California Form Gc 110: Fill & Download for Free

(Wikipedia’s list.)17th century[edit]The 1698 Savery Engine1605Bacon’s cipher, a method of steganography (hiding a secret message), is devised by Sir Francis Bacon.[5]1614John Napier publishes his work Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio introducing the concept of logarithms which simplifies mathematical calculations.[6][7]1620The first navigable submarine is designed by William Bourne and built by Dutchman Cornelius Drebbel.1625Early experiments in water desalination are conducted by Sir Francis Bacon.[8]1657Anchor escapement for clock making is invented by Robert Hooke.[9]1667A tin can telephone is devised by Robert Hooke.[10]1668Sir Isaac Newton invents the first working reflecting telescope.[11]1698The first commercial steam-powered device, a water pump, is developed by Thomas Savery.[12]18th century[edit]The Watt steam engine was conceived in 1765. James Watt transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine.1701An improved seed drill is designed by Jethro Tull.[13] It is used to spread seeds around a field with a rotating handle which makes seed planting a lot easier.1705Edmond Halley makes the first prediction of a comet's return.[14]1712The first practical steam engine is designed by Thomas Newcomen.[12][15]1718Edmond Halley discovers stellar motion.[16]1730The Rotherham plough, the first plough to be widely built in factories and commercially successful, is patented by Joseph Foljambe.[17]1737Andrew Rodger invents the winnowing machine.1740The first electrostatic motors are developed by Andrew Gordon in the 1740s.[18]1744The earliest known reference to baseball is made in a publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery. It contains a rhymed description of "base-ball" and a woodcut that shows a field set-up somewhat similar to the modern game—though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration, and with posts instead of ground-level bases.[19]1753Invention of hollow-pipe drainage is credited to Sir Hugh Dalrymple who died in 1753.[20]1765James Small advances the design of the plough using mathematical methods to improve on the Scotch plough of James Anderson of Hermiston.[21]1767Adam Ferguson (1767), often known as ‘The Father of Modern Sociology’, publishes his work An Essay on the History of Civil Society.[22]1776Scottish economist Adam Smith, often known as 'The father of modern economics',[23] publishes his seminal text The Wealth of Nations.[24][25]The Watt steam engine, conceived in 1765, goes into production. It is the first type of steam engine to make use of steam at a pressure just above atmospheric.1781The Iron Bridge, the first arch bridge made of cast iron, is built by Abraham Darby III.[12]1783A pioneer of selective breeding and artificial selection, Robert Bakewell, forms the Dishley Society to promote and advance the interests of livestock breeders.[26][27]1786The threshing machine is invented by Andrew Meikle.[28]1798Edward Jenner invents the first vaccine.19th century[edit]A trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, first described by Charles Babbage in 1837[29]1802Sir Humphry Davy creates the first incandescent light by passing a current from a battery, at the time the world's most powerful, through a thin strip of platinum.1804The world's first locomotive-hauled railway journey is made by Richard Trevithick's steam locomotive.[30]1807Alexander John Forsyth invents percussion ignition, the foundation of modern firearms.1814Robert Salmon patents the first haymaking machine.c1820John Loudon McAdam develops the Macadam road construction technique.1822Charles Babbage proposes the idea for a Difference engine, an automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions, in a paper to the Royal Astronomical Society entitled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables".[31]1823An improved system of soil drainage is developed by James Smith.[32]1824William Aspdin obtains a patent for Portland cement (concrete).1825William Sturgeon invents the electromagnet.1828A mechanical reaping machine is invented by Patrick Bell.[33]1831Electromagnetic induction, the operating principle of transformers and nearly all modern electric generators, is discovered by Michael Faraday.1835Scotsman James Bowman Lindsay invents the incandescent light bulb.[34]1836The Marsh test for detecting arsenic poisoning is developed by James Marsh.[35]1837Charles Babbage describes an Analytical Engine, the first mechanical, general-purpose programmable computer.[36][37]The Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, first commercially successful electric telegraph, is designed by Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke.[38][39][40]1839A pedal bicycle is invented by Kirkpatrick Macmillan.[41]1840Sir Rowland Hill reforms the postal system with Uniform Penny Post and introduces the first postage stamp, the Penny Black, on 1 May.[42]1841Alexander Bain patents his design produced the prior year for an electric clock.[43]1842Superphosphate, the first chemical fertiliser, is patented by John Bennet Lawes.[citation needed]1843SS Great Britain, the world's first steam-powered, screw propeller-driven passenger liner with an iron hull is launched. Designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, it was at the time the largest ship afloat.Alexander Bain (inventor) patents a design for a facsimile machine.1846A design for a chemical telegraph is patented by Alexander Bain. Bain's telegraph is installed on the wires of the Electric Telegraph Company on one line. Later, in 1850, it was used in America by Henry O'Reilly.[44]1847Boolean algebra, the basis for digital logic, is introduced by George Boole in his book The Mathematical Analysis of Logic.[45]1851Improvements to the facsimile machine are demonstrated by Frederick Bakewell at the 1851 World's Fair in London.1852A steam-driven ploughing engine is invented by John Fowler.[46][47]1853English physician Alexander Wood develops a medical hypodermic syringe with a needle fine enough to pierce the skin.[48]1854The Playfair cipher, the first literal digraph substitution cipher, is invented by Charles Wheatstone and later promoted for use by Lord Playfair.[40]1868Mushet steel, the first commercial steel alloy, is invented by Robert Forester Mushet.Thomas Humber develops a bicycle design with the pedals driving the rear wheel.The first manually operated gas-lamp traffic lights are installed outside the Houses of Parliament on 10 December.1869A bicycle design is developed by Thomas McCall.1873Discovery of the photoconductivity of the element selenium by Willoughby Smith. This led to the invention of photoelectric cells (solar panels), including those used in the earliest television systems.1876Scotsman Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone in the U.S.[49]The first safety bicycle is designed by the English engineer Harry John Lawson (also called Henry). Unlike the penny-farthing, the rider's feet were within reach of the ground, making it safer to stop.1878Demonstration of an incandescent light bulb by Joseph Wilson Swan.[50][51]1883The Fresno scraper, which became a model for modern earth movers, is invented in California by Scottish emigrant James Porteous.[52]1884The light switch is invented by John Holmes.1885The first commercially successful safety bicycle, called the Rover, is designed by John Kemp Starley. The following year Dan Albone produces a derivative of this called the Ivel Safety cycle.1886Walter Parry Haskett Smith, often called the Father of Rock Climbing in Britain, completes his first ascent of the Napes Needle, solo and without any protective equipment.1892Sir Francis Galton devises a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science.[53]1897Sir Joseph John Thomson discovers the electron.[54]The world's first wireless station is established on the Isle of Wight.[55][56]20th century[edit]A Colossus computer, developed by British codebreakers in 1943–19451901The first wireless signal across the Atlantic is sent from Cornwall in England and received in Newfoundland in Canada (a distance of 2,100 miles) by Italian scientist Guglielmo Marconi.[57]The first commercially successful light farm tractor is patented by Dan Albone.[58][59]1902Edgar Purnell Hooley develops Tarmac1907Henry Joseph Round discovers electroluminescence, the principle behind LEDs.1910The first formal driving school, the British School of Motoring, is founded in London.