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In the 16th century, Russia was not a Great Power of the sort we’d expect on a global scale, however, this period of time was an extremely important phase in its history as it marks its slow ascendancy into become a major and massive European power.Firstly, I would be skeptical of labeling Tsarist Russia as an ‘Eastern European’ power. Russia was massive as it is, but it was during this period, as Ivan the Terrible became its first Tsar in 1547, Russia’s borders were expanded a great deal and it became a continental state. Even today, there is no consensus as to whether Russia is a European or Asian power and thus people largely refer to it in its own term of ‘Eurasia’.This map shows you how the landmass of Russia expanded between the 1500s and 1700s. All the light green area to the right was expanded upon by conquest, largely as a result of the formation of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great in 1721 and later the further expansion and dominance by Catherine the Great.So, in the early 1500s, Russia wasn’t really a major world power. The 1500s was the peak of the age of exploration, the new world was still being discovered and India (the real one) had been discovered by Vasco da Gama in the final few years of the 15th century. Russia, being a largely continental power, was nowhere to be seen in the exploration, and was instead focusing on consolidating its regional rule.Europe.There is an unofficial and general consensus that in the 1500s, the Spanish empire was the strongest European power. Spain had a very powerful navy, and they had been trendsetters in the business of seafaring, exploration, discovering new land and establishing colonies, largely in South and Central America, and the Caribbeans. Although many speak for the British as well, who, admittedly, had a strong navy, I personally feel that it wasn’t until the colonization of India in the mid 1700s that the British really became the powerhouse for the next two centuries to come.This map of the Spanish empire should give you some idea of their extent at this point. Thus, I think its fair to say that the 16th century was largely dominated by the Spanish, and to some extent by the Portuguese as well.2. The Middle-East.Needless to say, it is generally considered that the 16th century is considered to be the zenith of prosperity for the Ottoman empire. At its peak it included what is modern day Turkey, Egypt, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Hungary, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, parts of Arabia and much of the coastal strip of North Africa.This was the period that Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) and his grandson Selim II (1566–1574) ruled, and the former was one of the richest rulers in the entire world at that point.The Ottomans were a highly centralized empire. There was a state run education and judicial system, and they had a high degree of unity stemming from a common Islamic origin. The only reason I wouldn’t expand too much on this empire is swiftly after their defeat in the Battle of Lepanto (1571), the empire began declining and would continue to decline for the next three centuries before being totally finished off during the Balkan Wars and the First World War.3. South AsiaIf we move to the Indian subcontinent, this was the period of the rise of Akbar, the third and arguably the greatest of the Mughal Emperors. Akbar was the grandfather of Shah Jahan (who had the Taj Mahal built). Under Akbar’s reign, the Turkish originating Mughal dynasty became more entrenched as a legitimate ruler of the northern Indian subcontinent, and less as invaders as they had previously been looked as. Akbar ushered in a golden age of internal prosperity, introduced new taxation systems, adopted more secular laws, abolished unfair and oppressive taxes and expanded the frontiers of the Mughal empire in India.It was largely due to his later ancestors being so weak that the empire was fractured and British and other colonial forces found it easier to invade and occupy parts of India.4. East Asia.It has been said that for 18 of the last 20 centuries, China has been the strongest, or at least one of the strongest nations economically and often militarily. It was only in the 19th and 20th centuries, with the spate of defeats at the hands of Western Imperial powers in the Opium Wars and the humiliating defeat and massacre of 300000 Chinese in the invasion of Manchuria by the Japanese in the 1930s, that China fell from prominence