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Hitler's Last Soldier in U.S. Surrenders in San Pedro : POW Fled N.M. Camp 40 yrs. AgoAnd also a 2018 December 10th article in the Coloradoan, How Hitler's Last Soldier Evaded The FBI And Ended Up In Colorado.Also see András Toma - Wikipedia, soldier who was taken prisoner by the Red Army in 1945, then discovered living in a Russian psychiatric hospital in 2000. He was probably the last PoW from the Second World War to be repatriated. Others stayed and are living in the remnants of the USSR, as I report in the bottom. While a Hungarian, not German, it still is interesting.Actually the last German soldiers to surrender are still active, alive, and never surrendered individually, although not currently fighting. They are retired and most receive a pension. Technically you could call them last minute deserters as they simply ran away from the Allies. Normally towards last few days, most of them hid in Germany but quite a few going down to South America or other places often via ODESSA - Wikipedia. Usually the more far afield were SS or other persons wanted by the Allies for investigation or outright prosecution.Hundreds of thousands simply melted into the population, some even becoming a Nazi postwar Werwolf - Wikipedia , causing ‘tens of millions of dollars of property damage at a time when the European economies were in an already desperate state, and they were responsible for the killing of thousands of people.[38]’ (Joseph Dedrick posted a very credible disputing of this, so lets call this hearsay and let others see his link. I had thought the ‘thousands’ of deaths were significantly possible with sabotage involving food or disrupted dispensing medical care. The werewolves were feeble at best. It was just that Europe at that time was also feeble.)I have read of several such accounts involving people of the non violent kind. Most were nobodies. If I recall correctly, one mainline Kissinger biography stated that in post 1945 Occupied Germany he was dating a girlfriend of just such a person. The boyfriend approved of the good ‘cover’ as lover of the head of commandant of the Bensheim (Kissinger). Or was that another biography of post WWII? I forget.One of the last group surrenders was the German submarine U-977 - Wikipedia in August 17, 1945 in Argentina apparently after discovering the war had ended some months previously. They faced British Admiralty charges and inquiry of landing Nazi leaders on the coast to escape. Hitler, himself, was part of some of the rumors, as well as a secret trip to Antarctica, with Nazi hell creatures.Oh no? Well, one of more outlandish politicians, Vice President Richard Mentor Johnson - Wikipedia (1837–1841) sponsored legislation in the Senate to send an expedition to the center of the Earth via the North Pole, so why not Antarctica (the legislation was defeated). https://time.com/4314491/americas-worst-vice-presidents/?WW2 ESCAPED POWS,HARRY GIRTH GERMAN POW WHO ESCAPED FORT DIX POW CAMP,GEORG GAERTNER GERMAN POW WHO ESCAPED DEMING NEW MEXICO POW CAMP,WERNER PAUL LUECK GERMAN POW WHO ESCAPED LAS CRUCES NEW MEXICO POW CAMP,KURT RICHARD WESTPHAL GERMAN POW WHO ESCAPED BASTROP LOUISIANA POW CAMP,KURT ROSSMEISL GERMAN POW WHO ESCAPED CAMP BUTNER NORTH CAROLINA POW CAMP - Magazine Article - Old Magazine Articles——————————————————-http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/ww2_Esapees-pdfWhich states as of May 16, 1953 (pg. 20 Colliers) there were still 5 escaped PoW running around, the last two discovered a) 1964 in Germany with Kurt Richard Westphal (who knows when he left the US?) Actually, the other site said 1954, not 1964. Also “Growing tired of being on the run and looking over his shoulder, Rossmeisl finally turned himself in on May 10, 1959, some fourteen years after the end of the war.” b) Georg Gartner, who surrendered in 1985. This was out of about 3,000 which had escaped, most for only one day, and most probably before VE Day.Considering that probably 40,000 of these 450,000 sent to the US quickly died in the USSR doing ‘reparations’ after being sent back to their “home city”. (Many hometowns by then were transferred to Poland, Czechoslovakia, or USSR, so dumped in East Germany and immediately sent to Russia like those whose homes were in said DDR.)These Germans previously surrendered but later escaped from the POW camp, especially after V-E day when they found out any who had listed home addresses in the Soviet Occupied areas would be sent there. (The fear turned out to be warranted, as they were normally bundled off for 5–10 years servitude in the Soviet Union, often in the farthest and coldest regions with not good survival rates. Soviet and French bureaucrats much preferred America or Canadian held POW’s as they were well fattened up and would give much more steady work, unlike the skeletal and disease prone regulars before VE Day.)Some of these cases are amazing. For example at German WWII POWs Who Escaped, Reinhold Pabel went under the barbed wire on September 10, 1945 in Illinois, during a distraction of a real fight between two PoWs. The tower guard was egging it on, while another guard was trying to break it up. Before you know it, Pabel was on the highway just outside of the gate in his civies prepared for the event. There was only a single (three tiered) barbed wire fence surrounding the place.The FBI helped him by way of a March 1943 article on “How the FBI catches PoW escapes”. He pulled the article out of the magazine and put it in his shoe to devour every word. It said 3 things: Don’t tell anyone in camp of the plans; Have some money so not to beg at farmlands, and talk as little as possible.Of course he went to Chicago. The next morning he had a dish washing job. Quickly getting a social security card after only 10 days after the escape, and getting a drivers license and what turned out to be a manager’s job at a bookstore in half a year. Then on May Day (1st of May) 1948 he set up his own bookstore named the Chicago Book Mart, finding a niche at the other job. It specialized in old, out-of-print books.Oddly, at least three times the camps he was ‘guest’ of placed orders at the first bookstore he worked at. One soldier [from the military installation he was formerly punished for insubordination] said ‘Say, haven’t I seen you before?’ “Soldier, what do I look like girl?” and said something to further confuse. Whew, that was a close one. Another time some one from Germany sent him in big red letters REINHOLD PABEL, a former student who had not got the word to use the new pseudonym of Philip Brick. Nothing came of it, despite his name in all the post offices.Then a short impish 18 year old with eyeglasses bothered him with demands for Science Fiction (a fad, he said). She said she would be back, and was the next day. He forgot to charge her the second time, and she kept on coming every day. In the end it got so bad he ended up putting her on the night shift while he went out on dates, then ended up marrying her.“If someone had a questionable residency status, would you still marry him?”“Sure Dopey, I’ll marry you. I would have to be pretty naive to believe that story of being a Dutch war refugee after all the hints of a dark past. I’ll go where every you go, whether your name is Brick [his alias] or Stumphoogle. I don’t care about technicalities, and know you did nothing wrong. Let’s kiss.”So Miss Melander became Mrs. Brick for a while, until the the love triangle of FBI came a year later, which forced a change to Pabel. Luckily the G-Men allowed a phone call to be placed home just a few minutes before a flood of pushy reporters arrived demanding to know if she was going to annul the marriage. Plus she was in her best clothes, as it was her birthday, initially angrily expecting him to be on time for the night out, which worked out well for the TV and photo shoots to the wee hours of the night. It was still wartime, this being the Korean.He was #7 to the last left in the US, other than Gartner who we will be getting to, when caught in 1953, having a son by that point and a daughter on the way. His many friends and neighbors offer legal and financial assistance. A US Senator Paul Douglas - Wikipedia got in the works, which helped greatly when a settlement was reached to voluntarily leave and then apply to come back, without prejudice. Also two of commissioned officers who fought him Battle of the Volturno Line, 9-19 October 1943 testified on his behalf of very fair treatment when he, a sergeant, briefly captured one of them in no man’s land, engaging in a short agreement about Hitler.The legal tangle was weird. “It was a truly crazy case: Pabel was accused of entering the USA illegally, but in fact he had entered it legally as a POW! The law was on Pabel’s side, but the Feds weren’t willing to let an escaped POW get away with it. They settled on a compromise: Pabel went back to Germany for six months to go through the formality of the waiting period, then was permitted to re-enter the USA legally.”Interactive Storytelling Tools for WritersAnther problem, the IRS disallowed his claim of a 1952 deduction for his son and wife (since he was not a proper resident), and would not let him leave until he paid. One side of the government was forcing him to leave by an agreed upon date, and the other was forcing him not to leave. Finally, pressure by the good Senator let him go a couple of days to spare, with the agreement that Pabel would pay the tax men by installments after returning.Returned to Germany that government, eager to curry favor with the US and UK (the occupation was still going on and Hamburg was British) or just bullying, said they were arresting him for embarrassing the government or some such nonsense. Pabel threatened to tell the army of newspaper reporters greeting him at the dock, and they quickly dropped that idea.He first stayed with his family and set up a bookstore in Hamburg for a year, then returning to the US for a decade, then back to Hamburg. He wrote a book in 1955 “ENEMIES ARE HUMAN by Reinhold Pabel | Kirkus Reviews” about the adventures, and a surprisingly philosophical tome about how propaganda exists in America, too, but the faults are not so critical.“In war he was ingenious at goldbricking; in peace he comfortably settled down to a career as book dealer, husband and father. “ His first book was finished in 1939–40, about a trek to the Mount Athos - Wikipedia Monastery near the 1938 Munich Crisis.——————————————Usually they were found and processed out (to return if married in the US, as was often the case, especially when with children issue). One stood out, Georg Gärtner - Wikipedia , who in 1985 ‘ "surrendered" to Bryant Gumbel on the Today Show. He effectively became the last World War II German prisoner of war in America.