[60]Frank Barnwell establishes the fundamentals of aircraft design at the University of Glasgow,[61] having made the first powered flight in Scotland the previous year.1918The Royal Air Force becomes the first independent air force in the world[62]1922In Sorbonne, France, Englishman Edwin Belin demonstrates a mechanical scanning device, an early precursor to modern television.1926John Logie Baird makes the first public demonstration of a mechanical television on 26 January (the first successful transmissions were in early 1923 and February 1924). Later, in July 1928, he demonstrated the first colour television.[63][64]1930The jet engine is patented by Sir Frank Whittle.[65]1932The Anglepoise lamp is patented by George Carwardine, a design consultant specialising in vehicle suspension systems.1933The Cat's eye road marking is invented by Percy Shaw and patented the following year.1936English economist John Maynard Keynes publishes his work The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money which challenged the established classical economics and led to the Keynesian Revolution in the way economists thought.The world's first public broadcasts of high-definition television are made from Alexandra Palace, North London, by the BBC Television Service. It is the first fully electronic television system to be used in regular broadcasting.[66]1937First available in the London area, the 999 telephone number is introduced as the world's first emergency telephone service.1939The initial design of the Bombe, an electromechanical device to assist with the deciphering of messages encrypted by the Enigma machine, is produced by Alan Turing at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS).[67]1943Colossus computer begins working, the world's first electronic digital programmable computer.[68]1949The Manchester Mark 1 computer, significant because of its pioneering inclusion of index registers, ran its first programme error free. Its chief designers are Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn.1951The concept of microprogramming is developed by Maurice Wilkes from the realisation that the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialised computer program in high-speed ROM.LEO is the first business application (a payroll system) on an electronic computer.1952Autocode, regarded as the first compiled programming language, is developed for the Manchester Mark 1 by Alick Glennie.1953Englishman Francis Crick and American James Watson of Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, analysed X-ray crystallography data taken by Rosalind Franklin of King's College, to decipher the double helical structure of DNA. They share the 1962 Nobel Prize in Medicine for their work.[69]1955The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, is built by Louis Essen at the National Physical Laboratory. This clock enabled further development of general relativity, and started a basis for an enhanced SI unit system.[70]1956Metrovick 950, the first commercial transistor computer, is built by the Metropolitan-Vickers company.1961The first electronic desktop calculators, the ANITA Mk7 and ANITA Mk8, are manufactured by the Bell Punch Company and marketed by its Sumlock Comptometer division.1963High strength carbon fibre is invented by engineers at the Royal Aircraft Establishment.[71]The Lava lamp is invented by British accountant Edward Craven Walker.1964The first theory of the Higgs boson is put forward by Peter Higgs, a particle-physics theorist at the University of Edinburgh, and five other physicists.[72][73] The particle is discovered in 2012 at CERN's Large Hadron Collider and its existence is confirmed in 2013.1965A pioneer of the development of dairy farming systems, Rex Paterson, set out his principles for labour management.[74]The Touchscreen was invented by E.A.Johnson working at the Radar Research Establishment, Malvern, Worcestershire. [75]1966The cash machine and personal identification number system are patented by James Goodfellow.[76]1969The first carbon fibre fabric in the world is weaved in Stockport, England.[77]1970One of the first handheld televisions, the MTV-1, is developed by Sir Clive Sinclair.1973Clifford Cocks develops the algorithm for the RSA cipher while working at the Government Communications Headquarters, approximately three years before it was independently developed by Rivest, Shamir and Adleman at MIT. The British government declassified the 1973 invention in 1997.[78]1977Steptoe and Edwards successfully carried out a pioneering conception which resulted in the birth of the world's first baby to be conceived by IVF, Louise Brown on 25 July 1978, in Oldham General Hospital, Greater Manchester, UK.[79][80][81]1979The tree shelter is invented by Graham Tuley to protect tree seedlings.[82]One of the first laptop computers, the GRiD Compass, is designed by Bill Moggridge.1984DNA profiling is discovered by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester.One of the world's first computer games to use 3D graphics, Elite, is developed by David Braben and Ian Bell.1989Sir Tim Berners-Lee writes a proposal for what will become the World Wide Web. The following year, he specified HTML, the hypertext language, and HTTP, the protocol.[83]The Touchpad pointing device is first developed for Psion computers.1991A patent for an iris recognition algorithm is filed by John Daugman while working at the University of Cambridge which became the basis of all publicly deployed iris recognition systems.[84][85]The source code for the world's first web browser, called WorldWideWeb (later renamed Nexus to avoid confusion with the World Wide Web), is released into the public domain by Sir Tim Berners-Lee.1992The first SMS message in the world is sent over the UK's GSM network.1995The world's first national DNA database is developed.[86]1996Animal cloning, a female domestic sheep became the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell, by scientists at the Roslin institute.[87]1997Scottish scientists at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, produce the first mammal cloned from an adult cell.[88]The ThrustSSC jet-propelled car, designed and built in England, sets the land speed record.21st century[edit]2003Beagle 2, a British landing spacecraft that forms part of the European Space Agency's 2003 Mars Express mission lands on the surface of Mars but fails to communicate. It is located twelve years later in a series of images from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter that suggest two of Beagle's four solar panels failed to deploy, blocking the spacecraft's communications antenna.2004Graphene is isolated from graphite at the University of Manchester by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov.[89]2005The design for a machine to lay rail track, the "Trac Rail Transposer", is patented and goes on to be used by Network Rail in the United Kingdom and the New York City Subway in the United States.[90][91][92]2012Raspberry Pi, a single-board computer, is launched and quickly becomes popular for education in programming and computer science.[93]2014The European Space Agency's Philae lander leaves the Rosetta spacecraft and makes the first ever landing on a comet. The Philae lander was built with significant British expertise and technology, alongside that of several other countries.[94][95]Ceramics[edit]Bone china – Josiah Spode[96]Ironstone china – Charles James Mason[97]Jasperware – Josiah WedgwoodClock making[edit]Anchor escapement – Robert Hooke[98][99]Balance wheel – Robert Hooke[100]Coaxial escapement – George Daniels[101]Grasshopper escapement, H1, H2, H3 and H4 watches (a watch built to solve the longitude measurement problem)[102] – John HarrisonGridiron pendulum – John Harrison[100]Lever escapement The greatest single improvement ever applied to pocket watches – Thomas Mudge[100]Longcase clock or grandfather clock – William Clement[103]Marine chronometer – John Harrison[100]Self-winding watch – John Harwood[104]Clothing manufacturing[edit]Derby Rib (stocking manufacture) – Jedediah StruttFlying shuttle – John KayMauveine, the first synthetic organic dye – William Henry PerkinPower loom – Edmund CartwrightSpinning frame – John KaySpinning jenny – James HargreavesSpinning mule – Samuel CromptonSewing machine – Thomas Saint in 1790[105]Water frame – Richard ArkwrightStocking frame – William LeeWarp-loom and Bobbinet – John HeathcoatCommunications[edit]Christmas card [106] – Sir Henry ColeValentines card [107] – Modern card 18th century EnglandPencil – Cumbria, EnglandMechanical pencil – Sampson Mordan and John Isaac Hawkins in 1822.