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Discussions abound about this topic for obvious reasons.American Medical AssociationJournal of Ethics — April, 2006Is Mandatory Vaccination Legal in Time of Epidemic?Sarah Fujiwara, MDImagine that Joseph, a 21-year-old student at a state university in Illinois, is spending 3 months in China for a summer study program abroad. While he is there, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) breaks out in Canada and is traced back to China.When SARS shows up in Canada, Illinois immediately creates a mandatory vaccine for all those who are currently in China or certain areas of Canada, or all those who plan to go there in the next few years. The new vaccination is commonly believed to be effective and is widely approved by the medical community. However, some in the medical community believe that the vaccination is worthless in preventing the spread of SARS and that it has injurious side effects.Joseph feels confident that he will not contract SARS. He has been in China for a month, is perfectly healthy, and is not in the region of the outbreak. He is willing to submit to a physical but does not want the “experimental” vaccination and its side effects. He also feels that this mandatory vaccination affronts his bodily integrity and violates his 14th Amendment rights.DiscussionThe 14th Amendment asserts that no state shall make or enforce any law abridging the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States or deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of the law[1]. The Supreme Court recognizes a 14th-Amendment guaranty of substantive due process that protects US residents against arbitrary legislative actions; this constitutional guarantee requires that legislation not be unreasonable, arbitrary, or capricious and that it have a substantial relation to the legislative objective [2]. Essentially, though, this provision demands only minimal scrutiny or rational review of the enacted legislation; the law need only be rationally related to a legitimate government purpose to be declared constitutional. Further, the Supreme Court has recognized each state’s “police power,” which gives the state authority to enact health laws of every description, including quarantine and vaccination laws, to protect its citizens [2].In 1905 the Supreme Court addressed mandatory vaccinations in regard to smallpox in Jacobson v Massachusetts [2]. There the Court ruled that the police power of a state absolutely included reasonable regulations established by legislature to protect public health and safety [2]. Such regulations do not violate the 14th Amendment right to liberty because they fall within the many restraints to which every person is necessarily subjected for the common good [3]. Real liberty for all cannot exist if each individual is allowed to act without regard to the injury that his or her actions might cause others; liberty is constrained by law. The Court went on to determine in Jacobson that a state may require vaccination if the board of health deems it necessary for public health or safety [4].When determining the legality of a statute enacted to protect public health and safety, the Court found it immaterial that a portion of the medical community thought the vaccination worthless or even injurious. The state has the right to choose between opposing medical theories and to refer the matter to a board composed of persons residing in the affected location who are qualified to make a determination. The courts do not become involved in legislation formed under the state’s police power as long as it relates substantially to public health, morals, or safety and is not a plain, palpable invasion of rights secured by fundamental law [5]. Furthermore, it is immaterial whether or not the vaccine is actually effective, so long as it is the belief of state authorities that the mandatory vaccine will promote common welfare and is a reasonable and proper exercise of the police power [6]. It is of paramount necessity that a community have the right to protect itself from an epidemic of disease which threatens the safety of its members.The Court decision in Jacobson v Massachusetts is just over 100 years old and has not been revisited in any meaningful way. The Court follows the doctrine of stare decisis, which directs it to follow existing judicial decisions when the same points arise in litigation unless there is sufficient justification for departing from precedent [7]. In this case the Jacobson Court’s ruling has stood—not allowing a single individual to refuse vaccination while he or she remains within the general population on the grounds that to make such an exception would strip the legislative branch of its function to care for the public health and safety when threatened by epidemic disease [8]. This ruling prevails despite occasional injurious results from vaccinations and the impossibility of determining whether a particular person can be safely vaccinated. The only exception to a mandatory vaccination is an offer of apparent or reasonably certain proof to the state’s board of health that the vaccination would seriously impair health or probably cause death [8].Consequently, our student, Joseph, does not have a valid argument against the mandatory vaccination. It is established that vaccination to prevent an epidemic is well within the police powers of Illinois. Furthermore, he does not have a 14th Amendment liberty or due process argument because the vaccination is for the health and welfare of the state. Lastly, even if Joseph had a religious objection, it would most likely be dismissed because a compelling state interest may abridge religious freedom [9].Read MoreInfectious diseases/Epidemics,Public health/Public policy intervention,Public health/Public safety,Decision making/Autonomy,Infectious diseases/Vaccine refusalReferencesUS Const. Amend. XIV, §1.Jacobson v Massachusetts, 197 US 11, 25 S Ct 358 (1905).Ibid, 26.Ibid, 27.For instance, a state may abridge religious practices only when there is a compelling state interest and the law is substantially related to protecting this interest. Religious practices fall under strict scrutiny (as opposed to rational review), which is a higher standard of scrutiny because religious freedom is a fundamental right protected by the 1st Amendment. See for example, McDaniel v Paty, 435 US 618, 698 S Ct 1322 (1978).Jacobson, 197 US, 35.Black HC, Garner BA, eds. Black’s Law Dictionary. 2nd pocket ed. St Paul, Minn: West Publishing Co.; 2001:661. Google ScholarJacobson, 197 US, 38.See McDaniel, above. However, because the 1st Amendment receives strict scrutiny, the state would have to show that there is no other, less-intrusive method to accomplish their objective.