and is only now reemerging as a major world power.China’s leaders don’t see themselves as ‘rising’ but rather ‘re-rising’. Their rise is an attempt to regain their former glory and dominant position in the Eastern hemisphere. Indeed, Chinese scholars and philosophers have been traveling to different parts of the world for centuries before European scholars did. China led some of the first naval expeditions across the world (though unlike the Spanish and British, they never bothered colonizing the weaker nations they found).This map shows the extent of a Chinese diplomats travels across the globe, to India, Persia, Arabia and to the Horn of Africa on the West, and north to Mongolia and Russia and Japan, as well as south to what are today the Southeast Asian nations. China had a strong and stable economy that has largely remained the strongest or at least one of the strongest for centuries.If you see this graph you can see that from 1AD to about the early 19th century China consistently ranked among the top of these great powers in terms of GDP, but after the early 1800s they fell drastically for the reasons I mentioned above, even as this was the period the USA rose dramatically in power after having literally zero economic power from the 1500s to the mid 1700s.In conclusion, it’s difficult to say exactly which power was the strongest. To get to your original premise, I don’t think Russia or any non-West European power had much influence in the 16th and 17th centuries. Russia would only become a strong continental power in the mid 18th century, and go onto becoming a major European power throughout the 19th century, and then fall as an empire as it becomes the Soviet Union in the early 20th century. The 1500s, were thus, dominated by the Spanish (and to a lesser extent, the British) in Europe, the Ottomans in Asia Minor, the Mughals in the Indian subcontinent and the Ming and Qing dynasty in China.So, to answer the original question. the East European powers (I doubt many of them were powerful at all considering these giants I’ve mentioned), and Russia where really nowhere notable at this point. Russia would only emerge as a European power in the mid 18th century and a global power in the early 20th century as the Soviet Union.Sources:Ottoman Empire (1301-1922)1450-1750: China: The Ming and the QingMughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)The Spanish EmpireWhy was Spain much more powerful than Britain in the 1500s?

http://forebears.io/surnames/rockDescriptive Writing introductory referencePerhaps from NF. la Roche, an old Norman surname. Adam de Roc witnessed a charter by Richard, bishop of St. Andrews, c. 1170 (Scon, p. 30), and Waldef de la Roche, burgess of Edinburgh, rendered homage, 1296 (Bain, II, p. 197). Johannes Roch, cleric in Aberdeen, 1462 (REA., II, p. 92). David Ruch, a monk of Dunfermline, 1477 (Cupar-Angus, I, p. 208), appears two years later as 'Sir' David Ruth (a miscopying of Ruch) (SBR., p. 264). Alexander Rocht held land in Aberdeen, c. 1500 (REA., II, p. 211). Michael Ruch, a follower of the earl of Cassilis, was respited for murder, 1526 (RSS., I, 3386). James Roch was reidare at Cockpen, 1574 (RMR.). A tombstone in the Howff, Dundee, reads:"Here lyis ane godlie and honest man, Jhone Roche, Brabenar and Borges of Dundie, quha depairtit this lyf the 1 of Februar, 1615 yeiris, being of age 43 yeiris, with His spous, Eufiama Pye, quha hes causit this to be made in remberance of him and their 14 bearnes." John Riock, wright in Loanheid, 1693 (Edire. App.). The spelling Rock has now been in pert superseded by Rough. There was a S. Roque's chapel in Dundee, long since removed, and there was also a "chapell of Sanct Rok at the brigend of Stirling" 1500 (RSS., I, 476).— The Surnames of Scotland (1946) by George Fraser Black (1866-1948)This surname is derived from a geographical locality. 'at the rock,' from residence beside some prominent boulder; v. Roche.Geof. de la Roke, Oxfordshire, 1273. Hundred Rolls.Eudo de la Roche, Huntingdonshire, ibid.Jordan de la Roche, Devon, ibid.Alicia atte Roch, Somerset, 1 Edward III: Kirby's Quest.1576. Baptised — Francis, s. Robert Rocke: St. James, Clerkenwell.1711. Married — Thomas Wanless and Mary Rock: St. Michael, Cornhill.— A Dictionary of English and Welsh Surnames, written: 1872-1896 by Charles Wareing Endell Bardsley(English) Dweller near some prominent boulder; probably a boundary marker; one who came from Rock (rock), in Northumberland, or from Rock (the oak), in Worcestershire.