[108]Clockwork radio [109] – Trevor BaylisRadio, the first transmission using a Spark Transmitter, achieving a range of approximately 500 metres. – David E. HughesElectromagnetic induction & Faraday's law of induction Began as a series of experiments by Faraday that later became some of the first ever experiments in the discovery of radio waves and the development of radio – Michael Faraday [110]Pioneer in the development of radio communication – William EcclesPioneering work on the development of the long-lasting materials that made today's liquid crystal displays possible – Team headed by Sir Brynmor Jones and Developed by Scotsman George Gray and Englishman Ken Harrison In conjunction with the Royal Radar Establishment and the University of Hull [111]Pioneering development of stereo in the form of 'binaural sound' – Alan Blumlein [112]Shorthand – Timothy Bright (1550/1-1615). Invented first modern shorthandPitman Shorthand – Isaac PitmanProposed the existence of the Kennelly–Heaviside layer, a layer of ionised gas that reflects radio waves around the Earth's curvature – Oliver HeavisideTypewriter – First patent for a device similar to a typewriter granted to Henry Mill in 1714.[113]the world's first automatic totalisator – George Juliuspioneer in the use of fiber optics in telecommunications – Charles K. Kao and George HockhamThe originator of the concept of geostationary satellites for the use of telecommunications relays – Arthur C ClarkeTeletext Information Service – The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)Print stereotyping – William Ged (1690–1749) [114]Roller printing – Thomas Bell (patented 1783) [115]The adhesive postage stamp and the postmark – James Chalmers (1782–1853) [116]Universal Standard Time: Sir Sandford Fleming (1827–1915) [117]Light signalling between ships: Admiral Philip H. Colomb (1831–1899) [118]The teleprinter – Frederick G. Creed (1871–1957) [119]Radar – Robert Watson-Watt (1892–1973)[120]The underlying principles of Radio – James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [121]Computing[edit]ACE and Pilot ACE [67] – Alan TuringARM architecture The ARM CPU design is the microprocessor architecture of 98% of mobile phones and every smartphone.[122]First programmer – Ada LovelaceFirst Programming Language Analytical Engine ordercode – Charles Babbage and Ada LovelaceArgo system the world's first electrically powered mechanical analogue computer (also called at the Argo Clock) – Arthur PollenSumlock ANITA calculator the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator – Bell Punch CoThe world's first 'slimline' pocket calculator, the Sinclair Executive amongst other electrical/electronic innovations – Sir Clive SinclairOsborne 1 The first commercially successful portable computer, the precursor to the Laptop computer – Adam OsborneHeavily involved in the development of the Linux kernel – Andrew Morton & Alan CoxFlip-flop circuit, which became the basis of electronic memory (Random-access memory) in computers – William Eccles and F. W. JordanUniversal Turing machine – The UTM model is considered to be the origin of the "stored program computer" used by John von Neumann in 1946 for his "Electronic Computing Instrument" that now bears von Neumann's name: the von Neumann architecture, also UTM is considered the first operating system – Alan TuringThe development of packet switching co-invented by British engineer Donald Davies and American Paul Baran – National Physical Laboratory, London EnglandThe first person to conceptualise the Integrated Circuit – Geoffrey W.A. DummerThe first modern computer, the Manchester Baby, was the world's first electronic stored-program computer. Developed by Frederic Calland Williams & Tom Kilburn[123]Williams tube – a cathode ray tube used to electronically store binary data (Can store roughly 500 to 1,000 bits of data) – Freddie Williams & Tom KilburnFerranti Mark 1 – Also known as the Manchester Electronic Computer was the first computer to use the principles of early CPU design (Central processing unit) – Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn – Also the world's first successful commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.The oldest known recordings of computer generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer – Christopher StracheyEDSAC was the first complete, fully functional computer to use the von Neumann architecture, the basis of every modern computer – Maurice WilkesEDSAC 2 the successor to the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator or EDSAC. It was the first computer to have a microprogrammed (Microcode)control unit and a bit slice hardware architecture – Team headed by Maurice WilkesThe first graphical computer game OXO on the EDSAC at Cambridge University – A.S. DouglasAtlas Computer, it was arguably the world's first supercomputer and was the fastest computer in the world until the release of the American CDC 6600 Also This machine introduced many modern architectural concepts: spooling, interrupts, pipelining, interleaved memory, virtual memory and paging – Team headed by Tom KilburnDigital audio player (MP3 Player) – Kane KramerCo-Inventor of the world's first trackball device – developed by Tom Cranston, Fred Longstaff and Kenyon TaylorThe world's first handheld computer (Psion Organiser) – Psion PLCThe first rugged computer – Husky (computer)First PC-compatible palmtop computer (Atari Portfolio) – Ian H. S. CullimoreDenotational semantics – Christopher Strachey pioneer in programming language designWolfram's 2-state 3-symbol Turing machine – Stephen WolframEngineering[edit]Adjustable spanner – Edwin Beard BuddingBackhoe loader – Joseph Cyril BamfordCavity magnetron – John Randall and Harry Boot critical component for Microwave generation in Microwave ovens and high powered Radios (Radar)[124]Carey Foster bridge – Carey Foster[125]Electric transformer – Michael Faraday[126]First coke-consuming blast furnace – Abraham Darby I[12]First working universal joint – Robert HookeCrookes tube the first cathode ray tubes – William Crookes[12]First working and volume productionbrushless alternator – Newage EngineersFirst compression ignition engine aka the Diesel Engine – Herbert Akroyd StuartHydrogen Fuel Cell – William Robert GroveModified version of the Newcomen steam engine (Pickard engine) – James PickardCompound steam turbine – Charles Algernon Parsons[12]Francis turbine – James B. FrancisGas turbine – John Barber (engineer)Microturbines – Chris and Paul Bladon of Bladon JetsThe world's first oil refinery and a process of extracting paraffin from coal laying the foundations for the modern oil industry – James Young (1811–1883)[127]Pendulum governor – Frederick LanchesterContributed to the development of Radar – Scotsman Robert Watson-Watt and Englishman Arnold Frederic WilkinsInternal combustion engine – Samuel BrownFourdrinier machine – Henry FourdrinierMicrochip – Geoffrey W.A. Dummerlight-emitting diode (did not invent the first visible light, only theorised) – H. J. RoundHydraulic accumulatorTwo-stroke engine – Joseph DayPioneer of radio guidance systems – Archibald LowScrew-cutting lathe – Henry HindleyThe first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe – Henry MaudslayThe first electrical measuring instrument, the electroscope – William GilbertRectilinear Slide rule – William Oughtred[100]Devised a standard for screw threads leading to its widespread acceptance – Joseph WhitworthThe Wimshurst machine is an Electrostatic generator for producing high voltages – James WimshurstHot bulb engine or heavy oil engine – Herbert Akroyd StuartHydraulic crane – William George ArmstrongVacuum diode also known as a vacuum tube – John Ambrose FlemingLinear motor is a multi-phase alternating current (AC) electric motor – Charles Wheatstone then improved by Eric Laithwaite[40]Lynch Motor – Cedric LynchDesigned water and sewerage systems for over 30 cities across Europe – William LindleyConcrete Canvas – Will Crawford and Peter BrewinThe world's first house powered with hydroelectricity – Cragside, Northumberland[128]Stirling