[2] ‘Georg was on the FBI most wanted list for 40 years. As you can see, a terrible person of the most dangerous kind in Colorado. Ok, ha, ha, ha, just kidding.Here he was 8 years ago in South Denver, Colorado. He also got his picture into Life Magazine January 1952 when leading a rescue group to a train stuck Sierra Nevada mountain snow blizzard drifts, despite having his wanted photo in all the post offices. In the FBI most wanted section, he liked to look at his picture, the only one he had available of himself as a younger man. I think they took him off the FBI_Ten_Most_Wanted_Fugitives list about 1960, stating a probable death. The last other of the 15 unaccounted post WWII escapees in the US PoW system was discovered in West Germany (by then a merchant seaman named Curt Richard Westfall) in 1964.His book says he stayed in the US til publication, written in 1985, which was sad as his parents passed by that time. Call it intuition, but his mother never believed he was dead and waited for his return.Here is a video about Georg Gartner’s life in America and eventual giving up. Well, they took it off of youtube. It is about 60 minutes long, and talked about the identity crisis he had after going back to Germany, eventually returning to the . Here is a temporary replacement:He finally gave up when his wife threatened to go to the cops, thinking Georg must be a criminal (e.g. absolutely refusing to get a passport for visiting overseas). His hippie step-daughter as a late teen thought of him as ‘a total square’ about the same time a fellow Afrika Corps officer recognized him after playing a game of tennis together (about a half mile from my home about then too). ‘I never forget a face.’ Georg stopped playing there.A few miles away, he also had a tennis championship with Herb Caen - Wikipedia and he being doubles on the winning team. This is significant because Caen, of Jewish heritage, had recently written a newspaper column specifically calling for Gartner to be found and prosecuted fully by the FBI. He of course did not recognize the sports partner to be one in the same, a total disconnect.(Actors Lloyd Bridges - Wikipedia also played tennis with him, and actor Robert Stack - Wikipedia who played Untouchables, about the FBI, etc. was a pal, partner in parties in his circa 1950 days.)Also of note, another video on Georg Gartner (the escaped PoW). You will have to turn on the subtitles if you do not understand French.The last official PoW of the European Axis to be identified seems to have been Andras Toma, returned to Hungary in the year 2000 András Toma - Wikipedia. He was found in a Russian psychiatric hospital (as reportedly have been American PoWs as recently as the 1980’s).“on 11 August 2000 Toma arrived back to Hungary where his family was identified with the help of DNA investigation. Toma was promoted to sergeant major by the Minister of Defense, and since his service was continuous, his salary was paid.““As he never learned Russian and nobody at the hospital spoke Hungarian, he had apparently not had a single conversation in over 50 years” This speaks volumes for the quality of psychiatric care in the Soviet Union, as well as the 10 years of Russian (CIS) administration. Were it an obscure language the situation might be more understandable, but with 10 million people and Russian units occupying the country until 1991 the case is very odd. Perhaps psychiatric care was of very little regard back then, except when a dissident was exiled in the wards. (Still is: Russia targets dissidents with punitive psychiatry)————————————————————Honorable mention of the Axis was the Jānis Pīnups - Wikipedia , one of the Forest Brothers - Wikipedia who hid from 1944 to the mid 1950’s, plus 1940–1942. Forest Brothers forced Soviet trucks to have escorts in some parts of the Baltic States still after a dozen years of warfare. Janis surfaced in 1995, the final one known to ‘give up’, though he personally was in reality a Soviet deserter from 1944.Forest Brothers manning a postBenediktas Mikulis - Wikipedia in 1971 was the last real partisan known to give up in 1971 — captured by authorities about a decade later, yet ‘individual guerrillas are known to have remained in hiding and evaded capture into the 1980s.’Mikulis ‘Benediktas Mikulis was Lithuanian Forest Brothers partisan who fought for almost 30 years; for the first time during the Nazi period, and later during the Soviet period. The family Mikulis lived in a village Prazariškės . Benediktas Mikulis hid in the basement in a little room under the potatoes. Stopping hiding in 1971, the Soviet police discovered him in the 1980s which led to imprisonment. Mikulis blamed an informing neighbor for the arrest.’Most of the partisans apparently only fought against the Soviets, but some were of both and probably a few were communist cells underground in the Nazi period, though rural people tended not to be communist and the rule was quite harsh. Not only were the Baltic communists usually urban, usually in WWII the best partisans, the also were usually Jewish. There were communist partisans got the word soon enough that only some would make the cut into the Soviet system, but most were sent to the gulag.Very few Jews survived the holocaust and Nazi period while still living inside the former Baltic republics; if any, those that did had no place to hide, and those that did were of course on the Allied side. Communists fled east, and were almost entirely urban people.And so the Forest Brothers almost always local Balt (Estonian/Latvian/Lithuanian) farmers only a few miles from friends and family, living under the sandy clay soil, in a way like the VC did in the Vietnam War. A few were Balts who were from outside the area or even cities. Some Balts were in German units, even a few ethnic German soliders apparently (the ethnic Germans were forced out in 1940 via the Soviets, as per the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact - Wikipedia).“One account of the typical actions of the Forest Brothers is provided by Talrids Krastiņš. A reconnaissance soldier in the 19th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Latvian), he was recruited with 15 other Latvians into a Nazi stay-behind unit at the close of the war. Escaping to the forest, the group avoided all contact with local residents and relatives, robbing trucks for money and maintaining an apartment in the center of Riga for reconnaissance and operations. At first they operated by assassinating low-level Communist party managers, but later focused their efforts on attempting to kill the head of the Latvian SSR, Vilis Lācis. The group recruited a Russian woman working at the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian SSR who informed them about Lācis' transportation schedule.”‘Pranas Končius (code name Adomas) was the last Lithuanian anti-Soviet resistance fighter, killed in action by Soviet forces on July 6, 1965 (some sources indicate he shot himself in order to avoid capture on July 13).’(From the Wiki Forest Brothers entry on Latvia)These survival rates were despite the mass slaughter of many thousands of freedom fighters and spies due to traitors Kim Philby and the other “Cambridge 5″ who in the early 1950’s funneled all available information at the highest M-6 level to the KGB, who normally were able to quickly exterminate or occasionally turn those Baltic, Polish and Eastern European contacts.Operation Jungle - Wikipedia———————————————————Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II - Wikipedia similarly had a guerrilla movement against the Soviets post WWII, though it was not really part of the Axis at any point except in occupation and in fact was taken over by Hungary in a one to three day war after the March 15th independence in 1939. Many were likely drafted into the Hungarian Army, though, and fought afterwards with the weapons taken from that group when retreating in late 1944.“political participation former collaborationist Hungarians, Germans, and the Russophile Ruthenian followers of Andrej Brody and the Fencik Party (who had collaborated with the Hungarians). This amounted to approximately one-third of the population. Another one-third was communist, leaving one-third of the population presumably sympathetic to the Czechoslovak Republic.”About 1950, entire divisions of Soviet troops resorted to linking hands (with their guns behind their backs, as is a fashion, I guess) and walking across the entire country. This effectively ended the resistance. There was no mass areas of damp, sandy soil to which one could dig and foil the dogs, very unlike the Baltics.Finally, there were a few PoWs still alive in the country taken to as of 1991 (USSR). They can go home now, but as their ‘new’ families are in Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, and one of whom had lost the capacity to speak his native language (as ‘Dennis Whiles/Georg Gärtner” forgot German), they chose not to, just like Dennis ended up doing.Now that that entity of the Soviet Union broke apart, the living ones personally known of are: Tetsuro Ahiko is the last remaining Japanese POW living in Kazakhstan, as of last year: Japanese man held by Soviets in Kazakhstan after WWII brings message of peace to Tokyo | The Japan TimesToshimasa Meguro, “a 77-year-old former POW, was permitted to visit Japan as late as in 1998. He served 8 years of labor camps and after the release was ordered to stay in Siberia.” (no death noted in web search.)Ishinosuke Uwano - Wikipedia “He subsequently married a Ukrainian woman and settled in Kiev” Wiki suggests he is still alive.Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union - Wikipedia93 y.o. Japanese Soldier Found Alive in the Ukraine!?Japan's Blossoms Soothe a P.O.W. Lost in Siberia