— Dictionary of American Family Names (1956) by Elsdon Coles SmithA parish in Worcestershire, a chapelry in Northumberland, and many other minor localities.— Patronymica Britannica, written: 1838-1860 by Mark Antony LowerA translation of Carrig, q.v., used in west Leinster and Galway. MIF 248— A Guide to Irish Names (1964) by Edward MacLysaghtUser-submitted ReferenceThis topographical type surname does not have a defined origin, but according to old records ( documents, coat of arms, and mentions) all of them founded on Europe, as they point of portuguese origin on 11th century, Italy in a noble family, Spain by mentions and records, or in France as a history.The surname could be a interpretation of a heroic, brave, solid and loyal title or simply and most probably a reference to someone who lives in mountains, next to rocks.In the portuguese origin, we have a man named as Arnaldo da Rocha, in 1126. He lived next to a temple of D. Galdin Paes.The french record are a mention in a book, that describes the surname of someone "de Roche" or "de Rochela" and also means Rocha. This dates from the XIV century and have more people with this same name.On Spain the surname dated in XII century appears are " Rojas", that also means Rocha.The Italy noble and much rich family, lived in a cataglian castle being conceilors and military people. In 1360 they began to be financiers, buyers, and sellers of real estate.The common coat of arms of this family is a shield, sectioned in four quadrants, and decored by simple red feathers with a medieval solid helmet, this coat are a descriptive image of power, endurance, strength, militarism, nobility, and the personality of those who had that name first of all.In Brazil, a nation where are the majority of the Rocha, the surname comes from the Portuguese who came to live here.In general lines, the family are associated to strong people, or living near rocks, with various appearances in different countries.- lucasrochalima7

Valet de chambreFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to navigationJump to searchThis article is about the court position in late mediaeval and early modern Europe. For other uses, see Valet.Jean de Vaudetar, valet to King Charles V of France, presents the king with his gift of an illuminated manuscript by Jean Bondol, who was also a valet de chambre, in 1372. Vaudetar was a nobleman, already in charge of the Louvre palace, who was to progress further at court.Valet de chambre (French pronunciation: ​[valɛ də ʃɑ̃bʁ]), or varlet de chambre, was a court appointment introduced in the late Middle Ages, common from the 14th century onwards. Royal households had many persons appointed at any time. While some valets simply waited on the patron, or looked after his clothes and other personal needs, itself potentially a powerful and lucrative position, others had more specialized functions. At the most prestigious level it could be akin to a monarch or ruler's personal secretary, as was the case of Anne de Montmorency at the court of Francis I of France.[1]For noblemen pursuing a career as courtiers, like Étienne de Vesc, it was a common early step on the ladder to higher offices.For some this brought entry into the lucrative court business of asking for favours on behalf of clients, and passing messages to the monarch or lord heading the court. Valets might supply specialized services of various kinds to the patron, as artists, musicians, poets, scholars, librarians, doctors or apothecaries and curators of collections. Valets comprised a mixture of nobles hoping to rise in their career, and those—often of humble origin—whose specialized abilities the monarch wanted to use or reward.The title of valet enabled access to the monarch or other employer; the "chambre" originally referred to rooms such as the throne room, or the Privy chamber where the ruler conducted his more private meetings, but services extended to the bedroom as well. Sometimes, as in Spain and England, different bodies of valets were responsible for the bedroom and the daytime rooms. Often, the moment the ruler went outdoors a whole new division of staff took over.From the late 14th century onwards the term is found in connection with an artist, author, architect, or musician's position within a noble or royal circle,[1][2]with painters increasingly receiving the title as the social prestige of artists became increasingly distinct from that of craftsmen.