ISBN 978-0-393-92207-3.Jump up^ A. E. Vacalopoulos. The Greek Nation, 1453–1669, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 1976, p. 41; Vasiliki Papoulia, The Impact of Devshirme on Greek Society, in War and Society in East Central Europe, Editor—in—Chief, Bela K. Kiraly, 1982, Vol. II, pp. 561—562.Jump up^ David Nicolle (1995-05-15), The Janissaries, p. 12, ISBN 9781855324138Jump up^ Some Notes on the Devsirme, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1966, V.L.Menage, (Cambridge University Press, 1966), 64.Jump up^ Galenson 1984: 1Jump up^ Candidate, Jo Doezema Ph.D. "Loose women or lost women? The re-emergence of the myth of white slavery in contemporary discourses of trafficking in women." Gender issues 18.1 (1999): 23-50.Jump up^ Donovan, Brian. White slave crusades: race, gender, and anti-vice activism, 1887-1917. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2006.Jump up^ Hansard CRIMINAL LAW AMENDMENT (WHITE SLAVE TRAFFIC) BILL. HC Deb 10 June 1912 vol 39 cc571-627Jump up^ The Spectator 11 May 1912Categories:Greek slaves of the Ottoman EmpireSlaves of the Ottoman EmpireEthnic and racial stereotypesArabian slaves and freedmenSexual slaverySlavery lawSlavery by typeSearchMain pageContentsFeatured contentCurrent eventsRandom articleDonate to WikipediaWikipedia storeInteractionHelpCommunity portalRecent changesContact pageToolsWhat links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationWikidata itemCite this pagePrint/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFPrintable versionLanguagesFrançais日本語РусскийTürkç