Reader Provides Background Knowledge On Interactive Narrative: Fill & Download for Free

Here is a twenty page paper that I wrote in graduate school. I haven't found a use for it. It didn't get me a job and was never published. Maybe someone else will find a use for it on Quora. I wanted to become a teacher to help gifted children, since I was ignored as a child and had to learn on my own. I was a bad teacher, and my students didn't listen. Right now, since I failed as a teacher, I'm primarily trying to help students by developing a new keyboard that will allow them to type more quickly and access information on the internet more quickly.Vocabulary AcquisitionMy research revolved around methods to accelerate vocabulary development for persons of all ages. Specifically, I examined strategic word intervention and cross-discipline word integration. The results of my findings should be utilized to enhance vocabulary development, both as expeditiously and efficiently as possible. Greater vocabulary knowledge is the first stage necessary for proficiency with advanced speed reading techniques.In the United States, the SAT might be the single most important examination that anyone must take. There is no other test as critical as to determining futures, opportunities, and careers as the SAT. Failure to perform well on the SAT severely limits access to higher education; and consequently, the options and opportunities necessary to be successful. I hypothesize that proper SAT preparation does not begin in high school, or even middle school; but, rather, at the early stages of human development. My hypothesis is supported by Tom Parker, director of admissions at Williams College. He is also quoted in the book “Words, Words, Words, Teaching Vocabulary in Grades Four Through Twelve,” (The title comes from Shakespeare’s Hamlet) by Janet Allen. Tom Parker states the following: “I have never met a kid with high scores on the verbal section of the SAT who wasn’t a passionate reader” (p. 670). Vocabulary mastery leads to greater reading comprehension, which can then facilitate higher scores on the verbal section of the SAT. People who continue to pursue vocabulary development after the SAT, after college, and after graduate school, also continue to enjoy benefits. Individuals who did not fair well on the verbal section of the SAT, and who have not chosen a career path that requires a high degree of verbal fluency, will still benefit greatly from implementing these vocabulary development techniques. My research indicates that it is never too late.Effective vocabulary development helps foster reading fluency. It is one of the most effective ways of increasing reading proficiency. Although not everyone has the opportunity for higher education, I firmly believe that anyone is capable of becoming an independent word learner. They may achieve a firm command of the English language, on their own, by utilizing the techniques that I have researched. With some effort, everyone can develop effective oral and written communication skills. This will give them confidence, make them better public speakers, and assist them in achieving their own personal goals in life.Literature ReviewBrief History and Background of Vocabulary DevelopmentTraditional vocabulary acquisition techniques have recently received a high degree of scrutiny from researchers. For a long time, vocabulary was not taught separately from other subject areas, relying on a discovery method of independent learning, or relying on techniques that current research would label as not maximally effective.Some examples of ineffective ways to learn vocabulary include the following: interrupting reading to look up words in the dictionary, making lists of unknown vocabulary words in an attempt to integrate those words into writing, or assigning a list of unknown words and quizzing oneself on a weekly basis (Allen, 1999; Faulkner, 2010). These tired old methods then gave way to the idea of vocabulary books with specific vocabulary exercises and assessments. Janet Allen, an associate professor at the University of Central Florida and author of “Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4-12,” claims that exercises found in the aforementioned books did not “improve speaking, reading, or writing any more than looking words up in a dictionary” (Allen, 1999). A person’s first exposure to a new word should not be a dictionary definition (Marzano, 2004).The traditional strategies used for vocabulary development fall short of success for several reasons. One reason is that traditional strategies do not take into account the diverse array of learning styles that exist (Faulkner, 2010). The process of looking up words in a dictionary does not actively engage people in learning, and by assigning oneself weekly quizzes, one is merely practicing the act of memorization, temporary storage of word meanings in short-term memory, and a very superficial understanding of vocabulary words within a limited context. It is also a very common practice for individuals who are trying to expand their vocabulary to create a list of esoteric words that have very little pragmatic value; they are either archaic, or have very little utility within the confines of real conversations that take place between persons in real life or written compositions at the work place. In a sense, many people tend to study words that have little to no practical value; therefore, these words become difficult to truly master (Faulkner, 2010). A limited vocabulary limits thinking and communication skills since a robust vocabulary forms the foundation for these skills (Savino, 2011). The most severe consequence of ineffective vocabulary development is the fact that people who have a limited vocabulary run the risk of not becoming truly proficient at reading (Sobolak, 2009). For these reasons, traditional methods of word mastery limit potential and are ineffectual (Faulkner, 2010).Why One Should Increase Their Knowledge of VocabularyVocabulary knowledge is positively correlated to the following: reading comprehension, complexity of thought, both oral and written expression, and achievement (Savino, 2011; Allen, 1999). Research indicates that direct vocabulary instruction, or self-instruction, is far more effective than learning from context, or incidental learning (Marzano, 2004; Smith, 1997). It, therefore, follows that it is imperative that all educators set aside time for direct vocabulary instruction. One of the most compelling arguments for direct vocabulary instruction comes from Vygotsky, a psychologist and educational theorist. He believed that the main factor that determines thought development is language (Vygotsky, 1986).When asked about how to describe word knowledge, the layperson may report that an individual either has knowledge of a word or does not. Research indicates that there are varying degrees, or gradations, of word knowledge. Far more important than whether a word is “known” or “unknown” is something referred to as “depth of word knowledge” (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995).The lowest level of word knowledge can be identified as “verbal association knowledge” or “the perceptual level” (Allen, 1999; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Savino, 2011). At this level, a person may be able to use a word in a single isolated context and link that word to a single definition only. It is also reliant upon short-term memory (Savino, 2011). Given the complexity of the English Language, which has quite diverse origins, and the numerous amount of words with a multiplicity of meaning, this type of knowledge is insufficient, but may serve as a good starting point to build upon by activating prior knowledge. An example of a word that may fall into this category might be “erudite”; most people may have encountered this word in speech or text once or twice, but may not fully understand its meaning.Research indicates that the mid-tier level of word knowledge in vocabulary development can be referred to as “partial concept knowledge” or “the contextual level” (Allen, 1999; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Savino, 2011). In this stage, a person may be able to use a word only in a limited number of ways or contexts. The individual may know and be able to use some of a word’s multiple meanings, but not all. The person can associate attributes and functions of the vocabulary word, but lacks consistency (Savino, 2011). Difficulty may arise when one attempts to discriminate the meaning of the target word from words of similar meanings or phonological construction (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995).The ultimate level of word knowledge and goal of all vocabulary acquisition is called “full concept knowledge” or “the schematic level” (Allen, 1999; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 19995; Savino, 2011). When a person possesses this type of mastery of a word, he or she can fully comprehend this word, differentiate it from other words of similar construction, and can use the word in new ways (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). This type of word knowledge is associated with the use of long-term memory (Savino, 2011). For this reason and at this level of mastery, individuals are able to access and use a word at will, accurately and fully, throughout the course of their entire lives. The learning is permanent, rather than transient.InterventionsThe primary goal of a successful intervention should be to foster independent word learners (Allen, 1999; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). Students should be voracious readers, critical thinkers, and self-sufficient word learners. People who are capable of meta-cognitive thinking strategies are better able to infer the meaning of a word from context, or are resourceful enough to enhance their vocabulary on their own using various methods. This would include making use of technology to discover word meanings, or using knowledge of word roots and origins to get a better understanding of the meaning of a specific word.In the early stages of human development, people learn