[3]The benefits for the artist were a position of understood status in the court hierarchy, with a salary, livery clothes to wear (in the early period at least), the right to meals at the palace, often in a special mess-room, and benefits such as exclusion from local guild regulations, and, if all went well, a lifetime pension. The valet would frequently be housed, at least when working in the palace, but often permanently. Lump-sums might be paid to the valet, especially to provide a dowry for a daughter; sons were often able to join the court as well.Contents1National terms2Valets from the arts3In the Baroque court4Notable holders of the office4.1Artists4.2Musicians4.3Literary men and actors4.4Other specialists4.5Courtiers, soldiers and politicians5See also6References7External linksNational terms[edit]Papal valets kneel during The Mass at Bolsena by Raphael, himself a Papal valet who may himself be here, looking at the viewerIn the English Royal Household the French term was used, whilst French was the language of the court, for example for Geoffrey Chaucer in the 1370s; but subsequently titles such as Groom of the Chamber, Groom of the Stool, and Groom of the Robes were used for people with different responsibilities.[4]The "Grooms of the Privy Chamber" and of the "Stool" were more important posts, because involving closer access, and usually held by the well-born, often knights. The "Groom-Porter"'s job was to "regulate all matters to do with gaming" at court, providing the cards, and settling disputes.[5]Other countries used other terms: in Italian usually cameriere, in German-speaking courts Kammerjunker or Hofjunker were the usual titles, though it was Kammerer in the Austrian Habsburg court, and Kammerherr in Bavaria. In Russia Stolnik was broadly equivalent, until Peter the Great introduced new titles in 1722, after which the Камер-юнкер or kammerjunker came 11th out of 14 in the Table of Ranks. "Valet de chambre" also became used outside courts to refer to normal manservants.Valets from the arts[edit]Probable self-portrait of Jan van Eyck painted in 1433. He became a valet in 1425, at a very high salary, and remained one until his death. He was also used as a diplomat, and once performed a pilgrimage on behalf of his Duke.The patron retained the services of the valet de chambre-artist or musician, sometimes exclusively, but often not. The degree to which valets with special skills were expected to perform the normal serving tasks of valets no doubt varied greatly, and remains obscure from at least the earlier records. Probably many were expected to be on hand for service on major occasions, but otherwise not often. The appointment gave the artist a place in the court management structure, under such officials as the Lord Chamberlain in England, or the Grand Master of France, usually via an intermediate court officer. In turn the valets were able to give orders to the huissiers or ushers, footmen, pages, and other ordinary servants.There were some female equivalents, such as the portrait miniaturist Levina Teerlinc (daughter of Simon Bening), who served as a gentlewoman in the royal households of both Mary I and Elizabeth I, and Sofonisba Anguissola, who was court painter to Philip II of Spain and art tutor with the rank of lady-in-waiting to his third wife Elisabeth of Valois, a keen amateur artist.[6]During the Renaissance, the regularly required artistic roles in music and painting typically began to be given their own offices and titles, as Court painter, Master of the King's Music and so forth, and the valets mostly reverted to looking after the personal, and often the political, needs of their patron. In fact Jan van Eyck, one of the many artists and musicians with the rank of valet in the Burgundian court, was already described as a painter as well as a valet.In England the artists of the Tudor court, as well as the musicians, had other dedicated offices to fill, so that artistic valets or Grooms were mainly literary or dramatic. But these included whole companies of actors, who in practice seem to have gone their own way outside their performances, except for being drafted in to help on specially busy occasions. In August 1604 the King's Men, presumably including Shakespeare, were "waiting and attending" upon the Spanish ambassador at Somerset House, "on his Majesty's service", no doubt in connection with the Somerset House Conference, then negotiating a treaty with Spain — but no plays were performed.