Eisenhower was the last great Republican. He was not perfect, BUT he probably did as much for the advancement of the country since the Democrat Roosevelt. His Interstate Highway System made the country grow rapidly in the 50’s.He was an accomplished General during the second world war. He was a five-star general in the United States Army and served as supreme commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43 and the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944–45 from the Western Front. He was an excellent military leader.President at Columbia University and NATO Supreme CommanderThe Supreme Commanders of the Four Powers on June 5, 1945, in Berlin: Bernard Montgomery, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Georgy Zhukov and Jean de Lattre de TassignyIn 1948, Eisenhower became President of Columbia University, an Ivy League university in New York City, where he was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa.The assignment was described as not being a good fit in either direction.During that year Eisenhower's memoir, Crusade in Europe, was published.Critics regarded it as one of the finest U.S. military memoirs, and it was a major financial success as well. Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by an unprecedented ruling by the U.S. Department of the Treasury that Eisenhower was not a professional writer, but rather, marketing the lifetime asset of his experiences, and thus he had to pay only capital gains tax on his $635,000 advance instead of the much higher personal tax rate. This ruling saved Eisenhower about $400,000.Eisenhower's stint as the president of Columbia University was punctuated by his activity within the Council on Foreign Relations, a study group he led as president concerning the political and military implications of the Marshall Plan, and The American Assembly, Eisenhower's "vision of a great cultural center where business, professional and governmental leaders could meet from time to time to discuss and reach conclusions concerning problems of a social and political nature". His biographer Blanche Wiesen Cook suggested that this period served as "the political education of General Eisenhower", since he had to prioritize wide-ranging educational, administrative, and financial demands for the university. Through his involvement in the Council on Foreign Relations, he also gained exposure to economic analysis, which would become the bedrock of his understanding in economic policy. "Whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings," one Aid to Europe member claimed.Eisenhower accepted the presidency of the university to expand his ability to promote "the American form of democracy" through education. He was clear on this point to the trustees involved in the search committee. He informed them that his main purpose was "to promote the basic concepts of education in a democracy". As a result, he was "almost incessantly" devoted to the idea of the American Assembly, a concept he developed into an institution by the end of 1950.Within months of beginning his tenure as the president of the university, Eisenhower was requested to advise U.S. Secretary of Defense James Forrestal on the unification of the armed services. About six months after his appointment, he became the informal Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington. Two months later he fell ill, and he spent over a month in recovery at the Augusta National Golf Club. He returned to his post in New York in mid-May, and in July 1949 took a two-month vacation out-of-state. Because the American Assembly had begun to take shape, he traveled around the country during mid-to-late 1950, building financial support from Columbia Associates, an alumni association.Eisenhower was unknowingly building resentment and a reputation among the Columbia University faculty and staff as an absentee president who was using the university for his own interests. As a career military man, he naturally had little in common with the academics.The contacts gained through university and American Assembly fund-raising activities would later become important supporters in Eisenhower's bid for the Republican party nomination and the presidency. Meanwhile, Columbia University's liberal faculty members became disenchanted with the university president's ties to oilmen and businessmen, including Leonard McCollum, the president of Continental Oil; Frank Abrams, the chairman of Standard Oil of New Jersey; Bob Kleberg, the president of the King Ranch; H. J. Porter, a Texas oil executive; Bob Woodruff, the president of the Coca-Cola Corporation; and Clarence Francis, the chairman of General Foods.As the president of Columbia, Eisenhower gave voice and form to his opinions about the supremacy and difficulties of American democracy. His tenure marked his transformation from military to civilian leadership. His biographer Travis Beal Jacobs also suggested that the alienation of the Columbia faculty contributed to sharp intellectual criticism of him for many years.The trustees of Columbia University refused to accept Eisenhower's resignation in December 1950, when he took an extended leave from the university to become the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and he was given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service as an army general on May 31, 1952, and he resumed his presidency of Columbia. He held this position until January 20, 1953, when he became the President of the United States.NATO did not have strong bipartisan support in Congress at the time that Eisenhower assumed its military command. Eisenhower advised the participating European nations that it would be incumbent upon them to demonstrate their own commitment of troops and equipment to the NATO force before such would come from the war-weary United States.At home, Eisenhower was more effective in making the case for NATO in Congress than the Truman administration had been. By the middle of 1951, with American and European support, NATO was a genuine military power. Nevertheless, Eisenhower thought that NATO would become a truly European alliance, with the American and Canadian commitments ending after about ten years.Presidential campaign of 1952Main article: United States presidential election, 1952Button from the 1952 campaignPresident Truman, symbolizing a broad-based desire for an Eisenhower candidacy for president, again in 1951 pressed him to run for the office as a Democrat. It was at this time that Eisenhower voiced his disagreements with the Democratic Party and declared himself and his family to be Republicans.A "Draft Eisenhower" movement in the Republican Party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of non-interventionist Senator Robert A. Taft. The effort was a long struggle; Eisenhower had to be convinced that political circumstances had created a genuine duty for him to offer himself as a candidate, and that there was a mandate from the populace for him to be their President. Henry Cabot Lodge, who served as his campaign manager, and others succeeded in convincing him, and in June 1952 he resigned his command at NATO to campaign full-time.Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination, having won critical delegate votes from Texas. Eisenhower's campaign was noted for the simple but effective slogan, "I Like Ike". It was essential to his success that Eisenhower express opposition to Roosevelt's policy at Yalta and against Truman's policies in Korea and China—matters in which he had once participated.In defeating Taft for the nomination, it became necessary for Eisenhower to appease the right wing Old Guard of the Republican Party; his selection of Richard M. Nixon as the Vice-President on the ticket was designed in part for that purpose. Nixon also provided a strong anti-communist presence as well as some youth to counter Ike's more advanced age.1952 electoral vote resultsIn the general election, against the advice of his advisers, Eisenhower insisted on campaigning in the South, refusing to surrender the region to the Democratic Party. The campaign strategy, dubbed "K", was to focus on attacking the Truman and Roosevelt administrations on three issues: Korea, Communism and corruption. In an effort to accommodate the right, he stressed that the liberation of Eastern Europe should be by peaceful means only; he also distanced