approximately 3,000 words per year (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). This statistic is nothing short of miraculous, even for someone who does not believe in miracles. It is almost impossible to provide direct instruction to every human being with respect to vocabulary development. Therefore, it is imperative that vocabulary interventions provide people with new thinking strategies that encourage independence, in the advanced stages and developmental stages, so that people may become competent at teaching themselves vocabulary.The most important mechanism for vocabulary growth and development is, almost indisputably, reading (Allen, 1999; Savino, 2011; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). It is absolutely essential to practice good reading habits. This habit will invariably lead to becoming an independent word learner.To fully understand how adults acquire knowledge of new words, one must first understand the mind of a child. When most students enter the school system at the kindergarten and first grade levels, they know approximately 2,500 to 5,000 words (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). Shakespeare used approximately 31,000 words. If an educator were to set the ambitious goal of producing the next Shakespeare, there would be a difficult road ahead, especially if the student came from a low socioeconomic background. Students who live in poverty know, on average, about 6,000 fewer words than their middle-class equivalents at the start of schooling (Sobolak, 2009). Of these words, most are acquired through speech, are high-frequency, and serve utilitarian purposes (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). The vast majority of words taught in the early stages of learning are complex, academic, and usually content area specific (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). It then follows that for most of the words learned at this level, young people have no previous exposure and are very unlikely to encounter any of these words in their daily interactions with others via speech.As an example, a word such as “mean” assumes a completely different “meaning” in the context of mathematics, or even in vocabulary instruction itself, than it does when students use that same word to denote that a peer is being unfriendly; which would be the most common utilization of the word and the most likely level of verbal association knowledge for a person at that stage of education.Effective Methods for Learning VocabularyOne technique that helps develop a deeper understanding of words is semantic mapping. This involves presenting the concept word, visually, to a person and then having them connect that word to other words that are similar, using a category system (Savino, 2011; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Smith, 1997). Often, a category can be defined by a shared property of all the vocabulary words, such as “emotions” or “actions.” The strength of this strategy is that it helps people move beyond the verbal association stage of word mastery by building on prior knowledge. Research indicates that building on prior experiences and connecting new words to background knowledge increases the chances of retention of the target words (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Faulkner, 2010; Savino, 2011; Marzano, 2004). Priming background knowledge refers to having people draw on their personal experiences to understand new vocabulary words (Marzano, 2004; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). It is an effective technique that is universally used in all forms of vocabulary acquisition. People develop new neural networks which connect the new words to words that they already have a deeper level of understanding. This allows for more rapid retrieval of the new target words and makes them more accessible by creating a web-like structure of association in the brain.Another highly successful technique for vocabulary development is called “strategic intervention.” This technique is exceptionally useful for young people, but no human being ever stops learning (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). To use this method, one must introduce a small number of new words each day (usually two to three) and then attempt to use these words throughout the day in typical workplace routines, conversations, and interactions (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Faulkner, 2010; Savino, 2011). The advantage of this technique is that it exposes people to new words in an informal, oral context. One of the most effective instructional tools that can be used to teach vocabulary is the use of new words in casual conversation (Marzano, 2004). Conversation can be used to covertly and creatively give an individual the required multiple exposures to new words. The learning, then, occurs naturally, as opposed to being forced in a formal academic setting. After an individual has had a decent amount of exposure to the new words using this technique, the teacher may decide to spontaneously assess the students (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). This can be done in a transitional stage of the day, perhaps casually, in an environment devoid of stress, such as lunch. Incentives could be provided for the students to quiz each other. Classical conditioning is a proven technique in the field of psychology that tends to yield excellent results; however, it may be optimal to reward positive behavior and ignore negative actions, not punishing behavior that is less than desirable.As opposed to the traditional method of introducing a long list of words for vocabulary acquisition each week, learners may be better served concentrating on fewer words per week (Faulkner, 2010). By increasing the intensity of the study and focusing on fewer words, and not memorizing a long list, word learners will be more likely to gain full concept knowledge, which should be the ultimate goal of all forms of vocabulary acquisition (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995).Partial concept knowledge, or verbal association knowledge, of many words should be deemed inferior to full concept knowledge of fewer words. This is due to the fact that with partial concept knowledge, an individual can only use a word in a limited amount of contexts, while full concept knowledge entails a true understanding of a word’s meaning (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). The maxim, “less is more,” holds true if words can be successfully cemented into a person’s long-term memory, and a person, then, gains full utility out of every new vocabulary word that they learn. It also accommodates the full spectrum of learning styles, because each individual is able to synthesize the unknown with the known at his or her own pace.More evidence that suggests that this method is superior is the fact that it takes around 10 to 40 exposures to a new word for a person to attain the highest level of understanding of the target word (Savino, 2011; Marzano, 2004). With a long list of many words each week, the above amount of exposures just might not be possible given the time constraints of daily life. The aforementioned exposures include both oral and written.People need to be actively using new vocabulary words in many different contexts in order to acquire full concept mastery of the new words; the experience must be rich, interactive, and multi-faceted (Savino, 2011; Faulkner, 2010; Sobolak, 2009; Smith, 1997). When one is an active participant in vocabulary development, studies show that more vocabulary words are retained (Sobolak, 2009; Smith, 1997). Research also indicates that some of the most effective ways to do this are the following: reading or composing a story with the target words, keeping a vocabulary notebook, illustrating the words, practicing word play, completing cloze style fill-in-the-blank quizzes, studying palindromes (Madam I’m Adam), experimenting with word roots, inventing new words, acting out the words (as Shakespeare did), or creating songs, raps, or poems using the target words (Faulkner, 2010; Savino, 2011; Smith, 1997).Playing with words, or using wordplay, has been proven to develop metacognitive thinking abilities, in addition to increasing vocabulary (Savino, 2011). Metacognition, or the ability to think about thinking, is a tool that is universally useful for everyone. By using a variety of techniques, as opposed to just one method, one can stimulate an interest in vocabulary development by keeping methodology fresh and varied.Building Independent Vocabulary GrowthTaking into consideration that an average person in the early stages of development learns approximately 3,000 new words each year, and that by the eighth grade he or she is expected to know around 25,000 words, direct vocabulary instruction for all of those words is obviously an impossibility (Savino, 2011). Instructors are, therefore, forced to stimulate an active interest in words and prompt students to become successful independent word learners. With different numbers involved, the same holds true for adults, but they are their own teachers.One of the most effective forms of building independent vocabulary growth is creating many learning opportunities by using cross-disciplinary strategic integration of words (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). Every academic discipline has its own jargon. Having people hear the same word used in a new way, increases the depth of word understanding.Almost all research on the subject indicates that independent reading is the best way to increase vocabulary and create independent word learners (Allen, 1999; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Savino, 2011). The total amount of time spent reading is the best predictor of vocabulary growth (Allen, 1999). The best method to avoid myopia while reading is to take breaks. One should take a break every ten minutes or so and look around the room. Failure to do so could result in permanent damage to eyesight. While reading, one may invariably encounter new words and become forced to understand the meaning of these new words