[7]Over the previous Christmas, the whole company had been housed at Hampton Court Palace, several miles outside London, for three weeks, in the course of which they gave seven performances.Some courtier artists took their courtly careers very seriously. Geoffrey Chaucer held a number of roles as a diplomat and what we would now call a civil servant. Diego Velázquez was appointed "King's painter" in 1623, at the age of 24, and held this position until his death at the age of 61. In addition, he progressed through the hierarchy of courtiers as "usher in the royal chamber" in 1627 (equivalent to valet de chambre), "Assistant in the Wardrobe" (1636) and "Assistant in the Privy Chamber" (ayuda de cámera) in 1643. These appointments put him in the "select group" of some 350 top royal servants, out of about 1,700 in total, and probably used up much of his time.[8]In fact Velázquez perhaps saw more of the King than any other servants, as Philip spent long hours in his studio watching him paint. Finally, after the King's first application on his behalf was rejected, and some probable falsification of his family background and career, Velázquez managed in 1659 to obtain entry to the chivalric Order of Santiago, the pinnacle of his courtly ambitions.[9]In the Baroque court[edit]When Jean Poquelin arranged for his 18-year-old son, better known as the dramatist Molière, to follow in his footsteps as one of the eight "Tapissiers ordinaires de la chambre du Roi", with a valet de chambre's rank, he had to pay 1,200 livres. But the title required only 3 months' work a year, looking after the royal furniture and tapestries, for a salary of 300 livres, with the opportunity to take commission on a number of lucrative contracts. Poquelin senior ran his successful shop in Paris when not on royal duty. Molière retained the office of valet until his death. The court duties of many valets, specialized or otherwise, followed regular cycles, rotating every quarter between four holders.[10]Alexandre Bontemps, head of the thirty-six functional ordinary valets de chambre of Louis XIV of France, was a powerful and feared figure, in charge of the troops guarding the royal palaces, and an elaborate network of spies on courtiers. Major courts had a higher layer of courtier attendants, always from the upper nobility, whose French version was the Gentleman of the bedchamber (four, rotating annually), and in England Lord of the Bedchamber. At the increasingly formalized ceremony of the Levée the clothes of the monarch would be passed by the valet to the Gentleman, who would pass it to, or place it on, the monarch himself. Especially in France, several other members of the royal family had their own households, with their own corps of valets.During the Baroque age the role of valet largely ceased to be a career step for noble courtiers aiming for the highest offices, although the Premier Valets of the Kings of France, now a role usually passing from father to son, were themselves ennobled and wealthy. Livery clothes and the right to meals were converted into extra cash payments by several courts. Constant, valet de chambre to Napoleon I, was one of many who published their memoirs, from the 18th century on. Especially in German lands, honorary titles as kammerer and the variants were now given, mostly to noblemen, with great freedom, but with no payment or services being exchanged; both Vienna and Munich had over 400 by the 18th century.[11]Notable holders of the office[edit]Artists[edit]Portrait of Concino Concini, a favourite who probably began as valet de chambre to Maria de Medici, by Daniel Dumonstier, also a valet de chambre.Mainly painters, unless otherwise stated.Jacques de Baerze, woodcarver to Philip the Good.[12]David Beck (1621–1656), portraitist, valet de chambre to Christina of SwedenHenri BellechoseHue de Boulogne, one of many painter-valets in the Burgundian accounts of Duke Philip the Bold.Jean Bondol, artist from Bruges, recruited by the French court, now best known as an illuminator (see picture), and for the design of the Apocalypse tapestries at Angers.[13]Jean Bourdichon, most famous as an illuminator.[14]Melchior BroederlamFrançois Clouet, French portraitist, like his fatherJean ClouetJean de Court, painter and valet to Mary, Queen of ScotsDaniel Dumonstier (1574-1645 or 46), French portraitist and collector.Barthélemy d'Eyck, to René of AnjouHubert van EyckJan van EyckBartolomeo Ghetti, Italian who worked for Francis I of FranceGerard Horenbout, illuminatorPaul de Limbourg – IlluminatorGerard LoyetJean MalouelPhilippe de Mazerolles, Frenchman appointed as Burgundian court illuminator, possibly identical with the Master of Anthony of BurgundyJean NocretJean Perréal, also a sculptor and architect.Raphael was a papal valetClaus Sluter, sculptor, also succeeded his master Jean de MarvilleBartholomeus Spranger for Rudolf II, Holy Roman EmperorRobinet Testard – Illuminator [15]Georges Trubert, illuminator for René of Anjou.