engine – Robert StirlingSupercharger – Dugald ClerkWind tunnel – Francis Herbert Wenham[100]Household appliances[edit]Perambulator – William Kent designed a baby carriage in 1733[129]Collapsible baby buggy – Owen MaclarenDomestic dishwasher – key modifications by William Howard Livens [130]"Bagless" vacuum cleaner – James Dyson[131]"Puffing Billy" – First powered vacuum cleaner – Hubert Cecil Booth[132][133][134]Fire extinguisher – George William Manby[129]Folding carton – Charles Henry FoyleLawn mower – Edwin Beard Budding[135]Rubber band – Stephen Perry[136]Daniell cell – John Frederic Daniell[137]Tin can – Peter DurandCorkscrew – Reverend Samuell HenshallMouse trap – James Henry AtkinsonModern flushing toilet – John Harington[138]The pay toilet – John Nevil Maskelyne, Maskelyne invented a lock for London toilets, which required a penny to operate, hence the euphemism "spend a penny".Electric toaster – Rookes Evelyn Bell CromptonTeasmade – Albert E. RichardsonMagnifying glass – Roger BaconThermosiphon, which forms the basis of most modern central heating systems – Thomas FowlerAutomatic electric kettle – Russell HobbsThermos Flask – James Dewar [139]Toothbrush – William Edward AddisSunglasses – James Ayscough[140]The Refrigerator – William Cullen (1748) [141]The Flush toilet: Alexander Cummings (1775) [142]The first distiller to triple distill Irish whiskey:[143]John Jameson (Whisky distiller)The first automated can-filing machine John West (1809–1888) [144]The waterproof Mackintosh – Charles Macintosh (1766–1843) [145]The kaleidoscope: Sir David Brewster (1781–1868) [146]Keiller's marmalade Janet Keiller (1797) – The first recipe of rind suspended marmalade or Dundee marmalade produced in Dundee.The modern lawnmower – Edwin Beard Budding (1830) [147]The Lucifer friction match: Sir Isaac Holden (1807–1897) [148]The self filling pen – Robert Thomson (1822–1873) [149]Cotton-reel thread – J & J Clark of Paisley [150]Lime Cordial – Peter Burnett in 1867 [151]Bovril beef extract – John Lawson Johnston in 1874 [152]Wellington BootsCan Opener – Robert Yeates 1855Ideas, Religion and Ethics[edit]Malthusianism and the groundwork for the study of population dynamics – Thomas Robert Malthus with his work An Essay on the Principle of Population.Classical Liberalism – John Locke known as the "Father of Classical Liberalism".[153][154]Utilitarianism by Jeremy BenthamAnglicanism by Henry VIII of EnglandMethodism by John Wesley and Charles WesleyQuakerism by George FoxAgnosticism by Thomas Henry HuxleyIndustrial processes[edit]English crucible steel – Benjamin HuntsmanSteel production Bessemer process – Henry BessemerHydraulic press – Joseph BramahParkesine, the first man-made plastic – Alexander ParkesPortland cement – Joseph AspdinSheffield plate – Thomas BoulsoverWater frame – Richard ArkwrightStainless steel – Harry BrearleyRubber Masticator – Thomas HancockPower Loom – Edmund CartwrightParkes process – Alexander ParkesLead chamber process – John RoebuckDevelopment of the world's first commercially successful manufacture of high quality flat glass using the float glass process – Alastair PilkingtonThe first commercial electroplating process – George ElkingtonThe Wilson Yarn Clearer – Peter WilsonFloat Glass – Alastair Pilkington – Modern Glass manufacturing processContact ProcessFroth Flotation – William Haynes and A H Higgins.Extrusion – Joseph BramahMedicine[edit]First correct description of circulation of the blood – William Harvey[155]Smallpox vaccine – Edward Jenner with his discovery is said to have "saved more lives (...) than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."[156][157]Surgical forceps – Stephen Hales[158]Antisepsis in surgery – Joseph ListerArtificial intraocular lens transplant surgery for cataract patients – Harold Ridley[159]Clinical thermometer – Thomas Clifford Allbutt.[160]isolation of fibrinogen ("coagulable lymph"), investigation of the structure of the lymphatic system and description of red blood cells by the surgeon William Hewson (surgeon)Credited with discovering how to culture embryonic stem cells in 1981 – Martin EvansFirst blood pressure measurement and first cardiac catheterisation-Stephen Hales[161]Pioneer of anaesthesia and father of epidemiology for locating the source of cholera – John Snow (physician)[162]pioneered the use of sodium cromoglycate as a remedy for asthma – Roger Altounyan[citation needed]The first scientist to demonstrate that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen and one of the founders of orthopedy – Percivall Pott[163]Performed the first successful blood transfusion – James Blundell[164]Discovered the active ingredient of Aspirin – Edward StoneDiscovery of Protein crystallography – Dorothy Crowfoot HodgkinThe world's first successful stem cell transplant[165] – John Raymond Hobbs[166]First typhoid vaccine – Almroth Wright[167]Pioneer of the treatment of epilepsy – Edward Henry Sievekingdiscovery of Nitrous oxide (entonox/"laughing gas") and its anaesthetic properties – Humphry Davy[168]Computed Tomography (CT scanner) – Godfrey Newbold HounsfieldGray's Anatomy widely regarded as the first complete human anatomy textbook – Henry GrayDiscovered Parkinson's disease – James Parkinson[169]General anaesthetic – Pioneered by Scotsman James Young Simpson and Englishman John Snow[162]Contributed to the development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – Sir Peter MansfieldStatistical parametric mapping – Karl J. FristonNasal cannula – Wilfred JonesThe development of in vitro fertilization – Patrick Christopher Steptoe and Robert Geoffrey Edwards[170]First baby genetically selected to be free of a breast cancer – University College LondonViagra – Peter Dunn, Albert Wood, Dr Nicholas Terrett[citation needed]Acetylcholine – Henry Hallett DaleEKG (underlying principles) – various[vague]Discovery of vitamins – Frederick Gowland HopkinsEarliest pharmacopoeia in English[171]The hip replacement operation, in which a stainless steel stem and 22mm head fit into a polymer socket and both parts are fixed into position by PMMA cement – pioneered by John CharnleyIn vitro fertilisation – Developed by Sir Robert Geoffrey Edwards with a first successful birth in 1978 as a result of natural cycle IVF where no stimulation was made.Description of Hay fever – John Bostock (physician) in 1819Pioneering the use of surgical anaesthesia with Chloroform: Sir James Young Simpson (1811–1870) [172]Discovery of hypnotism (November 1841) – James Braid (1795–1860) [173]Identifying the mosquito as the carrier of malaria: Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932) [174]Identifying the cause of brucellosis: Sir David Bruce (1855–1931) [175]Discovering the vaccine for typhoid fever: Sir William B. Leishman (1865–1926) [176]Discovering insulin – John J R Macleod (1876–1935) with others [177]Ambulight PDT: light-emitting sticking plaster used in photodynamic therapy (PDT) for treating non-melanoma skin cancer. Developed by Ambicare Dundee's Ninewells Hospital and St Andrews University. (2010)[178]Primary creator of the artificial kidney (Professor Kenneth Lowe – Later Queen's physician in Scotland) [179]Developing the first beta-blocker drugs: Sir James W. Black in 1964 [180]Glasgow Coma Scale: Graham Teasdale and Bryan J. Jennett (1974) [181]EKG [Electrocardiography]: Alexander Muirhead (1911) [182]Pioneering the use of surgical anaesthesia with Chloroform: Sir James Young Simpson (1811–1870) [172]Discovery of hypnotism (November 1841) – James Braid (1795–1860) [173]Identifying the cause of brucellosis: Sir David Bruce (1855–1931) [183]Development of ibuprofenDiscovering the vaccine for typhoid fever: Sir William B. Leishman (1865–1926) [184]Discovering insulin – John J R Macleod (1876–1935) with others [177]The earliest disvcovery of an antibiotic, penicillin: Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) [185]Discovering an effective tuberculosis treatment: Sir John Crofton in the 1950s [186]Primary creator of the artificial kidney (Professor Kenneth Lowe – Later Queen's physician in Scotland) [187]Developing the first beta-blocker drugs: Sir James W. Black in 1964 [188]EKG [Electrocardiography]: Alexander Muirhead (1911) [189]Discovering secretin, the first hormone, and its role as a chemical messenger: William Bayliss and Ernest Starling.