by deciphering the meaning from the context. It then follows that independent reading fosters the growth of contextual analysis skills (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). People who hone these skills will acquire vocabulary knowledge at a more rapid rate than those who do not practice independent reading habits.On the other hand, people who read regularly on their own still may encounter problems with contextual analysis. Research shows that the chances of a person successfully deriving meaning from context could be as low as 15% (Savino, 2011). Understanding the meaning of a word based on its context can be either an easy or difficult task (Allen, 1999). Sentences that provide a “rich” amount of information about a new vocabulary word are said to contain many clues as to the meaning of the word, while sentences that contain a “lean” amount of information about a new word require greater contextual analysis skills, because there may not be sufficient information provided in the sentence to accurately decipher the meaning of a word (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995).The author of “Word Smart: Building an Educated Vocabulary” writes, “Despite all the talk about ‘scholastic aptitude’ and ‘reasoning ability,’ the verbal Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is primarily a vocabulary test. If you don’t know the words on the test, you won’t earn a good score. It’s as simple as that” (p. 234). The consequences of not getting a good score on the SAT are severely limited college placement. In particular, dyslexic individuals are at a severe disadvantage with respect to college admission.By the time a middle school student reaches the high school level, it is already too late; all of the sudden they are told that they must take a life altering test that will determine their entire future. Unless blessed with exceptional intelligence, high school is a time in life too late for proper preparation. Lack of effective vocabulary instruction, combined with ineffective memorization techniques, in an environment that involves juggling high school course work, a social life, athletics, and extra-curricular activities, is a formula for failure.Without proper guidance and a contrary opinion, most people will continue to use methods for vocabulary acquisition that seem obvious, but are ineffective. This only perpetuates a vicious cycle of weak verbal association knowledge, understanding words in a single isolated context, a shallow understanding that is reliant on short-term memory, at best.When the SAT test more accurately mirrored an IQ test, the assessment used to test knowledge of high frequency words, these same words also appeared in college text books. The idea behind this was that people who already possessed knowledge of words that would be used as tools to acquire further knowledge, and more advanced understanding of highly complex topics, had a statistically higher likelihood of being successful in academic pursuits. This has since changed—the test has changed—because it is unjust to citizens who were raised in poverty and did not have access adequate education. A correlation between low socio-economic class (and many other factors) and low performance on college admissions test was recognized.Most people who choose to pursue vocabulary see it as a means to an end, a necessary and painful pulling of teeth. Many people struggle to understand words in a single isolated context, which contributes to a shallow understanding of high frequency words that appear in top-tier academic publications. The study technique known colloquially as “cramming,” or mass memorization at the last minute, yields unfavorable results; poor verbal association knowledge that is reliant on short-term memory.A great place to start for a prospective student of vocabulary, for the reasons stated above, would be an older book that focuses on older SAT words. Students and non-students need to know these words not just to do well in higher education but also to do well in life. The preparation process for both of the aforementioned things should begin as early as possible, but it is never too late and could be pursued later in life.The conclusions of my research strongly support learning “college level words” first. No one word is more difficult to learn than another. All words are the same, in that they are just symbols that represent a concept or many different concepts: they are signs with a signifier and signified.Some words, however, are used more often than others and their usage is in constant flux. Vocabulary is acquired through repeated exposure to target words and the active use of those words. The words in the book, “Word Smart: Building an Educated Vocabulary,” would serve as a great starting point, because these are high frequency words that appear in standardized tests, news articles, and literary fiction. Word learners should actively try to integrate these words into their everyday speech, in both formal and informal settings, and in as many different contexts as possible. This would obviously entail mistakes in usage in both the context of domestic and professional life. Contrary to the intuition of most people, making mistakes is a positive thing. While many people are “afraid” of misusing a word because it causes embarrassment, it is precisely this “fear” that prevents and limits depth of word understanding. I theorize that, due to evolutionary reasons, a person who incorrectly uses a word, and is subsequently corrected, will be less likely to repeat the same error in the future, will be more likely to integrate the new vocabulary word into long term memory, and will be better off in terms of their vocabulary development than someone who is afraid to take risks. The optimal learning strategy is therefore collaborative, and requires a letting go of the ego. The fear of mispronouncing a new word or making an error with respect to its usage could be ameliorated by using a simple method—telling the truth. One could inform others, “I am trying to increase my vocabulary and depth of word understanding by occasionally using words that I am not 100% comfortable using. I will be doing this by trying to integrate new words into my daily conversations, emails, text messages, and other activities that require word knowledge. If I make a mistake in usage or pronunciation, I would greatly appreciate a correction. This will facilitate my vocabulary acquisition. Thank you for your understanding.”As learning is expedited by linking new information to background knowledge, one should try to associate new words with pictures, scenes, or narrations of past experiences. Making a connection between a new word and a vivid memory from one’s past strengthens the connections between neurons in the brain which, in turn, trains the brain to accept this new word as meaningful, useful, and biologically beneficial. Through repeatedly making the mental connection between the vivid memory when opportunities present themselves to use the new word, the brain begins to permanently store the multiple definitions in long-term memory.It may be the case that when a word is used in a sentence in a dictionary to illustrate meaning in context, that sentence reflects an association, or connection, between an experience in the brain of the author of the dictionary and the target word. This connection may not exist in the mind of a person who looks up a new word in the dictionary, and is, therefore, not very useful. People of different ethnicities, cultures, and socio-economic backgrounds have very different memories and experiences than authors of dictionaries. Even worse, many dictionaries sometimes use the word being defined in the definition.The word “happy” is not much different from the word “elated”; they are similar feelings, but one word describes a greater degree of intensity. Full concept knowledge of “happy” usually occurs for most by the third grade, while the “more advanced” of the two words might not be encountered until high school, and it only has one extra letter. Knowledge of “elated” could translate to a higher score on a standardized test. Full concept knowledge of the word “happy” is a prerequisite to understanding “elated,” but once this knowledge is acquired, it is no more or less difficult to master.When going through the process of prioritizing new words to learn, one must first start with those that have high use value. To reiterate what I have already stated, these are high frequency words that appear in major news publications, academic articles, and literary fiction. The argument is fairly simple: without adequate knowledge of vocabulary as defined above, a citizen will struggle to comprehend news articles, advancements in the academic world, and great literature. A citizen who has an educated vocabulary is better equipped to benefit themselves and also society. Solving the problem of illiteracy is the first step, but it is only the beginning. My methodology is a pragmatic approach to vocabulary acquisition.Recommended Course of Action for the ReaderMy recommendation is a high impact vocabulary intervention. One should select three words per week to master. The goal should be full concept knowledge of all three words at the conclusion of each week by means of 40 exposures to each word in multiple different contexts including speech and writing. These numbers serve as a good starting point, but they could be increased or decreased based on the rate that an individual is capable of processing and acquiring new information. This philosophy builds on the concept of “less is more” from Jen Faulkner’s journal article, “Reducing Vocabulary to Increase Vocabulary.”The first words to be learned using this system should be taken from the “SAT Hit Parade” section of the book “Word Smart: Building and Educated Vocabulary.” All public copies of past SAT tests were scanned through a computer and the most common words that appeared on the exams were then compiled into the “SAT Hit Parade” list found in the book (Robinson, 1993). One should select a cluster of three words that are somehow related, in order to facilitate