The most important Japanese visitor to Europe prior to 1623 was a samurai, Hasekura Tsunenaga (支倉常長), who from 1613–20 travelled eastwards via the Americas, in an attempt to further develop diplomatic relations with Spain and Rome.Tsunenaga’s visit to the West was important, because it occurred at a time when relations between Japan and the European powers was being strained, due to the persecution of Christians under Tokugawa rule (1600–1868). Aside from the fact that it also occurred shortly prior to Japan’s self imposed isolationism in the early 17th century, the Tsunenaga Embassy was then the island nation’s largest recorded visit of its kind, and would not be followed up for a period of nearly 250 years by the time that the “First Japanese Embassy to Europe” (第１回遣欧使節) was carried out in 1862.A portrait of Hasekura Tsunenaga by French Baroque painter Claude Deruet during the samurai’s visit to Rome (1615):The Tensho Embassy (1582–90): First Japanese Trip to EuropeWhilst historic both due to its size and importance, it should be noted that Tsunenaga’s Keichō Embassy (慶長使節) was not Japan’s first diplomatic mission to Europe. Rather it was both a successor to and inspired by previous efforts committed under the Tenshō Embassy (天正の使節), which had been launched from 1580–82 based also on religious undertones.Swayed by the arguments of Alessandro Valignano, a Jesuit priest who was particularly determined to bridge the cultural gap between East and West, three Christian daimyōs by the name of Arima Harunobu (有馬 晴信), Ōtomo Sōrin (大友 宗麟) and Ōmura Sumitada (大村 純忠) eventually resolved to sponsor what would become the first Japanese embassy to the Western world. A Japanese nobleman, Mancio Itō (伊東マンショ) was meanwhile chosen by the daimyos to act as the mission spokesperson and thus also the de facto leader of the embassy whilst in Europe.Together with three other noblemen, Miguel Chijiwa (千々石 ミゲル), Julião Nakaura (中浦 ジュリアン) and Martinho Hara (原 マルチノ) in addition to Valignano himself, two servants and the group’s interpreter Diego de Mesquita, the Tensho Embassy headed by Mancio Ito departed Nagasaki on February 20th 1582 and headed west to the Indian subcontinent, visiting Portuguese controlled territories such as Macau, Kochi and Goa along the way. Unfortunately upon arrival at the latter settlement, Valignano was forced to abandon the Embassy due to the emergence of new administrative responsibilities (as he was head of the Jesuit Order in Asia). What remained of the group meanwhile continued on their way to Lisbon, where they finally arrived in August 1584, exactly two and a half years post their departure from Japan.An artist’s impression of Lisbon, capital of the Portuguese Empire (1415–1999) in 1600 where the Tensho Embassy first reached on their European mission:From Lisbon, the Tensho Embassy made its way to Madrid, visiting the cities of Talavera de la Reina and Toledo on their way to the Court of Phillip II, king of both Portugal and the Spanish Empire (1492–1975) at that time. Whilst in Spain, Mancio Ito and his retinue had the opportunity to also visit El Escorial monastery, the University of Alcalá, and the cities of Murcia and Alicante.Since neither Spain nor Portugal were the main focus of the Embassy however, the group quickly left Madrid and headed for Rome instead where their true prize lay: Pope Gregory XIII. For this had always been the main objective of the Embassy as envisioned by its original architect, Alessandro Valignano, who as mentioned prior had had an agenda since day one of the Embassy’s European trip, the agenda in question being for lack of better words “cross- cultural awareness”. It was a topic he was particularly devoted to, having previously experienced racism first hand on part of both Japanese and European alike.The latter for example was a particularly frequent sight when he first arrived in Japan. At that time, the Jesuit Order had made significant progress in terms of proselytizing the Japanese, but alas it had come at a terrible cost. Putting it lightly, the Europeans showed little care for Japanese culture and often denigrated it whilst trying to make a case for the merits of Christian teachings. Valignano noticed this, and soon personally made a written complaint in regards to the conduct of his colleagues who as he described had a tendency to:“…regard Japanese customs invariably as abnormal and to speak disparagingly of them. When I first came to Japan, ours (the crowd usually follows the leader), showed no care to learn Japanese customs, but at recreation and on other occasions were continually carping on them, arguing against them, and expressing their preference for our own ways to the great chagrin and disgust of the Japanese.”An artist’s impression of Alessandro Valignano - chief architect of the Tensho Embassy:Plans for a Japanese visit to the Western world, were thus based on resolving these misconceptions in part.The Jesuits as Valignano perceived it were operating out of their depths, and if Christianity were ever to succeed in Japan then this was a problem that had to be addressed even before setting foot on the island itself. Following on from this logic, it was decided that the best course of action then was to bring a select few Japanese individuals to the West, and have them converse with the secular and ecclesial authorities of Europe. If all things worked according to plan, the Europeans would be able to better grasp the intricacies of Japanese culture, and thus avoid any unwanted hurdles in their future interactions with the island nation.In addition to cross cultural awareness, Valignano’s hope was that the presence of the Japanese in Europe would also prove and confirm 30 years worth of Jesuit writings on Japan to be genuine, as opposed to a mere “fabrication” as the Order’s rivals had previously claimed.But it was the last reason for the Embassy’s trip that was perhaps the most important of them all: to impress upon the Japanese visitors the glory and grandeur of the Catholic faith, the majesty of the European rulers who had embraced it, the richness and splendour of the continent’s kingdoms and cities, and the honour and authority that Catholicism enjoyed throughout the Western world. Both as a Catholic priest and as a man who knew the importance of cultural understanding, Fr. Valignano of course placed huge emphasis on this last objective in particular.For like how the Europeans knew little on Japan, the Japanese likewise knew little of Europe outside of stereotypes and misconceptions. The average Japanese of the late 16th century, believed that missionaries were essentially “losers” in their own countries, who because they had failed at home, had to go overseas to even succeed at life, whereby “succeed” in this context meant to make their fortunes under the pretext of religious conversion. In defence of the Japanese however, they were not just basing this perception on the imagination, but rather because most Jesuits indeed tended to live in luxury (little did they know however, this was intentional).Anyways, to counter such a negative perception in addition to healing the “great disunion and aversion” that existed between the Jesuits and their native irmãos (brothers), Valignano thought it mandatory that a few intelligent, young Japanese of noble stock should see for themselves the reality of Europe, or rather what the priest intended for them to see. In order to further secure the effectiveness of the mission, Valignano decided against selecting adults for the mission (as they were deemed too opinionated and thus less easy to influence), and opted for a group of previously mentioned 14 year old youths instead.The 14 year old Japanese envoys in question and their Portuguese interpreter as portrayed by a European impression (1586) - Top: Julião Nakaura, Fr. Mesquita, Mancio Itō; Bottom: Martinho Hara, Miguel Chijiwa:Now Valignano had originally intended to lead the Embassy to Europe, but alas this was not to be. Instead, upon arriving in India he was ordered by the Jesuit superior-general to stand down.Disheartened, he accepted the decision and instead transferred authority over the Tensho Embassy to Nuno Rodrigues, the rector of the Jesuit college in Goa, to whom he also entrusted personal responsibility for the wellbeing of the four boys, in addition to a series of documents concerning the future of the Japan missions. Whilst disappointed, he did remain confident that the presence of the Japanese boys would win over the affections of Europe however, as they were a “carta viva” (embodiment) of what the Jesuits had been long about claiming about Japanese civilization as a wealthy and sophisticated society wholly worthy of Western respect.And to that extent, Valignano was correct - the boys did not disappoint. In just two years, the four youths managed to impress upon all of Europe a more faithful image of Japanese society than had previously been perceived. The Tensho Embassy was widely received with open arms all over the continent, and ultimately met with Phillip II (then arguably Europe’s most powerful monarch) in addition to two Roman pontiffs, Gregory XIII and Sixtus V. All throughout Portugal, Spain and Italy in fact the Tensho Embassy was received by many of the most important social, political and ecclesial figures of late 16th century Europe, not least amongst which was Francesco I de’ Medici, Duke of Tuscany.Such was the European reception of the Tensho Embassy in fact, that the original plan by Valignano for a low profile and almost secretive visit was flatly ignored by Pope Gregory XIII, who instead opted to receive the boys in Rome in an open consistory with “pomp and public honour”. Although it should be noted however, that this was also because the Pope wanted to show Protestant Europe how far the “glory of the Holy Roman Church which you persecute” extended. As for Valignano himself, the priest reacted with utmost elation, for the Tensho Embassy’s trip had been received far better than he could have ever hoped for.An artist’s impression of the Tensho Embassy meeting with Pope Gregory XIII (1585):Then with their mission complete, the Embassy left Rome and departed for Lisbon where they made preparations for the long journey home. Come April 13, 1586 the Tensho Embassy departed for Nagasaki where they arrived nearly four years later on July 21, 1590 amidst a hero’s welcome. For when they had just departed, the four Japanese boys had been just that, boys. But now, they returned as men, stronger, wiser and matured from the long and arduous trip there and back again. But of course, this was not the only thing that had changed, for the Embassy as Valignano originally planned was successful in more than one way.To that extent, it did not just enlighten the West on the true image of Japan, but also succeeded in showcasing the grandeur of Catholic Europe to the four Japanese youths. And being mere boys, they were easily influenced and impressed by what they saw. How magnificent it all was they thought, Spain, Portugal and Italy - the likes. Such glory and splendour that they had never glimpsed, how did this come to be and was it possible to learn this power? Then came the answer - as Valignano had always intended - per the Catholic faith. Of course. Europe’s prosperity was only possible because they had God on their side the men believed. And so based on this logic, they all elected to become Christians.In this way, the four noblemen had essentially undergone a role reversal. For whereas before in Europe, dressed in Japanese clothing they were representing their country, now they were home, dressed in European clothing given to them by the Pope, and representing the Catholic West. In the words of Valignano himself who by this time had rejoined the group in Japan, they had become “so Portuguese-like and accustomed to our world” that they appeared like Europeans much to the surprise of their Japanese brethren. Valignano, knowing that this new found faith of the noblemen’s was too precious