[16]Willem van Vleuten goldsmith to Philip the Good.[12]Klaas van der Werve sculptor to Philip the Good.[12]Similar court positions were held by many court painters, notably Andrea Mantegna and Diego Velázquez.Musicians[edit]Adrien BasinBaltasar de Beaujoyeulx, virtuoso violinist and master of ceremonies for Catherine de' Medici's court festivals, he created the Ballet Comique de la Reine, the first ballet.Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber, in 1668 began his career at 24 as valet de chambre for the Bishop of Olmütz, before progressing to Imperial service and a knighthood.Antoine BusnoisHayne van GhizeghemPierre van Maldere appointed as late as 1758Marco Marazzoli Roman composer, aiutante di camera to Cardinal Antonio Barberini, later cameriere extra to Pope Alexander VII.Julien PerrichonThomas Purcell, English singer, violist, and minor composer, probably uncle of Henry Purcell, was Groom of the Robes from 1661, eventually holding seven court posts simultaneously, mostly musical, but also as "underhousekeeper" at Somerset House.[17]Johannes TapissierJacobus VideLiterary men and actors[edit]George Bryan Elizabethan actor with the Lord Chamberlain's Men, who seems to have become a regular Groom of the Chamber on his retirement from the stage - or perhaps that was just a way of giving him a pension.Geoffrey Chaucer, poet and courtier, became a page to the king's daughter-in-law in his early teens, and married one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting; he progressed to higher offices at court.Charles Rivière Dufresny, dramatistStephen Hawes, poet and Groom of the Chamber in 1502, under Henry VII.[18]Thomas Heywood, playwright and producer. With several of his actors became Groom of the Queen's Chamber for Elizabeth I of EnglandThe King's Men, the playing company under James I and Charles I of England, were "grooms extraordinary of the chamber".[19]Clément Marot, poet, and his father Jean (below). Like Thomas Sternhold (see below) he published an influential vernacular verse translation of the Psalms.Jean Marot poet, and secretary (escripvain) to Anne of Brittany.Molière, who began his career following his father (also a valet de chambre), as a tapissier valet, looking after the royal tapestries and furniture, before going into acting and becoming court dramatist.Bonaventure des Périers, author and secretary to Marguerite de NavarreWilliam Shakespeare, as a key member of the Lord Chamberlain's Men and later the King's Men, had this status as part of the English habit of making the whole of court theatrical companies Grooms of the Chamber. He occasionally participated in great ceremonial occasions, wearing livery at James I's royal entry to London in 1604.[20]Thomas Sternhold, translator of the Metrical Psalms, and Groom of the Robes to Henry VIII and Edward VI.Other specialists[edit]Marin le Bourgeoys (c. 1550–1634) French gunsmith, inventor (or perfector) of the flintlock mechanism firing action.Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and his companion Romain become the first to die in an aviation accident at Wimereux, on the 15 June 1785.Jean-Baptiste Baillon III, (d. 1772), French clockmakerCourt Jews, usually either physicians or financiers, were often appointed, especially in the German lands.Nicholas Fleury, embroiderer to Henry IV of FranceJean-Roland Malet, economistBalthazar Martinot (1636-1714) French clockmaker.Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier scientist, balloonist and curator; the first person to make an untethered balloon flight (in the presence of the king), and two years later the first person to die in an aviation accident.[21]Andries van Vesel, apothecary to the Holy Roman Emperors, and father of the great anatomist VesaliusJehan du Vivier, French royal goldsmith, paid in 1390 for a reliquary.