semantic mapping. This makes relating new words to background knowledge more intuitive. People are capable of storing more information in short-term memory using a technique called chunking. Words should be grouped together and similar words should be learned at the same time. As an example, one week’s theme could be “words that express emotion.” Words that express feelings should be woven into natural conversation. A citizenry that possesses high verbal intelligence will be a less violent society, because there will be less miscommunications and misunderstandings.Sample Passages and Implications for Vocabulary AcquisitionFrom Shakespeare’s Hamlet—Ghost:I am thy father’s spirit,Doom’d for a certain term to walk the night,And for the day confin’d to fast in fires,Till the foul crimes done in my days of natureAre burnt and purg’d away. But that I am forbidTo tell the secrets of my prison-house,I could a tale unfold whose lightest wordWould harrow up they soul, freeze thy young blood,Make thy two eyes like stars start from their spheres,Thy knotted and combined locks to part,And each particular hair to stand an end,Like quills upon the fearful porpentine,But this eternal blazon must not beTo ears of flesh and blood. List, list, O, list!If thou didst ever thy dear father love—Ghost:I find thee apt,And duller shouldst thou be than the fat weedThat roots itself in ease on Lethe wharf,Wouldst thou not sitr in this. Now, Hamlet, hear:‘Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard,A serpent stung me, so the whole ear of DenmarkIs by a forged process of my deathRankly abus’d; but know, thou noble youth,The serpent that did sting thy father’s lifeNow wears his crown.Hamlet:O my prophetic soul! My uncle?Ghost:Ay, that incestuous, that adulterate beast,With witchcraft of his wits, with traitorous gifts—O wicked wit and gifts that have the powerSo to seduce!—won to his shameful lustThe will of my most seeming virtuous queen.O Hamlet, what [a] falling-off was thereFrom me, whose love was of that dignityThat it went hand in hand even with the vowI made to her in marriage, and to declineUpon a wretch whose natural gifts were poorTo those of mine!But virtue, as it never wilol be moved,Though lewdness court it in a shape of heaven,So [lust], though to a radiant angel link’d,Will [sate] itself in a celestial bedAnd prey on garbage.But soft, methinks I scent the morning air,Brief let me be. Sleeping within my orchard,My custom always of the afternoon,Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole,With juice of cursed hebona in a vial,And in the porches of my ears did pourThe leprous distilment, whose effectHold such an enmity with blood of manThat swift as a quicksilver it courses throughThe natural gates and alleys of the body,And with a sudden vigor it doth [posset]And curd, like eager droppings into milk,The thin and wholesome blood. So did it mine,And a most instant tetter bark’d about,Most lazar-like, with vile and loathsome crustAll my smooth body.Thus was I, sleeping, by a brother’s handOf life, of crown, of queen, at once dispatch’d,Cut off even in the blossoms of my sin,Unhous’led, disappointed, unanel’d,No reck’ning made, but sent to my accountWith all my imperfections on my head.O, horrible, O, horrible, most horrible!If thou hast nature in thee, bear it not,Let not the royal bed of Denmark beA couch for luxury and damned incest.But howsomever thou pursues this act,Taint not thy mind, nor let thy soul contriveAgainst thy mother aught. Leave her to heaven,And to those thorns that in her bosom lodgeTo prick and sting her. Fare thee well at once!The glow-worm shows the matin to be near,And gins to pale his uneffectual fire.Adieu, adieu, adieu! Remember me.Hamlet:O all you host of heaven! O earth! What else?And shall I couple hell? O fie, hold, hold, my heart,And you, my sinows, grow not instant old,But bear me [stiffly] up. Remember thee!Ay, thou poor ghost, whiles memory hold a seatIn this distracted globe. Remember thee!Yea, from the table of my memoryI’ll wipe away all trivial fond records,All saws of books, all forms, all pressures pastThat youth and observation copied there,And thy commandement all alone shall liveWithin the book and volume of my brain,Unmix’d with baser matter. Yes, by heaven!O most pernicious woman!O villain, villain, smiling, damned villain!My tables—meet it is I set it downThat one may smile, and smile, and be a villain!At least I am sure it may be so in Denmark.ReferencesAllen, Janet. (1999). Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4-12. York, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers.Baker, S. K., D. C. Simmons, and E. J. Kameenui. 1995a. Vocabulary Acquisition: Curricular and Instructional Implications for Diverse Learners. Technical Report No. 13. University of Oregon: National Center to Improve the Tools for Educators.Faulkner, Julie. (2010). Reducing Vocabulary to Increase Vocabulary: Student-Centered Vocabulary Instruction for Writing that Makes a Difference. English Journal, 113-116.Marzano, R.J. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.Nietzsche, Friedrich. Hollingdale Translation. (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. New York, NY: Penguin Group.Robinson, Adam. (1993). Word Smart: Building an Educated Vocabulary. New York, New York: The Princeton Review.Robinson, Adam. (2012). Word Smart: How to Build a More Educated Vocabulary, 5th Edition. New York, New York: Random House, Inc.Savino, J.A. (2011), The Shakespeare in All of Us: A Monumental, Multitudinous, Premeditated Approach to Vocabulary Instruction. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 54: 445-453. doi: 10.1598/JAAL.54.6.6Smith, C. B. (1997). Vocabulary Instruction and Reading Comprehension. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading English and Communication.Sobolak, Michelle J. (2009) Effects of Amount of Vocabulary Instruction for Low-Socioeconomic Students. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.OMG! You actually read my paper? Thanks! My professor just slapped an “A+” on it and put it in my student mailbox.

I have an I.Q. of over 160. You might want to research “the Mozart effect.” Play classical music in the house while he is growing up. You should probably read to him. If it helps, I wrote an essay about how people learn vocabulary. You might be interested in reading it.Vocabulary AcquisitionMy research revolved around methods to accelerate vocabulary development for persons of all ages. Specifically, I examined strategic word intervention and cross-discipline word integration. The results of my findings should be utilized to enhance vocabulary development, both as expeditiously and efficiently as possible. Greater vocabulary knowledge is the first stage necessary for proficiency with advanced speed reading techniques.In the United States, the SAT might be the single most important examination that anyone must take. There is no other test as critical as to determining futures, opportunities, and careers as the SAT. Failure to perform well on the SAT severely limits access to higher education; and consequently, the options and opportunities necessary to be successful. I hypothesize that proper SAT preparation does not begin in high school, or even middle school; but, rather, at the early stages of human development. My hypothesis is supported by Tom Parker, director of admissions at Williams College. He is also quoted in the book “Words, Words, Words, Teaching Vocabulary in Grades Four Through Twelve,” (The title comes from Shakespeare’s Hamlet) by Janet Allen. Tom Parker states the following: “I have never met a kid with high scores on the verbal section of the SAT who wasn’t a passionate reader” (p. 670). Vocabulary mastery leads to greater reading comprehension, which can then facilitate higher scores on the verbal section of the SAT. People who continue to pursue vocabulary development after the SAT, after college, and after graduate school, also continue to enjoy benefits. Individuals who did not fair well on the verbal section of the SAT, and who have not chosen a career path that requires a high degree of verbal fluency, will still benefit greatly from implementing these vocabulary development techniques. My research indicates that it is never too late.Effective vocabulary development helps foster reading fluency. It is one of the most effective ways of increasing reading proficiency. Although not everyone has the opportunity for higher education, I firmly believe that anyone is capable of becoming an independent word learner. They may achieve a firm command of the English language, on their own, by utilizing the techniques that I have researched. With some effort, everyone can develop effective oral and written communication skills. This will give them confidence, make them better public speakers, and assist them in achieving their own personal goals in life.Literature ReviewBrief History and Background of Vocabulary DevelopmentTraditional vocabulary acquisition techniques have recently received a high degree of scrutiny from researchers. For a long time, vocabulary was not taught separately from other subject areas, relying on a discovery method of independent learning, or relying on techniques that current research would label as not maximally effective.Some examples of ineffective ways to learn vocabulary include the following: interrupting reading to look up words in the dictionary, making lists of unknown vocabulary words in an attempt to integrate those words into writing, or assigning a list of unknown words and quizzing oneself on a weekly basis (Allen, 1999; Faulkner, 2010). These tired old methods then gave way to the idea of vocabulary books with specific vocabulary exercises and assessments. Janet Allen, an associate professor at the University of Central Florida and author of “Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4-12,” claims that exercises found in the aforementioned books did not “improve speaking, reading, or writing any more than looking words up in a dictionary” (Allen, 1999). A person’s first exposure to a new word should not be a dictionary definition (Marzano, 2004).The traditional