himself from his former boss President Truman.Two controversies during the campaign tested him and his staff, but did not affect the campaign. One involved a report that Nixon had improperly received funds from a secret trust. Nixon spoke out adroitly to avoid potential damage, but the matter permanently alienated the two candidates. The second issue centered on Eisenhower's relented decision to confront the controversial methods of Joseph McCarthy on his home turf in a Wisconsin appearance.Just two weeks prior to the election, Eisenhower vowed to go to Korea and end the war there. He promised to maintain a strong commitment against Communism while avoiding the topic of NATO; finally, he stressed a corruption-free, frugal administration at home.He defeated Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson II in a landslide, with an electoral margin of 442 to 89, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years.In the election he also brought with him a Republican majority in the House (by eight votes) and in the Senate (evenly divided, with Vice President Nixon providing Republicans the majority).Eisenhower was the last president born in the 19th century, and at age 62, was the oldest president-elect since James Buchanan in 1856.He was the third general to serve as president (after Zachary Taylor and Ulysses S. Grant), and the last to have never held political office prior to being president until Donald Trump entered office in January 2017.Election of 1956Main article: United States presidential election, 19561956 electoral vote resultsThe United States presidential election of 1956 was held on November 6, 1956. Eisenhower, the popular incumbent, successfully ran for re-election. The election was a re-match of 1952, as his opponent in 1956 was Stevenson, a former Illinois governor, whom Eisenhower had defeated four years earlier. Compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia from Stevenson, while losing Missouri. His voters were less likely to bring up his leadership record. Instead what stood out this time, "was the response to personal qualities— to his sincerity, his integrity and sense of duty, his virtue as a family man, his religious devotion, and his sheer likeableness."Presidency (1953–1961)Main article: Presidency of Dwight D. EisenhowerDue to a complete estrangement between the two as a result of campaigning, Truman and Eisenhower had minimal discussions about the transition of administrations.After selecting his budget director, Joseph M. Dodge, Eisenhower asked Herbert Brownell Jr. and Lucius D. Clay to make recommendations for his cabinet appointments. He accepted their recommendations without exception; they included John Foster Dulles and George M. Humphrey with whom he developed his closest relationships, and one woman, Oveta Culp Hobby. Eisenhower's cabinet, consisting of several corporate executives and one labor leader, was dubbed by one journalist, "Eight millionaires and a plumber."The cabinet was known for its lack of personal friends, office seekers, or experienced government administrators. He also upgraded the role of the National Security Council in planning all phases of the Cold War.Prior to his inauguration, Eisenhower led a meeting of advisors at Pearl Harbor addressing foremost issues; agreed objectives were to balance the budget during his term, to bring the Korean War to an end, to defend vital interests at lower cost through nuclear deterrent, and to end price and wage controls.Eisenhower also conducted the first pre-inaugural cabinet meeting in history in late 1952; he used this meeting to articulate his anti-communist Russia policy. His inaugural address was also exclusively devoted to foreign policy and included this same philosophy as well as a commitment to foreign trade and the United Nations.February 1959 White House PortraitEisenhower made greater use of press conferences than any previous president, holding almost 200 over his two terms. While he saw the benefit of maintaining a good relationship with the press, he saw more value in them as a means of direct communication with the American people.Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower adhered to a political philosophy of dynamic conservatism.A self-described "progressive conservative"who used terms like "progressive moderate" and "dynamic conservatism" to describe his approach,he continued all the major New Deal programs still in operation, especially Social Security. He expanded its programs and rolled them into a new cabinet-level agency, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. He implemented integration in the Armed Services in two years, which had not been completed under Truman.When the 1954 Congressional elections approached, it became evident that the Republicans were in danger of losing their thin majority in both houses. Eisenhower was among those who blamed the Old Guard for the losses, and he took up the charge to stop suspected efforts by the right wing to take control of the GOP. Eisenhower then articulated his position as a moderate, progressive Republican: "I have just one purpose ... and that is to build up a strong progressive Republican Party in this country. If the right wing wants a fight, they are going to get it ... before I end up, either this Republican Party will reflect progressivism or I won't be with them anymore."Eisenhower initially planned on serving only one term, but as with other decisions, he maintained a position of maximum flexibility in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again. During his recovery from a heart attack late in 1955 (September 25), he huddled with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group, in addition to his doctor, concluded a second term was well advised, and he announced in February 1956 he would run again.Eisenhower was publicly noncommittal about Nixon's repeating as the Vice President on his ticket; the question was an especially important one in light of his heart condition. He personally favored Robert B. Anderson, a Democrat, who rejected his offer; Eisenhower then resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party.In 1956, Eisenhower faced Adlai Stevenson again and won by an even larger landslide, with 457 of 531 electoral votes and 57.6% of the popular vote. The level of campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations.Eisenhower valued the brief respites and the amenities of an office which he endowed with an arduous daily schedule. He made full use of his valet, chauffeur, and secretarial support—he rarely drove or dialed a phone number. He was an avid fisherman, golfer, painter, and bridge player, and preferred active rather than passive forms of entertainment.On August 26, 1959, Eisenhower was aboard the maiden flight of Air Force One, which replaced the previous Presidential aircraft, the Columbine.Interstate Highway SystemMain article: Interstate Highway SystemRemarks in Cadillac Square, DetroitPresident Eisenhower delivered remarks about the need for a new highway program at Cadillac Square in Detroit on October 29, 1954Text of speech excerptProblems playing this file? See media help.Eisenhower was assured of an enduring achievement when he championed and signed the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956.He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible war, hence the highways were designed to facilitate their evacuation and ease military maneuvers.Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by difficulties encountered during his involvement in the U.S. Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of U.S. Army vehicles coast to coast.His subsequent experience with encountering German autobahn limited-access road systems during the concluding stages of World War II convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. The Interstate Highway System could also be used as a runway for airplanes, which would be beneficial to war efforts. This system was put into place by Franklin D. Roosevelt, in 1944, under the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944. Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.S. would not only be beneficial for military operations, but provide a measure of continued economic growth.The legislation initially stalled in the Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and the law was signed by Eisenhower in June 1956.Foreign policyEisenhower with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal NehruU.S. President Eisenhower visits the Republic of China and its President Chiang Kai-shek in Taipei.Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev during his 11-day U.S. visit as guest of President Eisenhower, September 1959In 1953, the Republican Party's Old Guard presented Eisenhower with a dilemma by insisting he disavow the Yalta Agreements as beyond the constitutional authority of the Executive Branch; however, the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953 made the matter a moot point.At this time Eisenhower gave his Chance for Peace speech in which he attempted, unsuccessfully, to forestall the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union by suggesting multiple opportunities presented by peaceful uses of nuclear materials. Biographer Stephen Ambrose opined that this was the best speech of Eisenhower's presidency.Nevertheless, the Cold War escalated during his presidency. When the Soviet Union successfully tested a hydrogen bomb in late November 1955, Eisenhower, against the advice of Dulles, decided to initiate a disarmament proposal to the Soviets. In an attempt to make their refusal more difficult, he proposed that both sides agree to dedicate fissionable material away from weapons toward peaceful uses, such as power generation. This approach was labeled "Atoms for Peace".The U.N. speech was well received but the Soviets never acted upon it, due to an overarching concern for the greater stockpiles of nuclear weapons in the U.S. arsenal. Indeed, Eisenhower embarked upon a greater reliance on the use of nuclear weapons, while reducing conventional forces, and with them the overall defense budget, a policy formulated as a result of Project Solarium and expressed in NSC 162/2. This approach became known as the "New Look", and was initiated with defense cuts in late 1953.In 1955 American nuclear arms policy became one aimed primarily at arms control as opposed to disarmament. The failure of negotiations over arms until 1955 was due mainly to the refusal of the Russians to permit any sort of inspections. In talks located in London that year, they expressed a willingness to discuss inspections; the tables were then turned on Eisenhower, when he responded with an unwillingness on the part of the U.S. to permit inspections. In May of that year the Russians agreed to sign a treaty giving independence to Austria, and paved the way for a Geneva summit with the U.S., U.K. and France.At the Geneva Conference Eisenhower presented a proposal called "Open Skies" to facilitate disarmament, which included plans for Russia and the U.S. to provide mutual access to each other's skies for open surveillance of military infrastructure. Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev dismissed the proposal out of hand.In 1954, Eisenhower articulated the domino theory in his outlook towards communism in Southeast Asia and also in Central America. He believed that if the communists were allowed to prevail in Vietnam, this would cause a succession of countries to fall to communism, from Laos through Malaysia and Indonesia ultimately to India. Likewise, the fall of Guatemala would end with the fall of neighboring Mexico.That year the loss of North Vietnam to the communists and the rejection of his proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were serious defeats, but he remained optimistic in his opposition to the spread of communism, saying "Long faces don't win wars".As he had threatened the French in their rejection of EDC, he afterwards moved to restore West Germany, as a full NATO partner.With Eisenhower's leadership and Dulles' direction, CIA activities increased under the pretense of resisting the spread of communism in poorer countries; the CIA in part deposed the leaders of Iran in Operation Ajax, of Guatemala through Operation Pbsuccess, and possibly the newly independent Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)In 1954 Eisenhower wanted to increase surveillance inside the Soviet Union. With Dulles' recommendation, he authorized the deployment of thirty Lockheed U-2's at a cost of $35 million (equivalent to $326.54 million in 2018).The Eisenhower administration also planned the Bay of Pigs Invasion to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba, which John F. Kennedy was left to carry out.Space RaceFurther information: Space RacePresident Eisenhower with Wernher von Braun, 1960Eisenhower and the CIA had known since at least January 1957, nine months before Sputnik, that Russia had the capability to launch a small payload into orbit and was likely to do so within a year.He may also privately have welcomed the Russian satellite for its legal implications: By launching a satellite, Russia had in effect acknowledged that space was open to anyone who could access it, without needing permission from other nations.On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was officially modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. The Eisenhower administration determined to adopt a non-aggressive policy that would allow "space-crafts of any state to overfly all states, a region free of military posturing and launch Earth satellites to explore space".His Open Skies Policy attempted to legitimize illegal Lockheed U-2 flyovers and Project Genetrix while paving the way for spy satellite technology to orbit over sovereign territory, however Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev declined Eisenhower's proposal at the Geneva conference in July 1955.In response to Sputnik being launched in October 1957, Eisenhower created NASA as a civilian space agency in October 1958, signed a landmark science education law, and improved relations with American scientists.Fear spread through the United States that the Soviet Union would invade and spread communism, so Eisenhower wanted to not only create a surveillance satellite to detect any threats but ballistic missiles that would protect the United States. In strategic terms, it was Eisenhower who devised the American basic strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of B-52 bombers, land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).NASA planners projected that human spaceflight would pull the United States ahead in the Space Race as well as accomplishing their long time goal; however, in 1960, an Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space concluded that "man-in-space can not be justified" and was too costly.Eisenhower later resented the space program and its gargantuan price tag—he was quoted as saying, "Anyone who would spend $40 billion in a race to the moon for national prestige is nuts."Korean War, Free China and Red ChinaIn late 1952 Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate. Once in office, when the Chinese communists began a buildup in the Kaesong sanctuary, he threatened to use nuclear force if an armistice was not concluded. His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese communists.The National Security Council, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) devised detailed plans for nuclear war against Red China.With the death of Stalin in early March 1953, Russian support for a Chinese communists hard-line weakened and Red China decided to compromise on the prisoner issue.Eisenhower in Korea with General Chung Il-kwon, and Baik Seon-yup, 1952In July 1953, an armistice took effect with Korea divided along approximately the same boundary as in 1950. The armistice and boundary remain in effect today. The armistice, concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President Syngman Rhee, and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer Ambrose as the greatest achievement of the administration. Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable.A point of emphasis in Ike's campaign had been his endorsement of a policy of liberation from communism as opposed to a policy of containment. This remained his preference despite the armistice with Korea.Throughout his terms Eisenhower took a hard-line attitude toward Red China, as demanded by conservative Republicans, with the goal of driving a wedge between Red China and the Soviet Union.Eisenhower continued Truman's policy of recognizing the Republic of China (Free China) as the legitimate government of China, not the Beijing regime. There were localized flare-ups when the People's Liberation Army began shelling the islands of Quemoy and Matsu in September 1954. Eisenhower received recommendations embracing every variation of response to the aggression of the Chinese communists. He thought it essential to have every possible option available to him as the crisis unfolded.The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China was signed in December 1954. He requested and secured from Congress their "Free China Resolution" in January 1955, which gave Eisenhower unprecedented power in advance to use military force at any level of his choosing in defense of Free China and the Pescadores. The Resolution bolstered the morale of the Chinese nationalists, and signaled to Beijing that the U.S. was committed to holding the line.Eisenhower openly threatened the Chinese communists with use of nuclear weapons, authorizing a series of bomb tests labeled Operation Teapot. Nevertheless, he left the Chinese communists guessing as to the exact nature of his nuclear response. This allowed Eisenhower to accomplish all of his objectives—the end of this communist encroachment, the retention of the Islands by the Chinese nationalists and continued peace.Defense of the Republic of China from an invasion remains a core American policy.By the end of 1954 Eisenhower's military and foreign policy experts—the NSC, JCS and State Dept.—had unanimously urged him, on no less than five occasions, to launch an atomic attack against Red China; yet he consistently refused to do so and felt a distinct sense of accomplishment in having sufficiently confronted communism while keeping world peace.The Middle East and Eisenhower doctrineEisenhower with the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1959)Even before he was inaugurated Eisenhower accepted a request from the British government to restore the Shah of Iran (Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) to power. He therefore authorized the Central Intelligence Agency to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh.This resulted in an increased strategic control over Iranian oil by U.S. and British companies.In November 1956, Eisenhower forced an end to the combined British, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt in response to the Suez Crisis, receiving praise from Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of Hungary in response to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. He publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations, and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt.Eisenhower explicitly defended his strong position against Britain and France in his memoirs, which were published in 1965.After the Suez Crisis the United States became the protector of unstable friendly governments in the Middle East via the "Eisenhower Doctrine". Designed by Secretary of State Dulles, it held the U.S. would be "prepared to use armed force ... [to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism". Further, the United States would provide economic and military aid and, if necessary, use military force to stop the spread of communism in the Middle East.Eisenhower and Vice President Richard Nixon with their host, King Saud of Saudi Arabia, at the Mayflower Hotel (1957)Eisenhower applied the doctrine in 1957–58 by dispensing economic aid to shore up the Kingdom of Jordan, and by encouraging Syria's neighbors to consider military operations against it. More dramatically, in July 1958, he sent 15,000 Marines and soldiers to Lebanon as part of Operation Blue Bat, a non-combat peace-keeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government and to prevent a radical revolution from sweeping over that country.The mission proved a success and the Marines departed three months later. The deployment came in response to the urgent request of Lebanese president Camille Chamoun after sectarian violence had erupted in the country. Washington considered the military intervention successful since it brought about regional stability, weakened Soviet influence, and intimidated the Egyptian and Syrian governments, whose anti-West political position had hardened after the Suez Crisis.Most Arab countries were skeptical about the "Eisenhower doctrine" because they considered "Zionist imperialism" the real danger. However, they did take the opportunity to obtain free money and weapons. Egypt and Syria, supported by the Soviet Union, openly opposed the initiative. However, Egypt received American aid until the Six-Day War in 1967.As the Cold War deepened, Dulles sought to isolate the Soviet Union by building regional alliances of nations against it. Critics sometimes called it "pacto-mania".Southeast AsiaEarly in 1953, the French asked Eisenhower for help in French Indochina against the Communists, supplied from China, who were fighting the First Indochina War. Eisenhower sent Lt. General John W. "Iron Mike" O'Daniel to Vietnam to study and assess the French forces there.Chief of staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions."Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel. After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop napalm for clearing purposes. Further requests for assistance from the French were agreed to but only on conditions Eisenhower knew were impossible to meet – allied participation and congressional approval.When the French fortress of Dien Bien Phu fell to the Vietnamese Communists in May 1954, Eisenhower refused to intervene despite urgings from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the Vice President and the head of NCS.Eisenhower responded to the French defeat with the formation of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Alliance with the U.K., France, New Zealand and Australia in defense of Vietnam against communism. At that time the French and Chinese reconvened Geneva peace talks; Eisenhower agreed the U.S. would participate only as an observer. After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam.Ambrose argues that Eisenhower, by not participating in the Geneva agreement, had kept the U.S. out of Vietnam; nevertheless, with the formation of SEATO, he had in the end put the U.S. back into the conflict.In late 1954, Gen. J. Lawton Collins was made ambassador to "Free Vietnam" (the term South Vietnam came into use in 1955), effectively elevating the country to sovereign status. Collins' instructions were to support the leader Ngo Dinh Diem in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign.In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, commonly known as South Vietnam) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance.In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of U.S. military advisors in South Vietnam to 900 men.This was due to North Vietnam's support of "uprisings" in the south and concern the nation would fall.In May 1957 Diem, then President of South Vietnam, made a state visit to the United States for ten days. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City. Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives.After the election of November 1960, Eisenhower in briefing with John F. Kennedy pointed out the communist threat in Southeast Asia as requiring prioritization in the next administration. Eisenhower told Kennedy he considered Laos "the cork in the bottle" with regard to the regional threat.Just saying……….

The government school system is corrupt and the issue isn't about keeping us poor, but more about keeping us controlled. Indoctrinating our youth to be good little socialist/communist/fascists! All three are the fruit of the same vine.Government Agencies / Bureaucracies at all levels are heavily packed with indoctrinated left leaning manipulators, who in turn are for the most part indoctrinating more followers. School textbooks and curriculum is being written for the purpose of Leftist indoctrination, with the actual education of our youth playing second fiddle.The left leaning liberals have an agenda that has nothing to do with teaching children how to think and everything to do with teaching them what to think, or to think in politically correct terms by the official standards set forth by the Democratic party definitions.The possibility of reversing this trend is minuscule , but someway, somehow the education system has to be miraculously transformed if we are to survive and prosper once again. Lincoln once stated that America could never be destroyed from outside. ... If we falter and lose our freedoms, it will be because we destroyed ourselves. Abraham LincolnIn 1979, during the Carter Administration, the Department of Education Organization Act was passed, the U.S. Department of Education began operating in 1980 as a cabinet level position, and the education systems have been going steadily down hill ever since.The bureaucrats are not entirely to blame, they only helped to get the ball rolling, the primary culprits were/are teachers who advanced not only personal socialist agendas, but in many cases organized left wing propaganda, as well as Homosexual, racist, and other inflammatory sermons to impressionable youth.In 1979 the Office of Education had 3,000 employees and an annual budget of $12 billion. In 2013 the Department of Education (DOE), a cabinet level position, today has over 5,000 employees and a budget of somewhere around $70 BILLION .Vladimir Lenin the founder of the failed social experiment that led to the persecution and genocidal mass murders of more human beings than Hitler could ever have dreamed of -{Russian} Communism -coined the phrase useful idiots. [14]Professor Watch List - Students Exposing Leftist TeachersNutty ProfessorInefficient Poorly Run School Systems.The efficiency of public schools is more than an academic question. The demand for increasing accountability of public school policy and expenditures is mounting. However, what is being blacked out is the fact that with only rare exceptions, the Nations worst , poorly run, costly and educationally ineffective School Systems are run by Democrats and Liberals.Millions of children are enslaved in public schools that more closely resemble correctional facilities, they are isolated from competition, stifled by union rules, and force fed a steady diatribe of racist and leftist propaganda. Yet Liberals resist change, insisting instead on throwing more of everybody else’s hard earned money at the problem. More funding, more , more, more. That solution has not worked, not when Liberals and corrupt politicians control the Machine.Newark,NJ spends $18,000 per student , One of the highest of any major public school system , yet only 30 percent of 8th graders can pass the annual proficiency test in math.D.C. public-schools, which also has among the highest per-pupil expenditures in the USA is continuously among the lowest test scores.Detroit Public Schools - In 2011, Detroit tied Washington, D.C. for last place in eighth-grade reading scores.In 2009, when the Detroit Public School (DPS) system was facing bankruptcy engendered by huge operating deficits and widespread corruption, Secretary of Education Arne Duncan characterized it as a national disgrace. The disgrace, unfortunately, is much more than meets the eye: For all of the bankrupting spending, the school systems educational results for the 88 percent black student population remain abysmal. And yet the DPS is but a microcosm of the silent scandal haunting the Left, which controls the district and countless others across the nation in precisely the same circumstances.Throughout America, minority students find themselves conscripted into these institutions of misery, while the architects of their prisons remain accountable to no one. - [1]Major Democratic cities such as Los Angeles, New York, Detroit, and Philadelphia is where the largest numbers of children cannot read, write, and compute at anything approaching acceptable levels.The most disastrous of Americas inner-city schools are controlled by Democrats and Liberals, their Unions overwhelmingly support the Democratic Party and its left-wing agenda.Staffers and bureaucrats who do not adhere to leftist liberal views are weeded out and banished under at times, the most treacherous of methodology. Teacher-training colleges resemble indoctrination systems and those who escape the halls of this vile form of academia are decidedly leftist. Conservatives, or those who betray a conservative opinion are flunked out long before graduation.Promoting Racial AnimosityWhite Privilege is a concept dredged from the dung heap of Liberalism. It basically teaches that only people of European descent are racist, that non-whites are incapable of racism and that what is perceived as racism in non-Europeans is ethnic pride or racial hatred derived from persecution by whites.One prime example is an American Diversity class taught at Delavan-Darien High School in Wisconsin, as well as other schools nationwide. The students are basically taught if you are white, you are oppressing. If you are non white, you have been a victim.Racist Charlie BrownYoung Americas Foundation staff member Brendan Pringle, labeled the course as race-baiting.