[190]Military[edit]Percussion ignitionTurret ship – Although designs for a rotating gun turret date back to the late 18th century, HMS Trusty was the first warship to be outfitted with one.Battle Tank/The tank – Developed and first used in combat by the British during World War I as a means to break the deadlock of trench warfare. Attributed to Ernest Dunlop SwintonFighter aircraft – The Vickers F.B.5 Gunbus of 1914 was the first of its kind.Congreve rocket – William CongreveHarrier Jump Jet – VTOL (Vertical take-off and landing aircraft)Aircraft carrier – HMS ArgusDreadnought battleship – HMS DreadnoughtBailey bridge – Donald BaileyChobham armourLivens Projector – William Howard Livens[191]H2S radar (airborne radar to aid bomb targeting) – Alan BlumleinBouncing bomb – Barnes WallisSafety fuse – William BickfordFairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife – William Ewart Fairbairn and Eric A. SykesArmstrong Gun – Sir William ArmstrongHigh explosive squash head – Sir Charles Dennistoun BurneyNuclear fission chain reaction – Leo Szilard whilst crossing the road near Russell Square.Shrapnel shell – Henry ShrapnelBullpup firearm configuration – Thorneycroft carbinePuckle Gun – James PuckleThe side by side Boxlock action, AKA the double barreled shotgun – Anson and DeeleyStun grenades – invented by the Special Air Service in the 1960s.Mills bomb – the first modern fragmentation grenade.Smokeless propellant to replace gunpowder with the use of Cordite – Frederick AbelRubber bullet and Plastic bullet – Developed by the Ministry of Defence during The Troubles in Northern Ireland.Depth chargeTorpedo – Robert WhiteheadThe Whitworth rifle, considered the first sniper rifle. During the American Civil War the Whitworth rifle had been known to kill at ranges of about 800 yards (730 m) – Sir Joseph WhitworthThe world's first practical underwater active sound detection apparatus, the ASDIC Active Sonar – Developed by Canadian physicist Robert William Boyle and English physicist Albert Beaumont WoodThe first self-powered machine gun Maxim gun – Sir Hiram Maxim, Although the Inventor is American, the Maxim gun was financed by Albert Vickers of Vickers Limited company and produced in Hatton Garden LondonSteam catapult-Commander Colin C. Mitchell RNVRSelf-propelled gun - The Gun Carrier Mark I was the first piece of Self-propelled artillery ever to be produced.Special forces – SAS Founded by Sir David Stirling.Mining[edit]Tunnel boring machine – James Henry Greathead and Isambard Kingdom BrunelDavy lamp – Humphry DavyGeordie lamp – George StephensonBeam engine – Used for pumping water from minesMusical instruments[edit]Concertina – Charles Wheatstone[40]Theatre organ – Robert Hope-JonesLogical bassoon, an electronically controlled version of the bassoon – Giles BrindleyNorthumbrian smallpipesTuning fork – John ShoreThe piano footpedal – John Broadwood (1732–1812) [192]Photography[edit]Ambrotype – Frederick Scott Archer[193]Calotype – William Fox Talbot[194]Phtographic negative - William Fox TalbotCollodion process – Frederick Scott Archer[193]Collodion-albumen process – Joseph Sidebotham in 1861Stereoscope – Charles Wheatstone[39][40]Thomas Wedgwood – pioneer of photography, devised the method to copy visible images chemically to permanent media.Dry plate process also known as gelatine process, is the first economically successful durable photographic medium – Richard Leach MaddoxKinemacolor was the first successful colour motion picture process, used commercially from 1908 to 1914 – George Albert SmithCinematography – William Friese-GreeneMotion picture camera, the Kinetoscope – William Kennedy Laurie DicksonThe first movie projector, the Zoopraxiscope – Eadweard MuybridgeThe first experimental film called "The Horse in Motion" in 1872 – Eadweard MuybridgePublishing firsts[edit]Oldest publisher and printer in the world (having been operating continuously since 1584): Cambridge University Pressfirst book printed in English: "The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye" by Englishman William Caxton in 1475The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1768–81) [195]The first English textbook on surgery(1597) [196]The first modern pharmacopaedia, William Cullen (1776) The book became 'Europe's principal text on the classification and treatment of disease' [197]The first postcards and picture postcards in the UK [198]Science[edit]Modern atomic theory – Considered the father of modern chemistry, John Dalton's experiments with gases led to the development of what is called the modern atomic theory.[12][199]Equals sign Robert Recorde, WelshmanCell biology – Credit for the discovery of the first cells is given to Robert Hooke who described the microscopic compartments of cork cells in 1665[199]Compound microscope with 30x magnification – Robert HookeUniversal joint – Robert Hooke[citation needed]Coggeshall slide rule – Henry CoggeshallThe Iris diaphragm – Robert HookeCorrect theory of combustion – Robert HookePartition chromatography – Richard Laurence Millington Synge and Archer J.P. Martin[200]Arnold Frederic Wilkins – pioneer in the development of RadarAtwood machine used for illustrating the law of uniformly accelerated motion – George AtwoodMarine Barometer – Robert Hooke[100]Hooke's Law (equation describing elasticity) – Robert Hooke[100]Electrical generator (dynamo) – Michael Faraday[126]Faraday cage – Michael Faraday[126]Magneto-optical effect – Michael Faraday[126]Calculus – Sir Isaac NewtonInfrared radiation – discovery commonly attributed to William Herschel.Holography – First developed by Dennis Gabor in Rugby, England. Improved by Nicholas J. Phillips who made it possible to record multi-colour reflection hologramsDiscovery of the pion (pi-meson) – Cecil Frank PowellWheatstone bridge – Samuel Hunter ChristieTriple achromatic lens – Peter DollondNewtonian telescope – Sir Isaac NewtonHawking radiation – Stephen HawkingDemonstrated that electric circuits obey the law of the conservation of energy and that electricity is a form of energy First Law of Thermodynamics. Also the unit of energy, the Joule is named after him – James Prescott JouleMicrometer – William Gascoignethe first bench micrometer that was capable of measuring to one ten thousandth of an inch – Henry MaudslaySinclair Executive, the world's first small electronic pocket calculator – Sir Clive SinclairDiscovered the element argon – John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh with Scotsman William RamsayStandard deviation – Francis GaltonSlide rule – William Oughtred [201]Synthesis of coumarin, one of the first synthetic perfumes, and cinnamic acid via the Perkin reaction – William Henry PerkinThe Law of Gravity – Sir Isaac NewtonNewton's laws of motion – Sir Isaac NewtonPre-empting elements of General Relativity theory – William Kingdon CliffordGeological Timescale – Arthur Holmes[202]Electromagnet – William Sturgeon in 1823.[199]Helium – Norman LockyerWeather map [203] – Sir Francis GaltonIntroduced the symbol for "is less than" and "is greater than" – Thomas Harriot 1630Introduced the "×" symbol for multiplication as well as the abbreviations "sin" and "cos" for the sine and cosine functions – William OughtredDew Point Hygrometer – John Frederic DaniellPeriodic Table – John Alexander Reina NewlandsSplitting the atom – John Cockcroft and Irish physicist Ernest WaltonFirst full-scale commercial Nuclear Reactor at Calder Hall, opened in 1956.