strategies used for vocabulary development fall short of success for several reasons. One reason is that traditional strategies do not take into account the diverse array of learning styles that exist (Faulkner, 2010). The process of looking up words in a dictionary does not actively engage people in learning, and by assigning oneself weekly quizzes, one is merely practicing the act of memorization, temporary storage of word meanings in short-term memory, and a very superficial understanding of vocabulary words within a limited context. It is also a very common practice for individuals who are trying to expand their vocabulary to create a list of esoteric words that have very little pragmatic value; they are either archaic, or have very little utility within the confines of real conversations that take place between persons in real life or written compositions at the work place. In a sense, many people tend to study words that have little to no practical value; therefore, these words become difficult to truly master (Faulkner, 2010). A limited vocabulary limits thinking and communication skills since a robust vocabulary forms the foundation for these skills (Savino, 2011). The most severe consequence of ineffective vocabulary development is the fact that people who have a limited vocabulary run the risk of not becoming truly proficient at reading (Sobolak, 2009). For these reasons, traditional methods of word mastery limit potential and are ineffectual (Faulkner, 2010).Why One Should Increase Their Knowledge of VocabularyVocabulary knowledge is positively correlated to the following: reading comprehension, complexity of thought, both oral and written expression, and achievement (Savino, 2011; Allen, 1999). Research indicates that direct vocabulary instruction, or self-instruction, is far more effective than learning from context, or incidental learning (Marzano, 2004; Smith, 1997). It, therefore, follows that it is imperative that all educators set aside time for direct vocabulary instruction. One of the most compelling arguments for direct vocabulary instruction comes from Vygotsky, a psychologist and educational theorist. He believed that the main factor that determines thought development is language (Vygotsky, 1986).When asked about how to describe word knowledge, the layperson may report that an individual either has knowledge of a word or does not. Research indicates that there are varying degrees, or gradations, of word knowledge. Far more important than whether a word is “known” or “unknown” is something referred to as “depth of word knowledge” (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995).The lowest level of word knowledge can be identified as “verbal association knowledge” or “the perceptual level” (Allen, 1999; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Savino, 2011). At this level, a person may be able to use a word in a single isolated context and link that word to a single definition only. It is also reliant upon short-term memory (Savino, 2011). Given the complexity of the English Language, which has quite diverse origins, and the numerous amount of words with a multiplicity of meaning, this type of knowledge is insufficient, but may serve as a good starting point to build upon by activating prior knowledge. An example of a word that may fall into this category might be “erudite”; most people may have encountered this word in speech or text once or twice, but may not fully understand its meaning.Research indicates that the mid-tier level of word knowledge in vocabulary development can be referred to as “partial concept knowledge” or “the contextual level” (Allen, 1999; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Savino, 2011). In this stage, a person may be able to use a word only in a limited number of ways or contexts. The individual may know and be able to use some of a word’s multiple meanings, but not all. The person can associate attributes and functions of the vocabulary word, but lacks consistency (Savino, 2011). Difficulty may arise when one attempts to discriminate the meaning of the target word from words of similar meanings or phonological construction (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995).The ultimate level of word knowledge and goal of all vocabulary acquisition is called “full concept knowledge” or “the schematic level” (Allen, 1999; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 19995; Savino, 2011). When a person possesses this type of mastery of a word, he or she can fully comprehend this word, differentiate it from other words of similar construction, and can use the word in new ways (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). This type of word knowledge is associated with the use of long-term memory (Savino, 2011). For this reason and at this level of mastery, individuals are able to access and use a word at will, accurately and fully, throughout the course of their entire lives. The learning is permanent, rather than transient.InterventionsThe primary goal of a successful intervention should be to foster independent word learners (Allen, 1999; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). Students should be voracious readers, critical thinkers, and self-sufficient word learners. People who are capable of meta-cognitive thinking strategies are better able to infer the meaning of a word from context, or are resourceful enough to enhance their vocabulary on their own using various methods. This would include making use of technology to discover word meanings, or using knowledge of word roots and origins to get a better understanding of the meaning of a specific word.In the early stages of human development, people learn approximately 3,000 words per year (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). This statistic is nothing short of miraculous, even for someone who does not believe in miracles. It is almost impossible to provide direct instruction to every human being with respect to vocabulary development. Therefore, it is imperative that vocabulary interventions provide people with new thinking strategies that encourage independence, in the advanced stages and developmental stages, so that people may become competent at teaching themselves vocabulary.The most important mechanism for vocabulary growth and development is, almost indisputably, reading (Allen, 1999; Savino, 2011; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). It is absolutely essential to practice good reading habits. This habit will invariably lead to becoming an independent word learner.To fully understand how adults acquire knowledge of new words, one must first understand the mind of a child. When most students enter the school system at the kindergarten and first grade levels, they know approximately 2,500 to 5,000 words (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). Shakespeare used approximately 31,000 words. If an educator were to set the ambitious goal of producing the next Shakespeare, there would be a difficult road ahead, especially if the student came from a low socioeconomic background. Students who live in poverty know, on average, about 6,000 fewer words than their middle-class equivalents at the start of schooling (Sobolak, 2009). Of these words, most are acquired through speech, are high-frequency, and serve utilitarian purposes (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). The vast majority of words taught in the early stages of learning are complex, academic, and usually content area specific (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). It then follows that for most of the words learned at this level, young people have no previous exposure and are very unlikely to encounter any of these words in their daily interactions with others via speech.As an example, a word such as “mean” assumes a completely different “meaning” in the context of mathematics, or even in vocabulary instruction itself, than it does when students use that same word to denote that a peer is being unfriendly; which would be the most common utilization of the word and the most likely level of verbal association knowledge for a person at that stage of education.Effective Methods for Learning VocabularyOne technique that helps develop a deeper understanding of words is semantic mapping. This involves presenting the concept word, visually, to a person and then having them connect that word to other words that are similar, using a category system (Savino, 2011; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Smith, 1997). Often, a category can be defined by a shared property of all the vocabulary words, such as “emotions” or “actions.” The strength of this strategy is that it helps people move beyond the verbal association stage of word mastery by building on prior knowledge. Research indicates that building on prior experiences and connecting new words to background knowledge increases the chances of retention of the target words (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Faulkner, 2010; Savino, 2011; Marzano, 2004). Priming background knowledge refers to having people draw on their personal experiences to understand new vocabulary words (Marzano, 2004; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). It is an effective technique that is universally used in all forms of vocabulary acquisition. People develop new neural networks which connect the new words to words that they already have a deeper level of understanding. This allows for more rapid retrieval of the new target words and makes them more accessible by creating a web-like structure of association in the brain.Another highly successful technique for vocabulary development is called “strategic intervention.” This technique is exceptionally useful for young people, but no human being ever stops learning (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). To use this method, one must introduce a small number of new words each day (usually two to three) and then attempt to use these words throughout the day in typical workplace routines, conversations, and interactions (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Faulkner, 