to waste, spared no time in showing them off to important Japanese figures.Relishing their roles as teachers, the new converts were only too enthusiastic to describe their travels to their countrymen, using both the spoken word in addition to a series of treasures that they had brought back from Europe with them, including a map of the world, a European map (the first ever) of Japan, a printing press which would go on to print the island nation’s first book, an astrolabe, musical instruments, and a series of Western texts including cartographer Abraham Ortelis’s “Theatrum Orbis Terrarum”. Inspired by the great importance of this undertaking, all four noblemen eventually elected to heed their calling and fulfill their destinies by becoming Jesuit priests.A monument to the four boys of the Tensho Embassy, depicted in European clothing:After overcoming their respective obstacles, the men were finally admitted into the Society of Jesus on the Feast of St. James (July 25, 1591). And it was possibly the worst mistake of their lives. Ever. For an anti-Christian regime headed by the famous Toyotomi Hideyoshi (豊臣 秀吉), then lorded over a recently unified Japan in 1591. On the premise that the Catholics were hostile to Japanese culture, that they enslaved Japanese citizens and that they were also growing too influential, Toyotomi cracked down hard on Christianity. In 1597, a serious edict aimed at the prohibition of the Roman faith was propagated and Christians left and right were ruthlessly hunted down by Japanese authorities.Out of the four original converts, only three - Nakaura, Hara and Ito - would ultimately stay true to the Christian faith, Miguel Chijiwa meanwhile apostatized and renounced Catholicism in favour of his Japanese identity. The state persecution of Christians then intensified under the succeeding Tokugawa Shogunate placing added strain on the health of the Japanese converts.This still did not diminish the spirit of the converts however, who elected to remain Christians in spite of increasing persecution such, that by September 1608 they even took the next step by being ordained properly as Jesuit priests. But no man could escape death forever, and eventually Juliao Nakaura was arrested in 1632, tortured and ultimately martyred the following year. Mancio Ito and Martinho Hara were more fortunate however, and died peacefully in 1612 and 1639 respectively. The apostasizer Miguel Chijiwa meanwhile, died in 1633. Thus ended the last vestiges of the Tensho Embassy.This was not however the end for Japanese relations with Europe, which would eventually continue with a follow up embassy - the Keicho Embassy - as headed by the previously aforementioned samurai Hasekura Tsunenaga. This next trip to Europe whilst successor to the Tensho Embassy and thus similar in its aims, was more centered around fixing religious relations with the Catholic West rather than improving it through the rebuttal of cross-cultural misconceptions, as Japan was of course by this time during the early 1600s embroiled in great controversy over the persecution of Christians.Even so, the Tensho Embassy was a great success for Japanese-European relations at the time, as planned by Alessandro Valignano. The trip was more than successful, and lived up to its intentions to encourage East and West alike to not only shed their mutual prejudices for one another, but also to instead engage and build rapport in a manner that would produce what he called a “union of minds”. This initial success only made it all the more tragic in hindsight, when all efforts at diplomatic engagement eventually failed, and Japan isolated itself from the rest of the world despite the best efforts of all keen to see greater engagement.The Keicho Embassy (1613–20): Second Japanese Trip to EuropeCome 1609, in the midst of heavy Christian persecution a Spanish Manila galleon titled the San Francisco, found itself shipwrecked on the Japanese coast near what is today Tokyo.After the survivors were rescued, the ship’s captain, Rodrigo de Vivero met with Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川家康) the shogun of Japan, where the former was able to impress the latter with stories of his life as former interim governor of the Philippines.So impressed with de Vivero was the shogun, that even before the conversation had ended he relented over Japan’s increasingly isolationist attitudes, and eventually agreed to a number of demands made by the captain on November 29, 1609 via the signing of a treaty which provided for Spanish rights to establish a factory in eastern Japan, to import mining specialists from New Spain (Mexico), to allow Spanish vessels to visit the island nation in emergencies, but most importantly of all, for a Japanese embassy to be sent unto Spain itself, in order to negotiate a trade treaty with New Spain.Several months later, a Franciscan priest named Luis Sotelo who was proselytizing in the area around Tokyo, convinced the shogun to let him represent Japanese interests in Spain. This was a problem for Captain de Vivero however, who while had agreed to sail the Japanese to New Spain, insisted on another Franciscan instead, Alonso Muños - a man he could trust - to serve as Tokugawa’s representative. Compelled to comply, the shogun agreed to let Munos represent him on their journey across the Pacific instead. An Englishman called William Adams meanwhile built the vessel that de Vivero was to helm, and called it the San Buena Ventura, where it was finished some time in 1610.Afterwards, Captain de Vivero, Fr. Munos and 22 Japanese representatives boarded the San Buena Ventura and set sail for New Spain. Upon their arrival, Fr. Munos met with Viceroy Luis de Velasco who heeded the pleas of the Franciscan and responded by authorizing the renowned Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno to represent the interests of New Spain to the Tokugawa Shogunate. And this, by the following year Vizcaino managed to do, meeting with a plethora of daimyos in addition to the shogun himself.However as fate would have it, the Japanese were ultimately not impressed by this representative of New Spain. They believed him to be rude and disrespectful of Japanese customs for one, but also because by this point they had fallen prey somewhat to the influence of the Protestant Dutch, who managed to further play on preexisting Japanese fears of Catholicism, in addition to stressing the imperialistic ambitions of the Spanish. And so naturally, Vizcaino reaped failure in his mission.A map of the mighty Spanish Empire in 1600:Unwilling to wait for the arrival of Vizcaino to Japanese shores in the meantime, Fr. Sotelo managed to convince Tokugawa a second time to let him represent Japanese interests in New Spain, and again the shogun relented. Another ship to that extent, the San Sebastian was constructed and it left for New Spain on September 9, 1612, this time with Sotelo himself on board. The objective was the same as before: to secure a trade agreement with New Spain. Unfortunately, the ship had barely even left southeastern Japan before the vessel foundered and the expedition subsequently abandoned.Following the failures of the Vizcaino and Sotelo, Tokugawa had a new Western style galleon built which was intended to be stronger and better in every way than its two predecessors. For this time around, the Japanese were not just going to New Spain but to Europe also in order to discuss ongoing religious tensions with the Pope in Rome. And this meant that the ship would have to accompany many people - 180 to be exact - comprised of samurai, priests, traders, and servants in addition to the crew itself. The ship in question (and eventually even the Embassy project as a whole) was given over to the charge of Date Masamune (伊達政宗), the daimyo of Sendai Domain (仙台藩) who oversaw the construction of the galleon.The ship took 45 days to build, and no less 800 shipwrights, 700 smiths and 3,000 carpenters worked on it throughout the 1.5 months it took to finish. The 3 masted ship was christened the San Juan Bautista, and truly it was a remarkable vessel. For it measured 55.35 metres in length, 11.25 metres in width at the widest point, 3.8 metres in draught, came attached with an armament of 16 cannons and displaced a total 508 tonnes. With a means of transportation now fixed, all that was left was to choose the members of the Japanese Embassy to Europe itself, and this was where our hero Hasekura Tsunenaga comes into the picture at last.A replica of the San Juan Bautista - or Date Maru (伊達丸) as it was known to the Japanese - in Ishinomaki city today:Based on the premise that Tsunenaga was his loyal retainer (ie. a man he could trust), the daimyo in charge of the Keicho Embassy Date Masamune, naturally selected the samurai to head the Japanese delegation whilst they were in New Spain and Europe, and gave him both his blessing and his authority. And it was so.On October 28, 1613, Hasekura Tsunenaga, Luis Toledo, Sebastian Vizcaino and 177 other men set sail across the Pacific Ocean for New Spain. The San Juan Bautista landed in what is today California state, and then continue to along the coast to arrive in Acapulco on January 25, 1614 after three months at sea. The Japanese were received cordially by New Spain, but at this time physical confrontations also broke out amongst some of the Spanish and Japanese men on board the vessel, due to trivial disagreements on how gifts from the shogun were to be handled. Notably, Vizcaino himself was stabbed and received a flesh wound.Hoping to restore peace, New Spain ordered on March 5th that the Japanese be treated properly on Mexican soil:“The Japanese should not be submitted to attacks in this Land, but they should remit their weapons until their departure, except for Hasekura Tsunenaga and eight of his retinue ... The Japanese will be free to go where they want, and should be treated properly. They should not be abused in words or actions. They will be free to sell their goods. These orders have been promulgated to the Spanish, the Indians, the Mulattos, the Mestizos, and the Blacks, and those who don't respect them will be punished.”Whilst staying in Acapulco, Tsunenaga met with Viceroy Diego Fernández de Córdoba where he explained to him that he was also planning to meet King Phillip III, in order to offer him peace and to obtain from the monarch a treaty which would allow Japan to trade with New Spain in peace.Meanwhile, inspired by all that they had seen as had once also occurred to the members of the Tensho Embassy, many of the Japanese delegates decided to become Christians during the Embassy’s forays into New Spain. Consequentially, 20 Japanese were baptized on April 9th, with an additional 22 more on April 20th by the archbishop. Five days later, a total of 63 Japanese delegates were then confirmed into the Catholic Church. Whilst wholly