~Professors and teachers are increasingly telling white students that they are part of the problem of racism, and are telling black students that they are second-class citizens. This race-baiting technique is an attack on American values and can only breed bitterness and envy [2]Wisconsin High School Teaches White Privilege Class2005 Professor Andrew Brantlinger tells how he transformed an ordinary geometry lesson into an analysis of the South Central L.A. community that rioted following the 92 verdict. Students were taught that in 1992, South Central L.A. had no community centers or movie theaters, but had 640 liquor stores. These facts led one student to proclaim, All they want them to do is drink. Brantlinger boasts that he never asked the student who they were. Rethinking Mathematics: Teaching Social Justice by the Numbers Rethinking Mathematics: Teaching Social Justice by the Numbers Paperback April 19, 2013. Apparently this nutty Professor had no concept of supply and demand economics.Here is what fourth graders will learn in this book about the life of President Barrack Obama....though he is referred to in this book as simply Barrack.1. Barrack learned how to be black, which meant cursing, fighting, and smoking, drinking, and doing drugs from watching television.2. Whites are racist and therefore did not want to vote for Barrack.3. Barracks pastor said that God would damn America for mistreating black people. The pastor called our country a failure.4. Blacks and whites are angry at each other and only Barrack could make the country more perfect.xxxxxRelated Article: Bashing Trump in the ClassroomPromoting Sexual PerversionIn 2009, Obama nominated homosexual propagandist Kevin Jennings as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Education he was in charge of overseeing the Safe and Drug-Free Schools program. Now the drug education programs I personally have no problem with, but the lefts manipulation of the term safe is where the flakiness comes in. Jennings was in charge of making public schools safe for leftists and homosexuals and to disseminate pro-homosexual propaganda and indoctrination to Americas school children.Jennings, was a founder of the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network {GLSEN}. The same group that gave courses on Fisting and Spit or swallow Is it rude? 52 members of the house and Senate, wrote to President Obama requesting that he rescind the appointment because Jennings had for more than 20 years, almost exclusively focused on promoting the homosexual agenda. The Obama regime refused to do so.He masterminded a scheme of gay infiltration into the classroom using "tolerance" and anti-bullying programs as a perfect path to classroom indoctrination. In 1995 Jennings made a speech to a Gay Group in which he somewhat outlined the agendas strategyIf the radical right can succeed in portraying us as preying on children, we will lose. Their language .... is laced with subtle and not-so-subtle innuendo that we are after their kids, - He then went on to propose a strategy of how they could get at our kids [Utilizing Framing and Jamming See: Brainwashing Techniques] . - K. JenningsGay activists , are actively engaged in getting at your Children, and indoctrinating them in homosexual glorification. The primary tactic currently employed by the Gay Agenda is to force their foot in the door at many schools is the facade of "Tolerance and diversity"California, recently made it mandatory for all public schools to exaggerate and incorporate into their curriculum the contributions of homosexuals to history. This indoctrination begins at kindergarten . As per Tim Donnelly, a California lawmaker, this new law forbids educators to portray homosexuals in anything other than a positive light.The Omaha Public Schools took another step toward indoctrinating thousands of school children . Using $130,000 of everyone else’s money, this board bought 8,000 copies of a book called **The Cultural Proficiency Journey: Moving Beyond Ethical Barriers Toward Profound School Change Cultural Proficiency Journey: **. The book instructs teachers that they must overcome their irrational fear of homosexuality and reject the color-blind approach to teaching in which teachers treat all children the same. Basically it calls for privileges to be extended to minorities and perverts at the expense of everyone else. It further teaches that white privilege is ingrained in America. The book / propaganda manual is already part of the indoctrination curriculum in Atlanta, San Diego ,Maryland ,Canada and elsewhere. The following are a few excerpts from the bookOne is compelled to recognize that oppressed groups seeking equality needed to be amended into the Constitution in their quest for justice. On the other hand, heterosexual white men as a group, the unstated norm, have never needed to be amended into the Constitution. It is common for teachers to proclaim they do not see color in children. ...... Colorblindness will not end racism. Pretending race does not exist is not the same as creating equality.There is undeniable, insidious, treacherous and devious systematic indoctrination / brainwashing occurring in the our public schools, perpetrated by indoctrinated educators, liberal special-interest groups, and perverts. Some is barely perceivable, almost subliminal, while some is more blatant and wanton unabashed propaganda.Some Educators openly endorse a secrecy policy . One Liberal leaning Sex-Ed program Becoming a Responsible Teen forces students to sign a secrecy pact if a student talks to his parents about the curriculum , he/she is automatically expelled from the program and receives a failing grade.See Further Documentation re: Homosexuality in the Classroom - See: Gay Agenda in Public SchoolsRe-Writing HistoryThe complete lack of accuracy in history, and the social sciences in the classroom is not readily detectable. Instead of History, middle school students have World Cultures. Come 8th and 9th grades they get warped lessons in American History. Basically a politically correct crazed interpretation of the past , where the European settlers of the New World are responsible for all the Worlds ills, from Negro Slavery {Which originated among the Muslims} to genocide . All the evils real and imagined of our forebears are laid bare and multiplied till one would believe Europeans were the devil incarnate.United States History: Preparing for the Advanced Placement Examination United States History: Preparing for the Advanced Placement Examination. The high school textbook contains a summary of each Amendment that alters the actual initial intent -- It quotes the Second Amendment as, "The people have a right to keep and bear arms in a state militia." When the actual amendment states "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."A parent of a fifth grader in Texas bought to light another abuse when she objected to a test question following the viewing of a film entitled, Remembering September 11th, which read, Why might the United States be a target for terrorism? The correct answer was Decisions we made in the United States have had negative effects on people elsewhere. Since when did it become acceptable to teach children that we caused the attack on 9/11? [4]A Massachusetts public school principal, Anne Foley, banned celebrations of Columbus Day and Thanksgiving, labeling them American atrocities parading as historical holidays. She also forbid children to dress up for Halloween. [3]Promoting Left Wing Political CausesA teacher in Fairfax, Virginia {Michael Denman} gave his students the assignment of doing research on each and every Republican presidential candidate to search for weaknesses in the candidate themselves, as well as their positions. When the information was compiled the students were then told to conspire on a strategy paper on how to best exploit