2010; Savino, 2011). The advantage of this technique is that it exposes people to new words in an informal, oral context. One of the most effective instructional tools that can be used to teach vocabulary is the use of new words in casual conversation (Marzano, 2004). Conversation can be used to covertly and creatively give an individual the required multiple exposures to new words. The learning, then, occurs naturally, as opposed to being forced in a formal academic setting. After an individual has had a decent amount of exposure to the new words using this technique, the teacher may decide to spontaneously assess the students (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). This can be done in a transitional stage of the day, perhaps casually, in an environment devoid of stress, such as lunch. Incentives could be provided for the students to quiz each other. Classical conditioning is a proven technique in the field of psychology that tends to yield excellent results; however, it may be optimal to reward positive behavior and ignore negative actions, not punishing behavior that is less than desirable.As opposed to the traditional method of introducing a long list of words for vocabulary acquisition each week, learners may be better served concentrating on fewer words per week (Faulkner, 2010). By increasing the intensity of the study and focusing on fewer words, and not memorizing a long list, word learners will be more likely to gain full concept knowledge, which should be the ultimate goal of all forms of vocabulary acquisition (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995).Partial concept knowledge, or verbal association knowledge, of many words should be deemed inferior to full concept knowledge of fewer words. This is due to the fact that with partial concept knowledge, an individual can only use a word in a limited amount of contexts, while full concept knowledge entails a true understanding of a word’s meaning (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). The maxim, “less is more,” holds true if words can be successfully cemented into a person’s long-term memory, and a person, then, gains full utility out of every new vocabulary word that they learn. It also accommodates the full spectrum of learning styles, because each individual is able to synthesize the unknown with the known at his or her own pace.More evidence that suggests that this method is superior is the fact that it takes around 10 to 40 exposures to a new word for a person to attain the highest level of understanding of the target word (Savino, 2011; Marzano, 2004). With a long list of many words each week, the above amount of exposures just might not be possible given the time constraints of daily life. The aforementioned exposures include both oral and written.People need to be actively using new vocabulary words in many different contexts in order to acquire full concept mastery of the new words; the experience must be rich, interactive, and multi-faceted (Savino, 2011; Faulkner, 2010; Sobolak, 2009; Smith, 1997). When one is an active participant in vocabulary development, studies show that more vocabulary words are retained (Sobolak, 2009; Smith, 1997). Research also indicates that some of the most effective ways to do this are the following: reading or composing a story with the target words, keeping a vocabulary notebook, illustrating the words, practicing word play, completing cloze style fill-in-the-blank quizzes, studying palindromes (Madam I’m Adam), experimenting with word roots, inventing new words, acting out the words (as Shakespeare did), or creating songs, raps, or poems using the target words (Faulkner, 2010; Savino, 2011; Smith, 1997).Playing with words, or using wordplay, has been proven to develop metacognitive thinking abilities, in addition to increasing vocabulary (Savino, 2011). Metacognition, or the ability to think about thinking, is a tool that is universally useful for everyone. By using a variety of techniques, as opposed to just one method, one can stimulate an interest in vocabulary development by keeping methodology fresh and varied.Building Independent Vocabulary GrowthTaking into consideration that an average person in the early stages of development learns approximately 3,000 new words each year, and that by the eighth grade he or she is expected to know around 25,000 words, direct vocabulary instruction for all of those words is obviously an impossibility (Savino, 2011). Instructors are, therefore, forced to stimulate an active interest in words and prompt students to become successful independent word learners. With different numbers involved, the same holds true for adults, but they are their own teachers.One of the most effective forms of building independent vocabulary growth is creating many learning opportunities by using cross-disciplinary strategic integration of words (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). Every academic discipline has its own jargon. Having people hear the same word used in a new way, increases the depth of word understanding.Almost all research on the subject indicates that independent reading is the best way to increase vocabulary and create independent word learners (Allen, 1999; Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995; Savino, 2011). The total amount of time spent reading is the best predictor of vocabulary growth (Allen, 1999). The best method to avoid myopia while reading is to take breaks. One should take a break every ten minutes or so and look around the room. Failure to do so could result in permanent damage to eyesight. While reading, one may invariably encounter new words and become forced to understand the meaning of these new words by deciphering the meaning from the context. It then follows that independent reading fosters the growth of contextual analysis skills (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995). People who hone these skills will acquire vocabulary knowledge at a more rapid rate than those who do not practice independent reading habits.On the other hand, people who read regularly on their own still may encounter problems with contextual analysis. Research shows that the chances of a person successfully deriving meaning from context could be as low as 15% (Savino, 2011). Understanding the meaning of a word based on its context can be either an easy or difficult task (Allen, 1999). Sentences that provide a “rich” amount of information about a new vocabulary word are said to contain many clues as to the meaning of the word, while sentences that contain a “lean” amount of information about a new word require greater contextual analysis skills, because there may not be sufficient information provided in the sentence to accurately decipher the meaning of a word (Baker, Simmons, and Kameenui, 1995).The author of “Word Smart: Building an Educated Vocabulary” writes, “Despite all the talk about ‘scholastic aptitude’ and ‘reasoning ability,’ the verbal Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is primarily a vocabulary test. If you don’t know the words on the test, you won’t earn a good score. It’s as simple as that” (p. 234). The consequences of not getting a good score on the SAT are severely limited college placement. In particular, dyslexic individuals are at a severe disadvantage with respect to college admission.By the time a middle school student reaches the high school level, it is already too late; all of the sudden they are told that they must take a life altering test that will determine their entire future. Unless blessed with exceptional intelligence, high school is a time in life too late for proper preparation. Lack of effective vocabulary instruction, combined with ineffective memorization techniques, in an environment that involves juggling high school course work, a social life, athletics, and extra-curricular activities, is a formula for failure.Without proper guidance and a contrary opinion, most people will continue to use methods for vocabulary acquisition that seem obvious, but are ineffective. This only perpetuates a vicious cycle of weak verbal association knowledge, understanding words in a single isolated context, a shallow understanding that is reliant on short-term memory, at best.When the SAT test more accurately mirrored an IQ test, the assessment used to test knowledge of high frequency words, these same words also appeared in college text books. The idea behind this was that people who already possessed knowledge of words that would be used as tools to acquire further knowledge, and more advanced understanding of highly complex topics, had a statistically higher likelihood of being successful in academic pursuits. This has since changed—the test has changed—because it is unjust to citizens who were raised in poverty and did not have access adequate education. A correlation between low socio-economic class (and many other factors) and low performance on college admissions test was recognized.Most people who choose to pursue vocabulary see it as a means to an end, a necessary and painful pulling of teeth. Many people struggle to understand words in a single isolated context, which contributes to a shallow understanding of high frequency words that appear in top-tier academic publications. The study technique known colloquially as “cramming,” or mass memorization at the last minute, yields unfavorable results; poor verbal association knowledge that is reliant on short-term memory.A great place to start for a prospective student of vocabulary, for the reasons stated above, would be an older book that focuses on older SAT words. Students and non-students need to know these words not just to do well in higher education but also to do well in life. The preparation process for both of the aforementioned things should begin as early as possible, but it is never too late and could be pursued later in life.The conclusions of my research strongly support learning “college level words” first. No one word is more difficult to learn than another. All words are the same, in that they are just symbols that represent a concept or many different concepts: they are signs