sympathetic to Christianity himself, Tsunenaga decided to postpone his baptism until they reached Europe.After this, the Keicho Embassy entered Mexico City on March 24th, where they were once again greeted cordially. Again, Tsunenaga met with Spanish officials and offered free trade between Japan and New Spain. Additionally, he also requested as per the demands of his master Masamune, that the Spanish send several missionaries to Japan (as Masamune was fairly sympathetic to the Christian cause). Quite notably, he also offered to secure a deal which would expel the English and Dutch from Japan, since he knew that both nations were enemies to the Spanish Crown.Then when this was done, the Embassy journeyed to Veracruz in order to board the fleet of Don Antonio Oquendo. Whilst passing through New Spain, an Aztec noble by the name of Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin made some observations on the purpose of the Keicho Embassy itself, noting especially the religious nature of the delegation:“It became known here in Mexico and was said that the reason their ruler the Emperor of Japan sent this said lordly emissary and ambassador here, is to go in Rome to see the Holy Father Paul V, and to give him their obedience concerning the holy church, so that all the Japanese want to become Christians.”An artist’s impression of Mexico City in 1628 several years after the Keicho Embassy’s visit:The majority of the Keicho Embassy being comprised of merchants, ultimately opted to either return to Japan, or to stay in New Spain to trade whilst awaiting Tsunenaga on his return trip to Mexico. Either way, it was only a mere fraction of the original 180 men that continued onwards to Europe. From there, the Embassy travelled to Cuba where they arrived in July and stayed six days in Havana, before swapping ships and continuing on to Europe.Having traversed the Atlantic, the Keicho Embassy then arrived in Europe on October 5, 1614 and disembarked at the city of Sanlúcar de Barrameda. An eyewitness account describes the subsequent arrival of the Japanese in Seville as follows:“The Japanese ambassador Hasekura Rokuemon, sent by Joate Masamune, king of Boju, entered Seville on Wednesday, 23 October 1614. He was accompanied by 30 Japanese with blades, their captain of the guard, and 12 bowmen and halberdiers with painted lances and blades of ceremony. The captain of the guard was Christian and was called Don Thomas, the son of a Japanese martyr.”From there, the Embassy then met with Phillip III in Madrid on January 30, 1615. The Embassy’s head gave the Spanish crown a letter from his master, and made clear Japanese intentions for a trade agreement. The king responded to the Embassy’s requests by maintaining that he would do what he could to appease Imperial wishes.In the meantime, true to his intentions Tsunenaga resolved to be baptized, and on February 17th, was christened by the Crown’s personal chaplain as “Felipe Francisco Hasekura”. As per Catholic tradition which stipulated a godparent for any Catholic convert, Hasekura chose the Duke of Lerma to be his godfather.An artist’s impression of Felipe Hasekura in prayer after his conversion to Christianity (1615):Afterwards, the Embassy set sail for the Italian peninsular abroad three Spanish frigates. Due to poor weather however, they were forced to divert to Saint-Tropez, a town on the French Rivera for several days, where they were warmly received by the charming locals. In this way, the sudden change in plans had brought the Japanese Embassy into contact with France for the first time in its history, leading to the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries shortly thereafter.Taking note of the Keicho Embassy, the French recorded the Japanese visit in the city’s chronicles, and attributed its leadership to “Philip Francis Faxicura, Ambassador to the Pope, from Date Masamunni, King of Woxu in Japan.” In addition to this, several other minor details about the foreign visitors were also noted by the French, inclusive to Japanese dining habits for instance:“They never touch food with their fingers, but instead use two small sticks that they hold with three fingers.”…as well as their hygiene:“They blow their noses in soft silky papers the size of a hand, which they never use twice, so that they throw them on the ground after usage, and they were delighted to see our people around them precipitate themselves to pick them up.”…and even the quality of Japanese swords:“Their swords cut so well that they can cut a soft paper just by putting it on the edge and by blowing on it.”An impression of the Japanese ambassador from the German edition of the “History of the Kingdom of Woxu” (1615):Departing Saint-Tropez, the Keicho Embassy eventually made its way to Rome where Tsunenaga, Fr. Toledo and 15 other delegates arrived in November 1615 to a warm reception by Pope Paul V. As per the wishes of both his daimyo and shogun, the ambassador remitted two golden framed letters to His Holiness, one of which was in Japanese and the other of which was in Latin. The letters as per the main objectives of the Embassy contained a request for a trade agreement between Japan and New Spain, in addition to a plea for Christian missionaries to be sent to the island nation.The Latin letter - which most experts agree was probably written by Fr. Toledo himself on behalf of Data Masamune - read as follows:“Kissing the Holy feet of the Great, Universal, Most Holy Lord of The Entire World, Pope Paul, in profound submission and reverence, I, Idate Masamune, King of Wōshū in the Empire of Japan, suppliantly say:The Franciscan Padre Luis Sotelo came to our country to spread the faith of God. On that occasion, I learnt about this faith and desired to become a Christian, but I still haven't accomplished this desire due to some small issues. However, in order to encourage my subjects to become Christians, I wish that you send missionaries of the Franciscan church. I guarantee that you will be able to build a church and that your missionaries will be protected. I also wish that you select and send a bishop as well.Because of that, I have sent one of my samurai, Hasekura Rokuemon, as my representative to accompany Luis Sotelo across the seas to Rome, to give you a stamp of obedience and to kiss your feet. Further, as our country and Nueva España are neighbouring countries, could you intervene so that we can discuss with the King of Spain, for the benefit of dispatching missionaries across the seas.”The letter in Latin as written by Date Masamune, and addressed to Paul V (1613) as currently kept at the Vatican today:His Holiness agreed to dispatch missionaries to Japan, but declined to weigh in on whether Spain should sign a trade agreement with the Japanese. That being a secular decision, was left to the King of Spain to weigh in on instead, a decision which Phillip III at this that point had still not come to a decision on as of yet.In the meantime, the authorities of Rome had just moved to make Tsunenaga an official nobleman and citizen of Rome, having been pleased with his conduct whilst visiting the Pope. As proof of his citizenship, the Papal authorities gifted him a title which can be seen as follows, dedicated under the name “Faxecura Rokuyemon” (and can still be seen in Sendai today):Aside from the official intentions of the Keicho Embassy, there had also been contemporary evidence from the early 1600s to support the idea of a Papal alliance with Date Masamune, in order to eventually establish Christian influence throughout the entirety of Japan (Masamune was of Imperial ancestry, and thus potentially in line for the throne). The strongest proponent for such a theory was a letter from the Venetian ambassador at the time, which was written on November 7th, 1615 and read as follows:“The Franciscan Spanish fathers are explaining that the King of the Ambassador will soon become the supreme ruler of his country, and that, not only will they become Christians and follow the will of the church of Rome, but they will also in turn convert the rest of the population. This is why they are requesting the dispatch of a high ecclesiastic together with the missionaries. Because of this, many people have been doubting the true purpose of the embassy, and are wondering if they are not looking for some other benefit.”Whatever the case was, the time for the Embassy’s stay in Rome soon quickly came to an end, and before long they were off again, this time back to Spain in order to hear the verdict of King Phillip III on the prospects of a trade agreement between Japan and Spain. And so come April 1616, the Keicho Embassy reached Madrid and were received at the Court of the Spanish Crown. Alas, it was bad news however, and Phillip III announced that he no longer had any intentions to establish trade with Japan.The rationale he gave for this decision, was on the grounds that the Keicho Embassy did not appear to be an official one which was endorsed by Tokugawa himself, who in stark contrast to the pro-Christian attitudes of the delegates had just recently passed an edict two years prior in January 1614, which ordered the the expulsion of all missionaries from Japan thereby accelerating persecution of Christians. And as the defender of the faith, this was not an action which neither the King nor Spain for that matter were willing to tolerate.And thus it was: just like that, their mission had suddenly concluded. And in failure at that. Years and years of efforts, of careful dialogue, of strategic decision making. Trashed. Gone. Greatly disheartened by this failure, the Keicho Embassy opted to return home after merely three years abroad.A copy of the official response from Phillip III to Data Masamune (the letter had a friendly tone and asks for the support of the Christian faith in Japan, but deliberately left out the possibility of a trading relationship, even despite the fact that that was the sole reason the Keicho Embassy had come to Spain in the first place):Prior to the Embassy’s departure from Spain however, a group of no less than six samurai elected to remain behind in the town of Coria del Río, where they eventually married and lived out the rest of their days far from home. Their descendants can still be found in Coria to this day, as identified by the surname “Japón”, which first appeared in official records as far back as 1646. And as of 2003, it was found that approximately 650 out of the 24,000 residents of the town, had this surname.Then finally, after this was done the Keicho Embassy departed Europe for good in June 1616. Setting sail for New Spain, it took the failed Embassy nearly 5 months worth of retracing their steps, before Tsunenaga and his retinue arrived in Acapulco, where the San Juan Bautista had been wating for their return for several months, after a second across the Pacific Ocean from Japan