these weaknesses. These papers were to be sent to the Obama campaign. Wow ! Hows that for Objective ?? - [5]In 2010 High school teachers held anti war signs during a ceremony honoring grads entering the military! History teacher Marybeth Verani and English teacher Adeline Koscher. They not only imposed their political will, they imposed it at the wrong time, said junior Andrew Bowles Jr. These 2 teachers sat while the names of the students entering the U.S. Marine Corps, Army and National Guard were announced. They remained seated while the rest of those assembled gave a standing ovation. [6] . My guess is these 2 broads, when they were young, were among the Hippies spitting on returning Vietnam Vets .A Rochester, MN public school teacher used school district time and resources to protest the local Tea Party rallyA Texas elementary school held an assembly entitled, A Dream Come True Living in the present by remembering the past and looking forward to the future.The lyrics of the first songFeels Like Change: Oh, I tried to believe in George Bush, I tried to trust, But its ashes to ashes now, And its dust to dust. Do you feel it baby? Oh, do you feel it? It feels like change!Basically the entire program was little more than an Obamafest.Obamafest Leftist indoctrination in Public SchoolCalifornias state health-care exchange is funneling one million dollars into a Los Angeles school district program to indoctrinate students to promote Obamacare, a spokesperson for the school district stated that the program was designed as a pilot and would serve as a model for similar future projects where both educators and students would serve as leftist propagandists.Kids at a Middle School were shown a short video entitled 'I Pledge' which opens with an image of President Obama and part of a speech in which he says, 'Let us summon a new spirit of patriotism, of responsibility where each of us resolves to pitch in and work harder and look after not only ourselves but each other.'The video features celebrities making pledges , and it starts off very good - pledges to some legitimate, noble goals and causes. It ends up being a Democratic Party politicized message.I pledge to be a servant to our president Demi Moore said...I pledge to be of service to Barack Obama - Red Hot Chili Peppers singer Anthony KiedisThe School Issued an Apology'The Middle School and District apologize for the use of the I Pledge video. The reason the video was used was to show students small ways to make a difference in their communities. Most of the video provided viewers with examples like: end hunger in America; volunteer more; always represent your country with pride, dignity and honesty; and care for America elderly. Unfortunately, the video also had a political slant. The District is non-partisan and does not endorse the political messages found in this video. This video will not be used in the District again'.Although, in this particular instance, the abuse by Obamaites was publicized, the video and many others similar in the subtle deviance were shown elsewhere at many other schools, to many other innocent impressionable children.Preaching Class Warfare and EntitlementA cartoon intended for grade schools "Tax the Rich: An Animated Fairy Tale" which inflicts the impression that the only way that the rich became rich is through tax cuts, loopholes and illegal activities. Kyle Olson of the Education Action Group Foundation (EAG) says the animated video is packed with lies and over-the-top images.What really put it over the top for me was the image of the supposed rich guy standing on the scale, urinating on the people down below him, ..... I thought that was such a cynical image ....to portray to American people and to students. [7]Common CoreCommon Core puts control over Kindergarten through High School Education curriculum in both Math and English in the hands of the fully indoctrinated puppet masters, when implemented by a State, it will apply to both Public and Private Schools.A leaked Dept. of Education document discusses implementing through Common Core mandatory student monitoring techniques such as scanning and mapping a childs brain function utilizing a type of MRI , using cameras to monitor facial expressions- no matter how subtle, a pressure-sensitive computer mouse, and a biometric wrist wrap to help ascertain what a child is thinking and to ensure they are learning and thinking correctly {Politically correct}. This is only the tip of the iceberg as to what the future holds when our children are handed over to these warped indoctrinated and devious bastards we call "educators" .Diane Ravitch, U.S. secretary of education under Clinton and Bush, reversed her original opinion about Common Core. She refutes as outright lies, the claims by Obama and Company that the standards were created and voluntarily adopted by the states .They were developed by an organization called Achieve and the National Governors Association, both of which were generously funded by the Gates Foundation. There was minimal public engagement in the development of the Common Core. Their creation was neither grassroots nor did it emanate from the states.Common Core is being driven by Democratic Party policymakers in D.C.2008 Obamaite North Carolina teacher Diantha Harris ridiculed and browbeat a young girl whose father was fighting overseas, because she stated her family supported John McCain. [9]2009 New Jersey elementary school children taught to sing a highly politicized song in praise of Barrack Obama at B. Bernice Young Elementary School [10]2012 Houston kindergarten children taught an Obama praising poem that they had to perform in a school program. [12]2012 - A high school teacher {Tanya Dixon-Neely} in a North Carolina High School was videotaped screaming at her class that criticizing President Obama could result in jail time and that Mitt Romney was a bully in high school. [11]2013 South Carolina honors English teacher Scott Compton faces termination for stomping on an American flag last month as part of a lesson in three classes throughout the day, WIS-TV reports. [13]2013 At schools in Illinois, fourth graders are being forced to read a Common Core compliant book....the biography of Barack Obama. Sounds innocent enough, right? This assignment is far from innocent. In fact, it attacks the innocence of our children, perverts the history of our country, and smears an entire population of people who disagree with Obamas policies.Footnotes - References1. Detroit Public Schools: Bankrupting Minority Students Futures2. Wisconsin High School Teaches White Privilege Class3. Massachusetts Principal Takes Aim at Fall Holidays, Says They are Insensitive4. Are Our Children Actually Learning Anything in School Today?5. Maggies Notebook6. Teachers anti-war message draws fire7. Leftist Ed Asner Responds To California Teachers Union Propaganda Video Can I Piss On You ?9. Teacher Browbeats Student over Pulling for John McCain10. : Fox News IDs NJ School Involved in Obama Anthem Song Scandal11. North Carolina Teacher Obama Supporter off the Chain11. School Children Taught to Praise Obama12. YouTube Video13. Huffington Post14. Useful Idiots is a description of Westerners who were promoting Communism and subverting America ,the once mightiest and most collectively prosperous society in the known history of humanity. Although the "idiots" have infiltrated , {either in an organized format, or unwittingly } virtually every major institution in the United States, nowhere is the damage more evident, and more damming than in our Education System.