with a signifier and signified.Some words, however, are used more often than others and their usage is in constant flux. Vocabulary is acquired through repeated exposure to target words and the active use of those words. The words in the book, “Word Smart: Building an Educated Vocabulary,” would serve as a great starting point, because these are high frequency words that appear in standardized tests, news articles, and literary fiction. Word learners should actively try to integrate these words into their everyday speech, in both formal and informal settings, and in as many different contexts as possible. This would obviously entail mistakes in usage in both the context of domestic and professional life. Contrary to the intuition of most people, making mistakes is a positive thing. While many people are “afraid” of misusing a word because it causes embarrassment, it is precisely this “fear” that prevents and limits depth of word understanding. I theorize that, due to evolutionary reasons, a person who incorrectly uses a word, and is subsequently corrected, will be less likely to repeat the same error in the future, will be more likely to integrate the new vocabulary word into long term memory, and will be better off in terms of their vocabulary development than someone who is afraid to take risks. The optimal learning strategy is therefore collaborative, and requires a letting go of the ego. The fear of mispronouncing a new word or making an error with respect to its usage could be ameliorated by using a simple method—telling the truth. One could inform others, “I am trying to increase my vocabulary and depth of word understanding by occasionally using words that I am not 100% comfortable using. I will be doing this by trying to integrate new words into my daily conversations, emails, text messages, and other activities that require word knowledge. If I make a mistake in usage or pronunciation, I would greatly appreciate a correction. This will facilitate my vocabulary acquisition. Thank you for your understanding.”As learning is expedited by linking new information to background knowledge, one should try to associate new words with pictures, scenes, or narrations of past experiences. Making a connection between a new word and a vivid memory from one’s past strengthens the connections between neurons in the brain which, in turn, trains the brain to accept this new word as meaningful, useful, and biologically beneficial. Through repeatedly making the mental connection between the vivid memory when opportunities present themselves to use the new word, the brain begins to permanently store the multiple definitions in long-term memory.It may be the case that when a word is used in a sentence in a dictionary to illustrate meaning in context, that sentence reflects an association, or connection, between an experience in the brain of the author of the dictionary and the target word. This connection may not exist in the mind of a person who looks up a new word in the dictionary, and is, therefore, not very useful. People of different ethnicities, cultures, and socio-economic backgrounds have very different memories and experiences than authors of dictionaries. Even worse, many dictionaries sometimes use the word being defined in the definition.The word “happy” is not much different from the word “elated”; they are similar feelings, but one word describes a greater degree of intensity. Full concept knowledge of “happy” usually occurs for most by the third grade, while the “more advanced” of the two words might not be encountered until high school, and it only has one extra letter. Knowledge of “elated” could translate to a higher score on a standardized test. Full concept knowledge of the word “happy” is a prerequisite to understanding “elated,” but once this knowledge is acquired, it is no more or less difficult to master.When going through the process of prioritizing new words to learn, one must first start with those that have high use value. To reiterate what I have already stated, these are high frequency words that appear in major news publications, academic articles, and literary fiction. The argument is fairly simple: without adequate knowledge of vocabulary as defined above, a citizen will struggle to comprehend news articles, advancements in the academic world, and great literature. A citizen who has an educated vocabulary is better equipped to benefit themselves and also society. Solving the problem of illiteracy is the first step, but it is only the beginning. My methodology is a pragmatic approach to vocabulary acquisition.Recommended Course of Action for the ReaderMy recommendation is a high impact vocabulary intervention. One should select three words per week to master. The goal should be full concept knowledge of all three words at the conclusion of each week by means of 40 exposures to each word in multiple different contexts including speech and writing. These numbers serve as a good starting point, but they could be increased or decreased based on the rate that an individual is capable of processing and acquiring new information. This philosophy builds on the concept of “less is more” from Jen Faulkner’s journal article, “Reducing Vocabulary to Increase Vocabulary.”The first words to be learned using this system should be taken from the “SAT Hit Parade” section of the book “Word Smart: Building and Educated Vocabulary.” All public copies of past SAT tests were scanned through a computer and the most common words that appeared on the exams were then compiled into the “SAT Hit Parade” list found in the book (Robinson, 1993). One should select a cluster of three words that are somehow related, in order to facilitate semantic mapping. This makes relating new words to background knowledge more intuitive. People are capable of storing more information in short-term memory using a technique called chunking. Words should be grouped together and similar words should be learned at the same time. As an example, one week’s theme could be “words that express emotion.” Words that express feelings should be woven into natural conversation. A citizenry that possesses high verbal intelligence will be a less violent society, because there will be less miscommunications and misunderstandings.Sample Passages and Implications for Vocabulary AcquisitionFrom Shakespeare’s Hamlet—Ghost:I am thy father’s spirit,Doom’d for a certain term to walk the night,And for the day confin’d to fast in fires,Till the foul crimes done in my days of natureAre burnt and purg’d away. But that I am forbidTo tell the secrets of my prison-house,I could a tale unfold whose lightest wordWould harrow up they soul, freeze thy young blood,Make thy two eyes like stars start from their spheres,Thy knotted and combined locks to part,And each particular hair to stand an end,Like quills upon the fearful porpentine,But this eternal blazon must not beTo ears of flesh and blood. List, list, O, list!If thou didst ever thy dear father love—Ghost:I find thee apt,And duller shouldst thou be than the fat weedThat roots itself in ease on Lethe wharf,Wouldst thou not sitr in this. Now, Hamlet, hear:‘Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard,A serpent stung me, so the whole ear of DenmarkIs by a forged process of my deathRankly abus’d; but know, thou noble youth,The serpent that did sting thy father’s lifeNow wears his crown.Hamlet:O my prophetic soul! My uncle?Ghost:Ay, that incestuous, that adulterate beast,With witchcraft of his wits, with traitorous gifts—O wicked wit and gifts that have the powerSo to seduce!—won to his shameful lustThe will of my most seeming virtuous queen.O Hamlet, what [a] falling-off was thereFrom me, whose love was of that dignityThat it went hand in hand even with the vowI made to her in marriage, and to declineUpon a wretch whose natural gifts were poorTo those of mine!But virtue, as it never wilol be moved,Though lewdness court it in a shape of heaven,So [lust], though to a radiant angel link’d,Will [sate] itself in a celestial bedAnd prey on garbage.But soft, methinks I scent the morning air,Brief let me be. Sleeping within my orchard,My custom always of the afternoon,Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole,With juice of cursed hebona in a vial,And in the porches of my ears did pourThe leprous distilment, whose effectHold such an enmity with blood of manThat swift as a quicksilver it courses throughThe natural gates and alleys of the body,And with a sudden vigor it doth [posset]And curd, like eager droppings into milk,The thin and wholesome blood. So did it mine,And a most instant tetter bark’d about,Most lazar-like, with vile and loathsome crustAll my smooth body.Thus was I, sleeping, by a brother’s handOf life, of crown, of queen, at once dispatch’d,Cut off even in the blossoms of my sin,Unhous’led, disappointed, unanel’d,No reck’ning made, but sent to my accountWith all my imperfections on my head.O, horrible, O, horrible, most horrible!If thou hast nature in thee, bear it not,Let not the royal bed of Denmark beA couch for luxury and damned incest.But howsomever thou pursues this act,Taint not thy mind, nor let thy soul contriveAgainst thy mother aught. Leave her to heaven,And to those thorns that in her bosom lodgeTo prick and sting her. Fare thee well at once!The glow-worm shows the matin to be near,And gins to pale his uneffectual fire.Adieu, adieu, adieu! Remember me.Hamlet:O all you host of heaven! O earth! What else?And shall I couple hell? O fie, hold, hold, my heart,And you, my sinows, grow not instant old,But bear me [stiffly] up. Remember thee!Ay, thou poor ghost, whiles memory hold a seatIn this distracted globe. Remember thee!Yea, from the table of my memoryI’ll wipe away all trivial fond records,All saws of books, all forms, all pressures pastThat youth and observation copied there,And thy commandement all alone shall liveWithin the book and volume of my brain,Unmix’d with baser matter. Yes, by heaven!O most pernicious woman!O villain, villain, smiling, damned villain!My tables—meet it is I set it downThat one may smile, and smile, and be a villain!At least I am sure it may be so in Denmark.ReferencesAllen, Janet. (1999). Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4-12. York, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers.Baker, S. K., D. C. Simmons, and E. J. Kameenui. 1995a. Vocabulary Acquisition: Curricular and Instructional Implications for Diverse Learners. Technical Report No. 13. University of Oregon: National Center to Improve the Tools for Educators.Faulkner, Julie. (2010). Reducing Vocabulary to Increase Vocabulary: Student-Centered Vocabulary Instruction for Writing that Makes a Difference. English Journal, 113-116.Marzano, R.J. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.Nietzsche, Friedrich. Hollingdale Translation. (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. New York, NY: Penguin Group.Robinson, Adam. (1993). Word Smart: Building an Educated Vocabulary. New York, New York: The Princeton Review.Robinson, Adam. (2012). Word Smart: How to Build a More Educated Vocabulary, 5th Edition. New York, New York: Random House, Inc.Savino, J.A. (2011), The Shakespeare in All of Us: A Monumental, Multitudinous, Premeditated Approach to Vocabulary Instruction. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 54: 445-453. doi: 10.1598/JAAL.54.6.6Smith, C. B. (1997). Vocabulary Instruction and Reading Comprehension. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading English and Communication.Sobolak, Michelle J. (2009) Effects of Amount of Vocabulary Instruction for Low-Socioeconomic Students. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.OMG! You actually read my paper? Thanks! My professor just slapped an “A+” on it and put it in my student mailbox.

My favourite surah in Quran is surah Yusuf(Joseph, Chapter 12).Why?This chapter engrosses the reader on multitude of life experience, emotions, passions, fears, faith and reactions. From carnal desires to piousness, from social structure to political cover-ups, from hatred to unconditional love, from manipulation of principles to unconditional obedience of God, from betrayal to loyalty, from vengeance to forgiveness, from calmness to panic, from servitude to ownership, from helplessness to complete control and many more contrasting human traits, situations and emotions, description of which needs hundreds of pages to fill. I will just give a brief overview of my understanding.(Major courtesy: In the Shade of Quran by Syed Qutb)Let's try to understand this from several perspective.Timing:This entire chapter was revealed to Prophet(s.a.w) when the Prophet(s.a.w) was enduring a time in which he felt lonely and alienated from his social surroundings due to death of his beloved wife(Khadija) and his supportive uncle(Abu Talib) and his followers felt the strains of isolation.With the revelation of this sūrah, God tells His noble Messenger, Muhammad, the story of a noble brother, Yusuf(Joseph).Parallel symbolism and futuristic hints:Across the story one can feel that the artistic narrative has a parallel concurrent situation and an optimistic future projection. The story starts with the dream of prophet Yusuf, which is understood to be a hint of his prophethood. This has a symbolic parallelism with prophet Muhammad(s.a.w) receiving first revealation.Yusuf was betrayed by the people closest to him as brothers and so was beloved prophet(s.a.w) by people who had respected him for 40 years and given him title of Sadiq & Ameen.Yusuf was seperated from his beloved father and his only support in the midst of jealousy and hatred, just the same way Prophet's(s.a.w) only support in form of Abu Talib was no more and Prophet's comforting wife Khadija also left the mortal world, leaving him in the situation which was in stark similarity with Prophet Yusuf.It also carries a subtle hint that the Muslims will be made to leave Makkah to settle somewhere else, where they will enjoy power and achieve victory just the way Yusuf was forced-imprisoned in Egypt but later was made the treasurer. It is true that the migration appeared to be enforced by the long persecution endured by the Muslim community but so was the case with Yusuf who was taken away from his parents to endure a long series of trials and tribulations:“Thus We established Joseph in the land, and We imparted to him some understanding of the real meaning of statements. God always prevails in whatever be His purpose; though most people may not know it.” (Verse 21)Artistic Narrative:Story provides the perfect example of the Islamic method of story-telling while enhancing its psychological and educational effects that aim to reinforce faith and strengthen trust in its line of action. Although Qur’ān maintains the same theme and method of presentation, Joseph’s storystands out as a perfect example of its artistic features. Joseph, the main protagonist, is shown interacting with all aspects of life across a wide variety of situations. His trials, greatly varied in nature and effect, are all fully portrayed with natural human reactions in each case.Other characters in the story are presented with varying degrees of exposure, space and focus. The story in this way reveals profound insight into the human psyche, presenting a variety of situations, feelings, reactions and interactions.One such case is that of Jacob(Yaqoob), a loving father full of sorrow but a reassured prophet who has been granted special knowledge. Another is that of Joseph’s brothers, full of envy, jealousy and personal grudges and devising a wicked scheme, which weighs heavily on them and leaves them weak and confused.Chief Minister’s wife: Driven by sexual desire, unashamedly explicit in her expression, and reflecting the situation in the palaces of Egypt during that period. She is clearly delineated so as to give us an insight into her personal character and how she is influenced by her environment.We also see a sample of the plots that are continually hatched in the upper echelons of society. This is clearly shown in Joseph’s imprisonment.Furthermore, the Chief Minister reflects the attitude of the ruling class in dealing with crimes of honour. The King appears briefly, then moves into the background as does the Chief Minister. All these characters present a multitude of human feelings, attitudes and behaviour that accurately reflect human nature as a whole.Realism:Considering Yusuf's brothers we can see that grudges growing in their heart reaches to a great proportions so as to make them overlook the enormity of their crime. They then come up with a ‘moral justification’ to quieten their consciences."Surely our father is in manifest error. Kill Joseph, or cast himaway in some faraway land, so that you have your father’s attention turned to you alone. After that you will [repent and] be righteous people."(verses 8-9)This justification reflects the reality of their religious environment. We subsequently see them reflecting the same characteristics on every occasion, just as we see one of them always adopting a different stance. Their old grudges manifest themselves again when they tell their father, now an old and sorrowful man, about the second calamity. They realize how this second event will renew all his grief for Joseph."They said: ‘By God, you will continue to remember Joseph until you wither away or until you are dead.’(Verses 85)"Then we have a very special character of the Chief Minister, who has to balance the dignity of his position with the weakness of pride. With him, social pretences and covering up what is unbecoming are essential characteristics: He said: "Joseph, let this pass! And you, woman, ask forgiveness for your sin. You have been seriously at fault." (Verse 29)Character of Prophet Yusuf:We see gradual educative development of character of prophet Yusuf over the time. Despite his high moral standards, conducts and values he is a man with normal human weaknesses. He is eager that the King be informed of his case, hoping that the King would uncover the plot that ended with him being unjustly imprisoned.We see the same personality again after the lapse of several years. During which time Joseph has gone through the divine educative process and has placed his full trust in God, reassured about his future and fate. The King orders that Joseph be brought to him. But Joseph is reassured, confident of his position, refuses to leave prison until his case is properly investigated and he is acquitted.We finally see him at the climax, when the reunion takes place, Joseph is at the height of his power, his dream has come true and all his aspirations have been fulfilled. At this moment, he steps aside to be alone addressing a prayer of complete devotion and full humility. His position of power means nothing to him at that moment: “My Lord, You have given me power and imparted to me some understanding of the real meaning of statements. Originator of the heavens and the earth! You are my guardian in this world and in the life to come. Let me die as one who has surrendered himself to You, and admit me among the righteous.” (Verse 101)Joseph’s character reflects his integrity, consistency and the environment in which he was raised.Morals:Adversities are not permanent. "This too shall pass"Trust, Faith and patience make you ready for the higher echelon in this world and hereafter.You can not be beloved in the sight of Allah unless your patience has been tested.Betrayal sometimes come from the closest of people.Hardship is dearer to the pious than sin.Allah's plans are greater and more-rewarding than your desires. Don't be short sighted so as to overlook his greater plan.Separation from the beloved doesn't always means punishment. If Yusuf would not have been separated from his father, he would never been the treasurer of Egypt.Even in jail, Yusuf's high moral conduct catches the attention of fellow inmates. Don't drop your principles at first sight of trouble.Patience never brings but good.Yusuf trusted Allah when he was in the depth of the dark well with no apparent provision so Allah raised him to the status that same brothers came to his court begging for provision and mercy. That's Allah's plan.Power, wealth and provision didn't add a shred of proud in Yusuf rather it made him more humble and full of gratitude.