to North America. Helmed by Captain Yokozawa Shōgen (横沢将監) who was also loyal to Date Masamune, the vessel was laden with fine pepper and quality lacquerware from Kyoto, which quickly sold out on the Mexican market.In order to avoid too much New Spanish silver leaving Mexico, the Crown requested that the Viceroy ask the Japanese to spend their resulting revenue, exclusively on Mexican goods with the exception of an amount totalling to 12,000 pesos, and an additional 8,000’s worth in silver of which Hasekura and Yokozawa respectively were allowed to bring back with them to Japan. Then with this done, the Keicho Embassy picked up the merchants who had originally decided to stay and trade in New Spain on their journey to the New World, and set sail on the San Juan Bautista for the Philippines.The Keicho Embassy arrived in the Philippines as intended the following year, in April 1618, with Ambassador Tsunenaga and Father Soleto on board. There, they sold the San Juan Bautista to Spanish authorities with the intention to strengthen defences agianst the Dutch and English hostilities both. In Manila, the archbishop described the ultimate exchange of the vessel in July 28 of the following year:“The Governor was extremely friendly with the Japanese, and provided them with his protection. As they had many expensive things to buy, they decided to lend their ship. The ship was immediately furbished for combat. The Governor eventually bought the ship, because it turned out that it was of excellent and sturdy construction, and available ships were dramatically few. In favour of your Majesty, the price paid was reasonable.”Whilst disembarked in the Philippines, Tsunenaga purchased a plethora of goods for his daimyo, before constructing another ship for the return journey home as he explained to his son in a letter he wrote to him. Then with that done, he set sail for Japan at last and finally arrived in Nagasaki sometime around August 1620.The aforementioned letter in question, which was written by the ambassador to his son in Japan, during Hasekura Tsunenaga’s stay in the Philippines:Alas, by the time that he returned home, it seemed as though Japan was no longer recognizable as it had once been when he departed from it, a mere eight years prior.Case in point an extreme effort launched with the intention to completely purge Christianity from Japanese shores, had been underway since 1614, a fact which was only exacerbated by the death of Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1616, in addition to the shogun’s subsequent replacement by far his more xenophobic son, Tokugawa Hidetada (徳川 秀忠). As for Japan itself, there were few silver linings here as well. For whereas previously the Japanese had at least been tolerant of emergency visits by foreign vessels, now they were moving towards the infamous Sakoku (鎖国) or “closed country” policy of nationwide isolationism. The time for all things foreign in Japan, was finally over it seemed.Even so, Tsunenaga still had a mission to complete and so journeyed onwards home to Sendai, where he intended to report on his travels to Date Masamune. Upon being received by his daimyo, Tsunenaga remitted a portrait of Pope Paul V to Date, in addition to presenting him with a set of Indonesia and Ceylonese (Sri Lankan) daggers that he had acquired from his time in the Philippines. The “Records of the House of Masamune” briefly reported an official reaction of the Japanese to Tsunenaga’s findings:“Rokuemon went to the country of the Southern Barbarians, he paid his respects to the king Paolo, he stayed there for several years, and now he sailed back from Luzon. He brought paintings of the king of the Southern Barbarians, and a painting of himself, which he remitted. Many of his descriptions of the Southern Barbarian countries, and the meaning of Rokuemon's declarations were surprising and extraordinary.”The Ceylonese and Indonesian daggers in question that Tsunenaga presented to his master, having acquired them from the Philippines:Now, few know exactly what instigated the following reaction, but merely two days after Tsunenaga returned to Sendai, the practice of Christianity was suddenly outlawed by Data Masamune, as a letter written by a Jesuit priest details in November 1620:“Two days after the return of Rokuemon to Sendai, a three-point edict against the Christians was promulgated: first, that all Christians were ordered to abandon their faith, in accordance with the rule of the shōgun, and for those who did not, they would be exiled if they were nobles, and killed if they were citizens, peasants or servants. Second, that a reward would be given for the denunciation of hidden Christians. Third that propagators of the Christian faith should leave the Sendai fief, or else, abandon their religion.”In hindsight, it has been suggested that the surprising indictment of Christianity in Sendai, after years of tolerance and reception came about as a result of a possible recount by Tsunenaga on the greatness and might of Western countries and the Christian religion. Then there was the secretive factor of the Embassy whilst in Rome, which raised the possibility for an alliance between the Papal States and Sendai Domain, with the intention for the former to use the latter as a de facto base of operations for proselytizing all of Japan. Understandably, the daimyo of Sendai was not too enthusiastic about sharing his power with foreign entities.It has also been suggested that the ultimate decision of the Spanish Crown to not enter in a trade agreement with Japan, based purely on the premise that they were persecuting Christians did little to warm Date up to the continuation of warmth towards the alien ideology.Whatever the case may be, Date opted to suddenly distance himself from the teachings of the Catholic Church. And merely 40 days later, Christians were already being martyred in Sendai for their faith. It should be noted however, that the measures taken by Date to quell the spread of Christianity were merely mild relative to other areas of Japan, as both Japanese and Western Christians repeatedly claimed that he only took them to appease the xenophobic shogun:“Date Masumune, out of fear of the shōgun, ordered the persecution of Christianity in his territory, and created several martyrs.”Supporting this idea, is the fact that around the time that Christians were first being executed in Sendai, Date wrote a letter to the shogun in which he makes a very clear effort to evade responsibility for the embassy, explaining in detail how it was organized with the approval, and even the collaboration, of Tokugawa:“When I sent a ship to the Southern Barbarian countries several years ago, upon the advice of Mukai Shōgen , I also dispatched the Southern Barbarian named Sotelo, who had resided for several years in Edo. At that time, your highness also gave messages for the Southern Barbarians, as well as presents, such as folding screens and sets of armour.”From a practical point of view, the Japanese fear of a “Christian invasion” was not exactly unjustified though. The mighty Spanish Empire was merely hundreds of kilometres away from the island at any given time in the Philippines for instance, and worse yet still, they had a record of invading or even planing to annex entire nations merely in order to spread Christianity.Towards the late 1500s, the Spanish had even seriously considered conquering the entirety of China’s Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) - Asia’s sole and undisputed superpower - using only 30,000 men. From this point of view, the Japanese had much to fear in regards to the Christian West. In fact, it was most likely due in no small part to this fear that the Japanese quickly severed economic ties with Spain in 1623, and then finally diplomatic relations the following year.A map of East Asia as originally composed for Ming China by Jesuit Matteo Ricci in 1602:Little is known about the ultimate fate of the former Japanese ambassador to Europe after Christianity was outlawed in Sendai, but based on hearsay, certain rumours eventually arose claiming that Tsunenaga had renounced the faith. Some meanwhile maintained that he was martyred in the name of Christ, and other yet still assert that he lived out the rest of his days as a “Hidden Christian” (隠れキリシタン). In any case, few knew the true fate of the Christian convert, forcing European Christians based even in Asia to rely on hearsay.With that said though, since Tsunenaga’s servants and even descendants were later confirmed to be executed for being Christians (after absolutely refusing to recant their faith, post being subjected to various tortures such as “reverse hanging” (釣殺し)), there is a strong case to make for the ambassador’s enduring faith even in the face of persecution and death. It’s not certain of course since they could have just converted, but it was likelier that he raised up his son to be Catholic, who in turn passed down the faith throughout the succeeding generations.Father Sotelo who came back to Japan with Tsunenaga was meanwhile arrested by the Japanese authorities in 1624, and subsequently burnt at the stake. Shortly before his death however, he managed to give one final written praise of Hasekura Tsunenaga as a hero of Christendom who defended and propagated the Good News thereby fulfilling the work of the “Great Commission”:“My other colleague, the ambassador Philippus Faxecura, after he reached his aforementioned king, was greatly honored by him, and sent to his own estate, to rest after such a long and tiring journey, where he made his wife, children, servants, and many other vassals into Christians, and advised other nobles who were his kith and kin to accept the faith, which they indeed did.While he was engaged in these and other pious works, a full year after his return, having provided much instruction and a great example, with much preparation, he piously passed on, leaving for his children by a special inheritance the propagation of the faith in his estate, and the protection of the religious in that kingdom.The King and all the nobles were greatly saddened by his passing, but especially the Christians and Religious, who knew very well the virtue and religious zeal of this man. This is what I heard by letters from the very Religious who administered the sacraments to him, and who had been present at his death, as well as from others.”An artist’s impression of Hasekura Tsunenaga conversing with friend and colleague, Luis Sotelo of the Order of Friars Minor (Franciscans):In the end, Hasekura Tsunenaga passed away from illness in 1622. The whereabouts of his grave are not currently known for sure. Thus ended the last remnants of the Keicho Embassy in this way. And what an ignoble shame it all was.For in the beginning, it was with optimism and honour that the Keicho Embassy was sent forth unto Europe to