[204]Seismograph – John MilneDiscovery of oxygen gas (O2) – Joseph PriestleyDiscovery of the Atom(nuclear model of) – Ernest RutherfordDiscovery of the Proton – Ernest RutherfordDiscovery of the Electron, isotopes and the inventor of the Mass spectrometer – J. J. ThomsonDiscovery of the Neutron – James ChadwickNuclear transfer – Is a form of cloning first put into practice by Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell to clone Dolly the SheepTheory of Evolution – Charles DarwinDiscovery of alpha and beta rays - Ernest RutherfordAstronomy[edit]Discovery of the "White Spot" on Saturn – Will HayDiscovery of Proxima Centauri, the closest known star to the Sun, by Robert Innes (1861–1933) [205]Discovery of the planet Uranus[206] and the moons Titania, Oberon, Enceladus, Mimas [207] by Sir William Herschel (German born astronom, later in life British)Discovery of Triton[208] and the moons Hyperion, Ariel and Umbriel – William Lassell[209]Planetarium – John Theophilus DesaguliersPredicts the existence and location of Neptune from irregularities in the orbit of Uranus – John Couch Adams [210]Important contributions to the development of radio astronomy – Bernard Lovell [211]Newtonian telescope – Sir Isaac Newton [212]Achromatic doublet lens – John Dollond [213]Coining the phrase 'Big Bang' – Fred Hoyle [214]First theorised existence of black holes, binary stars; invented torsion balance – John Michell[215]Stephen Hawking – World-renowned theoretical physicist made many important contributions to the fields of cosmology and quantum gravity, especially in the context of black holesSpiral galaxies – William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse [216]Discovery of Halley's Comet – Edmond Halley [217]Discovery of pulsars – Antony Hewish [218]Discovery of Sunspots and was the first person to make a drawing of the Moon through a telescope – Thomas Harriot [219]The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object – Arthur Stanley Eddington [220]Aperture synthesis, used for accurate location and imaging of weak radio sources in the field of Radio astronomy – Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish [221]Chemistry[edit]Dalton's law and Law of multiple proportions – John Dalton [222]The structure of DNA and pioneering the field of molecular biology – co-developed by Francis Crick [223] and the American James WatsonDNA sequencing by chain termination – Frederick Sanger [224]Discovery of introns in eukaryotic DNA and the mechanism of gene-splicing – Richard J. Roberts [225]Discovery of Buckminsterfullerene – Sir Harry Kroto [226]Discovery of thallium – William Crookes[12]Discovered the structure of ferrocene – Geoffrey Wilkinson & others [227]Discovers hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and can form an explosive mixture with air – Henry Cavendish [228]Proposes the law of octaves, a precursor to the Periodic Law – John Newlands [229]Bragg's law and establish the field of X-ray crystallography, an important tool for elucidating the crystal structure of substances – William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg [230]Introduces concept of atomic number to fix inadequacies of Mendeleev's periodic table, which had been based on atomic weight – Henry Moseley [231]First isolation of sodium – Humphry Davy [232]First isolation of potassium – Humphry Davy[12]First isolation of boron – Humphry Davy[12]First isolation of benzene, the first known aromatic hydrocarbon – Michael Faraday[233]Publishes Opus Maius, which among other things, proposes an early form of the scientific method, and contains results of his experiments with gunpowder – Roger Bacon [234]Publishes several Aristotelian commentaries, an early framework for the scientific method – Robert Grosseteste [235]Baconian method, an early forerunner of the scientific method – Sir Francis Bacon[236]The first discovery of aluminium – Sir Humphry DavyPioneer in early Solar Power – Weston cell – Edward Weston (chemist)[citation needed]Proposes the concept of isotopes, elements with the same chemical properties may have differing atomic weights – Frederick Soddy[12]The synthesising of xenon hexafluoroplatinate the first time to show that noble gases can form chemical compounds – Neil BartlettCallendar effect the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature (Global warming) – Guy Stewart CallendarPioneer of the fuel cell – Francis Thomas Bacon[237]Pioneer of meteorology by developing a nomenclature system for clouds in 1802 – Luke Howard[238]Rayleigh scattering explains why the sky is blue, and predicted the existence of the surface waves – John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh[239]Discovered the chemical composition of water: Henry Cavendish.[240]Discovered electrolysis and electrochemistry: William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle.[241]Discovered valence: Edward Frankland.[242]Developed the Kinetic theory of gases: James Maxwell.[243]Discovered silicones: Frederic Kipping.[244]Established chemical oceanography: Robert Boyle.[245]Invented kerosene: Abraham Gesner and James Young.Invented the chemical fertilizer: John LawesSport[edit]Football – The rules as we know them today were established in 1848 at Cambridge University, Sheffield F.C. is acknowledged by The Football Association and FIFA as the world's first and oldest football club.[246]Rugby – William Webb EllisCricket – the world's second-most popular sport can be traced back to the 13th century[247]Tennis – widely known to have originated in England.[248]Boxing – England played a key role in the evolution of modern boxing. Boxing was first accepted as an Olympic sport in Ancient Greece in 688 BCGolf – Modern game invented in ScotlandBilliardsBadmintonDarts – a traditional pub game, the numbering layout was devised by Brian GamlinTable-Tennis – was invented on the dinner tables of Britain as an indoor version of tennisSnooker – Invented by the British Army in India[249]Ping pong – The game has its origins in England, in the 1880sBowls – has been traced to 13th century England[250]Field hockey – the modern game grew from English public schools in the early 19th centuryNetball – the sport emerged from early versions of women's basketball, at Madame Österberg's College in England during the late 1890s.[251]Rounders – the game originates in England most likely from an older game known as stool ballThe Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race, the first race was in 1829 on the River Thames in London [252]Thoroughbred Horseracing – Was first developed in 17th and 18th century EnglandPolo – its roots began in Persia as a training game for cavalry units, the formal codification of the rules of modern Polo as a sport were established in 19th century EnglandThe format of Modern Olympics – William Penny BrookesThe first Paralympic games competition were held in England in 1948 – Ludwig Guttmann[253]Hawk-Eye ball tracking system.Transport[edit]Pedal driven bicycle - Kirkpatrick MacmillanAviation[edit]Aeronautics and flight. As a pioneer of glider development & first well-documented human flight he discovered and identified the four aerodynamic forces of flight – weight, lift, drag, and thrust. Modern airplane design is based on those discoveries including cambered wings. He is sometimes called the "Father of aviation" – George Cayley[254]Steam-powered flight with the Aerial Steam Carriage – John Stringfellow – The world's first powered flight took place at Chard in Somerset 55 years before the Wright brothers attempt at Kitty Hawk[255]VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) fighter-bomber aircraft – Hawker P.1127, designed by Sydney Camm[256]The first commercial jet airliner (de Havilland Comet)[257]The first Supersonic Airliner – Concorde. Developed by the British Aircraft Corporation in partnership with Aérospatiale 1969The first aircraft capable of supercruise – English Electric LightningAilerons – Matthew Piers Watt BoultonHead-up display (HUD) – The Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) designed the first equipment and it was built by Cintel with the system first integrated into the Blackburn Buccaneer.Pioneer of parachute design – Robert CockingThe first human-powered aircraft to make an officially authenticated take-off and flight (SUMPAC) – The University of Southampton[258]Hale rockets, improved version of the Congreve rocket design that introduced Thrust vectoring – William HaleSABRE engine- The first hypersonic jet/rocket capable of working in air and space to allow the possibility of HOTOL.Air Force – Royal Air ForceRailways[edit]Great Western Railway – Isambard Kingdom BrunelStockton and Darlington Railway the world's first operational steam passenger railwayFirst inter-city steam-powered railway – Liverpool and Manchester RailwayLocomotives[edit]Blücher – George StephensonPuffing Billy -William HedleyLocomotion No 1 – Robert StephensonSans Pareil – Timothy HackworthStourbridge Lion – Foster, Rastrick and CompanyStephenson's Rocket – George and Robert StephensonSalamanca – Matthew MurrayFlying Scotsman- Sir Nigel Gresley [259]Other railway developments[edit]Displacement lubricator, Ramsbottom safety valve, the water trough, the split piston ring – John RamsbottomMaglev (transport) rail system – Eric LaithwaiteWorld's first underground railway and the first rapid transit system. It was also the first underground railway to operate electric