[22]Courtiers, soldiers and politicians[edit]In fact the majority of valets fell under this category in the earlier period. All these appear to have had functional, rather than purely honorary, positions.Sir John Donne (1420s-1503, Welsh Yorkist soldier, diplomat and courtier, made Usher of the Chamber in 1461, on Edward IV's accession, then Esquire of the Body 1465–69Friedrich von Canitz (1654–99), Prussian diplomat who entered court as a Kammerjunker. His poems were published posthumously.Adolph Freiherr Knigge (1752–96), statesman, author, and leading Freemason.Anne de Montmorency, at the start of his very distinguished careerSir Henry Neville was made Groom of the Privy Chamber 1546, five years after being knighted, then Gentleman of the Privy Chamber in 1550, and Member of Parliament for Berkshire five times, from 1553- 1584. A typical moderately successful courtier's career.Sir Henry Norreys, a Groom of the Stool (an especially intimate role) under Henry VIII, was executed for an alleged affair with Queen Anne Boleyn, along with William Brereton, a Groom of the Privy Chamber.Jean de Saint YonPierre Sala [fr], (1457-1529) French courtier and poetVeit Ludwig von Seckendorff (1626–92), scholar and statesman, a protege of the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha who made him hofjunker after university. He wrote an influential work on the administration of small principalities.Ludwig von Siegen, aristocratic soldier and amateur artist, who invented the mezzotint. In the small court of the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, then a minor, his title of kammerjunker seems to have equated in fact to Chamberlain and head of the palace guards.Étienne de VescMikhail Illarionovich Vorontsov (1714-1767), Russian diplomat and statesman, made kammerjunker at the age of 14, his career took off after he helped Elizabeth of Russia in her coup d'etat of 1741.Christian Frederik von Schalburg (1906-1942), Danish officer who was born in tzarist Russia and fell on the Eastern Front, used the title kammerjunker from 1936 where he served in the Royal Danish Life Guards.See also[edit]Artists of the Tudor CourtEsquire of the BodyGroom in WaitingPapal GentlemenReferences[edit]^ Jump up to:a b Reginald Blomfield and L. C., "Valet de Chambre," The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, vol. 21, no. 109 (Apr., 1912), p. 55.^ For musicians as valets de chambre, see Jeanne Marix, "Hayne van Ghizeghem: Musician at the Court of the 15th-Century Burgundian Dukes," The Musical Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 3 (Jul., 1942), pp. 276-287 (esp. 279).^ Rab Hatfield, review of The Rise of the Artist in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance by Andrew Martindale, The Art Bulletin, vol. 57, no. 4 (Dec., 1975), pp. 577-580.^ Groom, a word originally meaning "boy", is first used for a court office in 1464 - OED^ OED "Groom-Porter", first use 1502^ Perlingieri, Ilya Sandra, "Lady in Waiting", Art and Antiques, April 1988^ Halliday, F. E. A Shakespeare Companion 1564–1964. Baltimore, Penguin, 1964, p. 460; spellings modernized.^ Carr, Dawson W. "Painting and reality: the art and life of Velázquez". Velázquez. Eds. Dawson W. Carr and Xavier Bray. National Gallery London, 2006, pp. 15-18. ISBN 1-85709-303-8^ Carr:22^ Les Valets de chambre de Louis XIV, Mathieu da Vinha, Perrin, 2004; pp. 1-3 ISBN 226202135X^ Adamson, op. cit. pp.170 and 198. In Munich the number inflated from the low teens around 1600, to about 130 by the mid-17th century, and over 400 by the end of the 18th century.^ Jump up to:a b c Leiden thesis, p.2^ Cleveland Museum^ V&A^ Patrick M. De Winter, "Testard, Robinet [Master of Charles of Angoulême]," Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press [accessed 16 April 2008]^ "Getty". Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 21 April 2008.^ Peter Holman, Henry Purcell, p. 4, 1994, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-816341-X online^ Stephen, Leslie; Lee, Sidney, eds. (1891). "Hawes, Stephen" . Dictionary of National Biography. 25. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 188.^ Adamson, John (ed. and author),The Princely Courts of Europe, 1500-1750, p.107, 2000, Cassell & Co, London, ISBN 1-84188-097-3^ Adamson op. cit.:107^ Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 127. ISBN 0-394-55948-7.^ Google bookExternal links[edit]Court culture, including the role of the valetCategories:Court titlesCourt titles in the Ancien RégimeFrench words and phrasesNavigation menuNot logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearchMain pageContentsCurrent eventsRandom articleAbout WikipediaContact usDonateContributeHelpLearn to editCommunity portalRecent changesUpload fileToolsWhat links hereRelated changesSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationCite this pageWikidata itemPrint/exportDownload as PDFPrintable versionLanguagesБеларускаяБеларуская (тарашкевіца)‎DanskDeutschFrançaisРусскийSvenskaEdit linksThis page was last edited on 30 August 2020, at 21:04 (UTC).Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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