reap the great rewards of international fraternization. The trip itself well and good, which saw the reception of many a great tales and deeds inclusive to the donning of Roman citizenship onto Tsunenaga in addition to the exchange of pleasantries amongst lords and men, alas, only for all of it to ultimately collapse into an abyss of unfufilled ambitions and hopes and dreams in the end.This therein lay the great tragedy of Japan during the early 17th century, a country which had much to offer the world, but the world heeded it not. So too was the contrary thus, the world had much to offer Japan, but the Japanese heeded it not.And so begun a dark period of isolationism in Japanese history therefore.Conclusion and Additional InformationDramatic nonsense aside, the two embassies - Tensho and Keicho - indeed shared many similarities, but the most common factor was the influence of religion, specifically Christianity as one would have observed by now.But the greatest difference between the two was that the former was a success, whereas the latter failed. Both arose out of a desire to improve relations with Europe, but the Tensho Embassy focused specifically on bridging the cultural gap between East and West via the shattering of many mutual stereotypes, whilst the Keicho Embassy was centered around economic and religious ties.Both were important and unprecedented for their time, and both offer a unique glimpse of what a non-isolationist Japan may have continued to look like, had they not followed through with their Sakoku policy starting from 1623 onwards. But alas, history cannot be changed despite it being 20/20 in hindsight, and we are left irrespective with a version of events whereby the island nation was closed off to the rest of the world until well into the 19th century. And even when Japan did eventually open itself up to the world again, it made sure not to repeat the mistakes of the past thereby accepting European science and technology, whilst rejecting the true pillars of Western civilization: Christianity.Still let it not be forgotten that both the Tensho and Keicho Embassies were only made possible in no small part due to Christianity. And whilst we’re on that topic, the first ever visit by a Japanese individual to Europe by one “Bernado the Japanese” (鹿児島のベルナルド) - who I did not cover for this answer - was also based on the efforts of Christianity. In that particular case, Bernardo, an early Japanese convert to the faith and first of his countrymen to ever set foot in Europe accompanied the famous St. Francis Xavier to the West, in order to “see the Christian religion in all its majesty”, so that he could share his experience when he returned to Japan.At all points therefore, it was Christianity which served as the bridge between East and West during the Early Modern Era. Of this, one can be sure.Alessandro Valignano - WikipediaMonument to the Tensho Boys Mission to EuropeTenshō embassy - WikipediaThe Japanese Embassy to Europe (1582–90)San Juan Bautista (ship) - WikipediaChristianity in JapanHistory of the Catholic Church in Japan - WikipediaHasekura Tsunenaga and His TravelsJapan: Hasekura Tsunenaga, leader of the Keicho Embassy from Japan to EuropeSpain and Japan celebrate 400 years of exchanges | ASEF culture360Circling The Waters: The Keichō Embassy and Japanese-Spanish Relations in the Early Seventeenth CenturyJapan–Spain relations - WikipediaFrance–Japan relations - WikipediaFrom Japan to Civitavecchia: Hasekura Tsunenaga's tripBernardo the Japanese - Wikipedia

I’ve bought a house exactly once, and that was about 15 years ago, as of this writing. I am not a real estate agent or anything like that. However, since many of the answers here so far seem to me to be either biased or incomplete, or both, I’ll take a stab at this, from a buyer’s point of view. Please do your own research, and consult a professional for guidance specific to your needs and to your area.Also, I live in that part of California known as Silicon Valley. If you’re somewhere else, and especially if you are in some other country, you will have different rules, climate, and market forces, so keep that in mind, and please take the time to learn about your own.Start learning, way ahead of timeThis answer is not the only place to do that, and probably a partial table of contents, at best.The process of learning about home ownership should start from the moment you consider owning a house, and should continue as long as you own it. For most people, a house is their largest single investment. It’s kind of a peculiar savings vehicle. You live in it. (I don’t know anyone who lives in a money market account.) Also, it is a large, illiquid asset, meaning it’s relatively hard to get the money out of it.Your local public library should be a good source of relatively unbiased information. Please visit it. When my husband and I bought this house, we checked out something like 10 books (they were all free!) on home-buying and home ownership. We each took a stack of them and dug through them in search of specific stuff we still needed or wanted to know. Even though it wasn’t the only way we learned, I wish we’d given ourselves more time for that exercise than the night before we decided to make an offer. Either way, I’m glad we did it.In the U.S. the nice folks at Nolo Press have produced some excellent guides on exactly this sort of subject, including expert advice on what you can reasonably accomplish yourself, and when you should consult a professional. Whether you borrow from your library or invest in your own copy, I highly recommend them.Start saving money and building creditSaving money and building good credit are good things to do whether or not you ever buy a house. Your savings could save you down the road in high-interest debt that you don’t have to take on, or simply provide the comfort of knowing you can weather a job loss should you need to. If you do decide to take out a loan for some other reason (such as to purchase a car), you’ll get a much better deal on it if you have good credit. Even insurers, prospective landlords, and employers may check your credit at various times.There’s lots written on this subject already, here on Quora [What are the best ways to save money?, What's the best way to save for a down payment?] and elsewhere around the web. If you’re new to personal finance, go visit your library or start looking around online for good advice about that, too. (Here again, the details also vary by country.) I’ll reiterate a few of the things you should be doing.Earn more, if you can. Maybe that means asking for a raise, or getting some additional training or education. Maybe that means shopping your resume around, or taking a side job.Get a credit card, use it moderately, and pay it off in full each month. That’s the balance, not the minimum payment.Keep current on your utility payments and any credit card or loan payments you are making.Pay down debt, particularly any with a high interest rate. Avoid taking on new debt.Check your credit score once per year (for free, online) and correct/report any errors. In between, read your credit card statements and be on the lookout for charges you didn’t make.Spend less. You know best what that means to you. Go for the big things first, especially recurring expenses. Shop around your insurance. Share your space with a roommate or family member. Use public transit, ride a bike, or keep an older car in good repair.Set aside money toward your down payment. One tactic which works for a lot of people is called “pay yourself first.” It simply means setting aside your savings in a separate account, before you spend it. If your pay arrives by direct deposit, you should be able to automate it so part gets deposited in your savings upon arrival.Get your spouse/significant other on board.Do the exercise about renting vs. buyingThere are calculators online to help you run the numbers based on home prices, mortgage rates, and rental rates in your area, and how long you expect to stay.Keep in mind, too, that you’re likely to be in charge of all the maintenance on a place you own. Are you the sort who picks up the phone to install a towel rod or assemble a kit bookcase? Or are you willing to try laying your own tile or pouring a concrete patio? You can own a home either way, but the balance of money and time will be different.Don’t omit tax consequences, including mortgage interest deduction and property taxes. Also, what used to be having a roommate pay his/her share of the rent will look to you like income when you’re the landlord.Get to know the areaIf you’re new to an area, or even just new to an intended city or neighborhood, it’s wise to rent there for awhile, at least six months to a year. You will learn which directions commute traffic gets hairy on weekday mornings. You will learn which are the good neighborhoods and the good schools, and which are perhaps up-and-coming neighborhoods or areas to shy away from. You will know if there are noisy parties Saturday nights near the university or incessant construction on an area that’s being built or rebuilt. You will learn where transit is, and isn’t, what is under the approach for an airport, and whether the trains go all night.Also be on the lookout for cultural mismatches. I certainly don’t advocate for racial or cultural homogeneity, but there are places I wouldn’t fit in and be comfortable. (I’m an atheist, a liberal, and enthusiastically frugal. I’d welcome being proved wrong, but I doubt I’d feel very much at home in Redneck, USA, or that I’d satisfy any group of neighbors who demanded tasteful makeup and a fancy, late-model car or two in every driveway, alongside the manicured lawn. Such places exist.)Start attending open houses. There are a whole bunch of reasons to do this, even if you think you may be a few years out from buying.You’ll get to know about typical housing prices, along with trends in your area. This is helpful for spotting good deals, and also for spotting not-so-good deals.You’ll learn your own tastes, along with how to look at a house. Start making a wish list of things you want (mine included stairs, and a pantry) and things you don’t want (mine included a swimming pool and homeowner’s association). If you later work with a real estate agent, such a list will help them to narrow your search.You’ll meet real estate agents in your area. Time permitting (yours and theirs), pick their brains. Ask your questions about buying houses and about the local market. How long do most listings here stay on the market? Do they sell for more or less than the asking price? What is your best advice for [first-time homeowners/families with children/etc.]