trains – London UndergroundAdvanced Passenger Train (APT) was an experimental High Speed Train that introduced tilting – British RailRoads[edit]Bowden cable – Frank BowdenHansom cab – Joseph HansomSeat belt – George Cayley[260]Sinclair C5 – Sir Clive SinclairTarmac – E. Purnell HooleyTension-spoke wire wheels – George Cayley[254]LGOC B-type – the first mass-produced busPneumatic tyre – Robert William Thomson is deemed to be inventor, despite John Boyd Dunlop being initially creditedDisc brakes – Frederick W. Lanchester[12]Belisha beacon – Leslie Hore-BelishaLotus 25: considered the first modern F1 race car, designed for the 1962 Formula One season; a revolutionary design, the first fully stressed monocoque chassis to appear in Formula One – Colin Chapman, Team LotusHorstmann suspension, tracked armoured fighting vehicle suspension – Sidney HorstmannSteam fire engine – John BraithwaitePenny-farthing – James StarleyDynasphere – John Archibald PurvesCaterpillar track – Richard Lovell EdgeworthMini-roundabout – Frank BlackmoreQuadbike – Standard Motor Company patented the 'Jungle Airborne Buggy' (JAB) in 1944[261]Sea[edit]Plimsoll Line – Samuel PlimsollHovercraft – Christopher CockerellLifeboat – Lionel LukinResurgam – George GarrettTransit (ship) – Richard Hall GowerTurbinia, the first steam turbine powered steamship, designed by the engineer Sir Charles Algernon Parsons and built in Newcastle upon TyneDiving Equipment/Scuba Gear – Henry FleussDiving bell – Edmund HalleySextant – John BirdOctant (instrument) – Independently developed by Englishman John Hadley and the American Thomas GodfreyWhirling speculum, This device can be seen as a precursor to the gyroscope – John SersonScrew propeller – Francis Pettit SmithThe world's first patent for an underwater echo ranging device (Sonar) – Lewis Richardsonhydrophone Before the invention of Sonar convoy escort ships used them to detect U-boats, greatly lessening the effectiveness of the submarine – Research headed by Ernest RutherfordHydrofoil – John Isaac ThornycroftInflatable boatHMS Warrior The world's first iron armoured and iron hulled warship.Scientific innovations[edit]The theory of electromagnetism – James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [262]The Gregorian telescope – James Gregory (1638–1675) [263]The concept of latent heat – Joseph Black (1728–1799) [264]The pyroscope, atmometer and aethrioscope scientific instruments: Sir John Leslie (1766–1832) [265]Identifying the nucleus in living cells – Robert Brown (1773–1858) [266]Hypnotism – James Braid (1795–1860) [267]Transplant rejection: Professor Thomas Gibson (1940s) the first medical doctor to understand the relationship between donor graft tissue and host tissue rejection and tissue transplantation by his work on aviation burns victims during World War II.[268]Colloid chemistry – Thomas Graham (1805–1869) [269]The kelvin SI unit of temperature – William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907) [270]Devising the diagramatic system of representing chemical bonds – Alexander Crum Brown (1838–1922) [271]Criminal fingerprinting – Henry Faulds (1843–1930) [272]The noble gases: Sir William Ramsay (1852–1916) [273]The Cloud chamber – Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (1869–1959) [274]Pioneering work on nutrition and poverty – John Boyd Orr (1880–1971) [275]The ultrasound scanner – Ian Donald (1910–1987) [276]Ferrocene synthetic substances – Peter Ludwig Pauson in 1955 [277]The MRI body scanner – John Mallard and James Huchinson from (1974–1980) [278]The first cloned mammal (Dolly the Sheep): Was conducted in The Roslin Institute research centre in 1996 [279]Seismometer innovations thereof – James David Forbes [280]Metaflex fabric innovations thereof – University of St. Andrews (2010) application of the first manufacturing fabrics that manipulate light in bending it around a subject. Before this such light manipulating atoms were fixed on flat hard surfaces. The team at St Andrews are the first to develop the concept to fabric.[281]Macaulayite: Dr Jeff Wilson of the Macaulay Institute, Aberdeen.[282]Miscellaneous[edit]Oldest police force in continuous operation: Marine Police Force founded in 1798 and now part of the Metropolitan Police ServiceOldest life insurance company in the world: Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office founded 1706First Glee Club, founded in Harrow School in 1787.[283]Oldest arts festival – Norwich 1772 [284]Oldest music festival – The Three Choirs FestivalOldest literary festival – The Cheltenham Literature FestivalBayko – Charles PlimptonLinoleum – Frederick Walton [285]Chocolate bar – J. S. Fry & Sons [286]Meccano – Frank HornbyCrossword puzzle – Arthur WynneGas mask – (disputed) John Tyndall and othersGraphic telescope – Cornelius VarleySteel-ribbed Umbrella – Samuel FoxPlastic – Alexander ParkesPlasticine – William HarbuttCarbonated soft drink – Joseph PriestleyFriction Match – John WalkerInvented the rubber balloon – Michael FaradayThe proposal of a new decimal metrology which predated the Metric system – John Wilkins[287]Edmondson railway ticket – Thomas EdmondsonThe world's first Nature Reserve – Charles Waterton *Public Park – Joseph PaxtonScouts – Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-PowellSpirograph – Denys FisherThe Young Men's Christian Association YMCA was founded in London – George Williams[288]The Salvation Army, known for being one of the largest distributors of humanitarian aid – Methodist minister William BoothPrime meridian – George Biddell AiryProduced the first complete printed translation of the Bible into English – Myles CoverdaleFounder of the Bank of Scotland – John HollandVenn diagram – John VennVulcanisation of rubber – Thomas HancockSilicone – Frederick KippingPykrete – Geoffrey PykeVantablack – The world's blackest known substanceStamp collecting – John Edward Gray bought penny blacks on first day of issue in order to keep themlorgnette – George Adams (optician)Boys' Brigade [289]Bank of England devised by William PatersonBank of France devised by John LawColour photography: the first known permanent colour photograph was taken by James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [290]BarnardosBoy ScoutsGirl GuidesRSPCARSPBRNLI

U-515.The longrange Type IXC boat emerged from the yards of Deutsche Werft at Hamburg-Finkenwerder and Werner Henke raised the national flag and his Commander’s pennant above her conning tower at the Indienststellung, or formal commissioning, on 21 February 1942.Henke’s U-boat was a Type IXC Atlantikboot, an improved version of two earlier submarine models, IXB and IXA, which had been built in the late 1930s and 1940 to specifications close to those of a World War I boat, U-81. The IX series had been envisioned originally as command and control boats, in which tactical group (“pack”) leaders could direct operations at sea (an idea abandoned in late 1940); also as reconnaissance and mine-laying boats; and, finally, as long-range high-seas attack boats. In the last capacity, Types IXB and IXC boats had conducted immensely successful torpedo operations against Allied shipping as far distant as the United States East Coast, the Caribbean Basin, and the coast of West Africa.After six months of workup and tactical exercises, she had made her maiden war patrol, and Henke’s first as a Kommandant, on 12 August-14 October 1942 off Trinidad and Tobago in the southeast Caribbean, netting ten Allied ships sunk, for a total of 52,807 GRT; a not-inconsiderable tally for a single cruise, even given the fact that Henke was operating against mostly independently routed ships in a weakly defended area.It was a score outdone by only a handful of German boats during the war, and matched by only one U.S. Navy submarine in the Pacific (U.S.S. Tang in June-July 1944).The U-515’s second cruise, on 7 November 1942–6 January 1943, off Gibraltar and the Azores, resulted in only two sinkings, but one vessel was a Royal Navy destroyer depot ship, H.M.S. Hecla (10,850 tons), and the other a passenger liner-troopship, Ceramic (18,713 GRT). The loss of life from the two ships had been dreadful: 279 lost from 847 ranks and ratings on the former; all but one of 656 on the latter.By 30 April 1943, U-515’s third patrol, begun on 21 February, was already one of the longest of the war, and due to grow longer still. Operating off first the Azores and then Dakar in