? How difficult or costly is it to fix or remodel a particular thing? What are typical closing costs like? You will be learning (there’s that word again!) as well as shopping for a real estate agent who might be a good fit for you. If you find a promising one, take a card or flyer. They’ll be glad to hear from you, even if it’ll be a while before you contact them.Figure out your budgetBy this point, you should have some idea of your regular expenses. You should have some idea of your savings rate, and whether you’ll try to put a full 20% down (to avoid primary mortgage insurance, or PMI). You should have no trouble finding online tools about how much loans cost per month, how much loan they say you can afford, and so on. Assuming you cease to pay rent shortly after you buy, figure out how much house you can afford, and how much you can afford comfortably.If you can, don’t drain your bank accounts to the bottom. You’ll probably need money early on to buy appliances and furnishings, and there are up-front costs associated with buying a house. Plus, you will need to eat, and make those first few house payments.Note that I haven’t yet said “get a real estate agent.” You can if you want, but at this stage I’d do at least a basic budget without their help. If you’d like to get help from a real estate agent at this point, ask what typical fees and closing costs look like. Ask for help figuring your annual property taxes, or estimating your PMI if you won’t be putting 20% down. You might still prefer to keep data like your income private.Choose a real estate agentNothing requires you to work with a real estate agent, but it’s a pretty good idea, especially if you can find one you really trust, and especially if it’s your first time buying. Real estate agents have experience completing the big, messy transaction that is buying a house. They also have access to listings and showings which you, as a mere member of the general public, may not.Your real estate agent has a built-in conflict of interest. It’s weird, and almost nobody talks about it, but it’s true. Your real estate agent works on commission, and that commission is paid by the seller.It looks like this. For the sake of round numbers, say the sale price of the house is $100,000. Typically, both the seller’s agent and the buyer’s agent each get 3%.So you, the buyer, pay the $100,000 to the seller. Out of that money, the seller then pays $3,000 to her own agent, and $3,000 to yours. That means your agent gets paid more if you buy a costlier house.Most of the time, this is not an issue, largely because your agent gets paid only if you actually buy a house. However, it does mean two things.Choose an agent whom you really trust as a person, to give you good advice and work hard with you. Not because she talks a big talk or he wears a nice tie.Ultimately, you need to be the one looking out for your own interests.If you didn’t meet someone at an open house who really impressed you, or if you’d like others to choose from, ask around for referrals from neighbors, coworkers, or others who have bought in your area recently. Ask about their experiences, but also sit down with the person yourself and see what they’re like, and if they’re someone you can work with.The rest of this stuff could happen pretty quickly, especially in a hot market, so brace yourself, and be prepared to act decisively when the time comes. This is where all that learning should pay off, in confidence and very probably in money.Get pre-approved for a loanYou should be able to do this readily online, these days. It helps to send a message to a seller that your offer is likely to result in a sale.One caveat: don’t overdo it, and don’t drag out the process too long. Too many credit inquiries in close succession can lower your credit score. You should be able to shop around a little and get pre-approved without running into too much trouble.Choose a houseThere’s all sorts of advice out there about this one, too. Obviously, it’s a big decision, and one you’ll be living with for awhile. If you still have, or can now make, a wish list, it will help your agent to know what to look for and narrow down which ones to show you. It will also help keep you on track.You might spend some time considering how important it is to you to have any given item on the list. If you don’t want a swimming pool, but you otherwise love a house which comes with one, is that a deal-breaker, or would you be willing to give it a chance, or deal with removing it and filling it in? Share this with your agent, too.Use all you’ve learned about the area, about housing, and about yourself, to inform your choice.When you find the house, or you think you have narrowed it down, arrange to see the house more than once. Tour it again and look more thoroughly. Go by it in the evening and sit outside for awhile. Listen to the neighborhood, and notice what it’s like at that time of day. Go by on a Saturday and talk to some prospective future neighbors.Make an offerYour agent, if you choose to have one, will handle the communication at this point, and will help to prepare the correspondence. Your offer may well include details to “sell” yourself to the seller as a qualified, responsible buyer: you’re a nice, young [person/couple] starting out. You are approved for the loan already. You have so and so much money to put as a down payment.As further proof that you’re serious about buying the house, your offer will come with Earnest Money, basically a deposit. If your offer is accepted, earnest money counts toward the down payment on the house.If you’re offering lower than the asking price, you may state why. The stated reason should probably not be “because we can’t afford more right now.” It might be that the house has been on the market for awhile and hasn’t sold, or that the condition is not great.If you are in a particularly hot market (such as occurs cyclically in Silicon Valley), you may have to offer above the asking price, and you may have to be prepared to make the offer very quickly.Your agent should be able to help with strategy here, as well: knowing what price is or isn’t likely to fly, making your offer letter so it is convincing. Even choosing a not-so-round number to make the price look more specific or intentional.There may also be contingencies in the offer: the offer is good, provided the house passes inspections or certain deficiencies are repaired. (Some of these are built into laws with home sales.) If inspections find that something is really wrong with the house, you may also get your earnest money, or most of it, back.For you, the most important part of making an offer is to be prepared to pay what you say you are offering.Evaluate a counteroffer (maybe)At this point, the buyers should reply to you, either with acceptance of your offer, or with a counteroffer. In our case, they accepted our offer (somewhat lower than asking; it was a different market here than it is today), on the condition that we take the house “as-is.” We accepted, which meant we shouldered the cost for some required termite work, and took on a whole assortment of cleaning and minor repair work ourselves.If the sellers ask for a higher price, you’ll need to choose whether to pay that price. Again, your agent should help with the correspondence and can probably help with advice and strategy.Wait for a couple of months, get inspections, get your loan, and sign a sh**load of paperworkYour agent should help you with keeping on track and organized through the escrow period and process, but at some point, you’ll need to put in some time, too, and understand enough to look out for yourself. This section is incomplete, at best, so treat it as a starting point on what sorts of things to look out for, not necessarily a complete list or the order in which to do them. (Once again, I did this once, and I’m not a professional in any related field.) Oh, and keep asking questions.Get your loan, or at least lock in your rates. The final loan paperwork may come later in the process.Get inspections done. Read and understand them, and correct major problems, or make sure the sellers do.Connect with a title company. Title companies handle a mess of the paperwork involved in selling houses, making sure the money goes where it should, doing a title search to make sure there are no other owners or outstanding claims on the house, and making sure that your transaction proceeds correctly, and even that everyone involved is who they say they are. They’ll also take care of making sure your agents get their cut.Pay your down payment. It will probably go via the title company, and it will very likely be the largest single check you write in your lifetime. Someone should tell you in advance if it needs to be a cashier’s check or other special thing.Line up your home insurance. It’s probably going to be required by your loan and/or the title company.Pay loan fees, closing costs, and any partial share of property taxes.Figure out how you will take title to the house, especially if you are buying it with a spouse or partner. The details (which vary by state) are way beyond the scope of this answer, but they’re worth figuring out. It will matter again if you ever separate or divorce, or when either of you dies. You may also want to have another look, in the company of a lawyer who knows this stuff, at any prenuptial agreement, trust, or other property or estate-planning document you have (or should have).You may have hundreds of pages to sign before you’re done. One thing to remember is to always sign your name the way it is printed on the document: Johnathan Philip Smith, John Philip Smith, Johnathan P. Smith, etc. (If they’ve botched something and put Jason instead of John, you should probably send it back to be corrected—and be extra alert for other errors.)Give your landlord notice that you’ll be leaving. If you can afford a partial month of extra rent, you may want to allow at least a little overlap, so your move isn’t too rushed, and so that you don’t have to move to a storage unit and hotel, and back, if it takes the previous owners longer than expected to move out. (Having accepted the “as-is” counteroffer, we had a lot of cleaning and painting to do upon arrival. I was glad to stay in my old apartment for another couple of weeks while we got the first rooms habitable. We also moved a lot of our stuff one carload at a time, over the course of those weeks.)Get moving!With some luck, and some work, you should receive the key at the end of about two months of escrow. This part of the process is probably familiar to you already: hauling your belongings from the old home to the new one, settling in and finding your new life (it’s in a box here somewhere; I’m sure I packed it…), and changing your address with every institution known to man. (Don’t forget the DMV, the IRS, and the Registrar of Voters.)This is a good time to automate your mortgage payment and set reminders for stuff like insurance and property taxes.Then, settle in, enjoy your new home, and set about making it your own.