Senegal, on the bulge of West Africa, U-515’s third cruise, like the second, had been mostly a run of bad luck, with only two merchant trophies of 10,657 GRT to show for sixty-nine days of steaming—a poor individual tonnage rate per sea-day of 154 GRT.The first sinking had come on the evening of 4 March while U-515 was northwest of the Azores. On a calm sea with little wind and good visibility, Henke sighted a large freighter proceeding independently at 15 knots on a course of 050° (degrees). He advanced on the surface toward the target. What happened next he described in his war diary (Kriegstagebuch, hereafter KTB):Double fan launch [Fächer] from [torpedo] Tubes II and IV. [Torpedo] speed 14 knots, range [to target] 1,200 meters. [Target’s] bows on right, bearing 80 degrees, [torpedo] depth 5 meters, running times 37 and 38 seconds. Two hits amidship and forward [but] the steamer doesn’t sink. Coup de grace [Fangschuss] from [stern] Tube VI, depth [set to run below the keel of the target] 9 meters, [torpedo warhead equipped] with Pi 2 [Pistole-2: a detonator designed to be activated by the magnetic field of a ship’s steel keel], running time 36 seconds. Hit toward the stern, in the engine room—a powerful explosion. The steamer sinks slowly on an even keel, transmits wireless signal. [Another] coup de grace, this time from Tube I. Depth 10 [meters] with Pi 2, running time 25 seconds. Hit forward—great explosion. Ship goes down after about 10 minutes. It’s the California Star at 8,300 GRT, [which was sailing] from New Zealand to England with butter, cheese, lard, and meat. The Second Officer was taken prisoner. The Captain and First Officer probably went down with their ship.Technically speaking, the action-ready torpedo in a tube was not “fired” during combat, for no explosive powder was ignited to serve as a propellant. Rather, the tube was flooded and the torpedo was “launched,” or “released,” by a blast of compressed air at about twenty-four atmospheres of pressure. The usual command was Los! (“Release!”)The California Star, which carried general cargo as well as food, was a motor ship of British registry. Fifty of her seventy-four men on board were killed, fatally wounded, or drowned. The sinking took place at latitude and longitude coordinates 42°32'N, 37°20'W.On 21 March and 1 April U-515 rendezvoused with two returning boats, U-106 (Kptlt. Hermann Rasch) and U-67 (Kptlt. Günther Müller-Stockheim), to take on fuel, provisions, and spare parts.Henke’s second success on this patrol came thirty-six days after the first, on 9 April, at night, while steaming off Dakar. This victim, the French motor ship Bamako, was a smallish 2,357 GRT, slightly overestimated by Henke:Advanced on a freighter of 3,500 GRT. Double fan launch from [stern] Tubes V and VI. [Target’s] speed 8.5 knots. [Torpedo] depths set to 3 and 4 meters. [Target’s] bows on right bearing 80 degrees. Range 800 meters. [Torpedo] running times 60 and 61 seconds. Hits fore and aft. Ship capsizes and sinks very quickly.Twenty of the ship’s thirty-seven crew and passengers went to watery graves at position 14°57'N, 17°15'W.Airplanes of the Allies, which began obtaining longer and longer ranges, thus giving the wolf-packs no cover.The U-boat has no more to fear from aircraft than a mole from a crow.ADMIRAL DöNITZ4 AUGUST 1942U-Boats of the time were very vulnerable to air attack while surfaced, and they HAD to surface very often.Propelled on the surface by two 2,200-horsepower diesel engines (nine-cylinder, four-cycle, supercharged, salt water-cooled) manufactured by Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg AG (MAN), the IXC was capable of 18.3 knots maximum speed (one knot was one nautical mile per hour, about 1.15 statute miles per hour); and it was on the surface, which surprises many modern readers, that U-boats of this period did most of their travel and fighting: The submerged attack by periscope was an exception rather than the rule. In truth, because it could not operate continually under water, the 1943 U-boat was a submersible rather than a genuine submarine.Another reason more frequently, and convincingly, offered is the acquisition by the British, in February-June 1941, of access to secretly encrypted radio traffic between Donitz and his boats. The story is now a familiar one. For secret radio communications the three German armed forces, land, sea, and air, employed a once commercially available electrical-mechanical encryption machine. Called Enigma, it resembled a typewriter with a standard keyboard, which was used for punching in the message to be encrypted. Above the keyboard were three (later four) rotors, and below the keyboard facing the operator was a plug board. By altering the rotor settings and plug pairings each day, it was estimated that the possible permutations created by the machine approached one hundred and fifty million million million, a number maintained by German cipher experts to be beyond solution. But in 1934 Polish Intelligence Service mathematicians, by yoking six Enigma machines together, did find a partial solution. They managed to pass on their findings to French cryptanalysts, thence, after France, too, fell, to the cryptanalysis establishment at the (mostly) fictitious Government Code and Cipher School (GC&CS) in England.Under the direction of academics, notably the Cambridge mathematician Alan Turing, GC&CS constructed an electromagnetic scanning machine called the Bombe. Fed to the Bombe’s innards, intercepted German signals traffic began to shed its veils. First to be read was Luftwaffe (Air Force) Enigma, on 22 May 1940. Shortly afterward, the machine decrypted Wehrmacht (Army) traffic. Hut 8, however, which was assigned to naval traffic, was frustrated by the Bombe’s inability to penetrate the Kriegsmarine’s more complex U-boat cipher, generated by the marine version of the Enigma machine, Schülssel M (Marine-Funkschlüssel-Maschine M). Naval Enigma, in fact, would resist for a full year until finally forced to submit in winter-spring 1941.What Hut 8 had needed to resolve the impasse were operational wired rotors and operators’ handbooks that gave daily Schlüssel-M settings and pairings. In a series of “pinches” conducted from February through June 1941, the Royal Navy obliged. On 12 January, off a captured crewman of the sunken U-33 in the North Channel between northern Ireland and Scotland came rotors. On 4 March, from the wrecked German whaling trawler Krebs off the coast of Norway, came key tables and settings. Armed with these materials, Hut 8 could then read U-boat traffic in the Heimische Gewässer (Home Waters) key for the entire month of April. More pinches were to follow. From the captured weather ship München east of Iceland on 7 May came settings and keys for June. And, the pièce de resistance, two days later, destroyer H.M.S. Bulldog boarded U-110 (Kptlt. Fritz-Julius Lemp) in mid-Atlantic and came away with a Schlüssel-M including spare rotors, a Home Waters handbook with daily settings and pairings, special settings for Offizier, officer-only, signals, and short-signals (Kurzsignale) code books, all valid to the end of June.Germany’s own radio monitoring and cryptanalysis service, B-Dienst (.Funkbeobach tungsdienst), was not itself idle during this same period. Since before the war, in fact, its staff—500 in 1939,5,000 in 1942—at Tirpitzufer 72–76 in Berlin had been busily attacking various of the British codes and ciphers, gaining entry early on to the Royal Navy Administrative Code, Auxiliary Code, Merchant Navy Code, and Naval Code No. 1. It also had modest success against Naval Cipher No. 2, adopted on 20 August 1940. But it was Naval Cipher No. 3, introduced at the start of October 1941, that most engaged the energies of the B-Dienst cryptanalysts, since its content dealt specifically with Allied convoys. Originated in June 1941 for use by the British, United States, and Canadian navies in the Atlantic, and popularly called the Anglo-American Convoy Cipher, it quickly became the conduit for information about convoy departures, routes, diversions, and arrivals, as well as about stragglers.As a result of each belligerent having the other side’s key, sea warfare in the Atlantic during the winter and spring of 1943 became in part a backroom chess game as the Tracking Room, playing Ultra, sought to outwit BdU, playing B-Dienst, and no doubt on numerous occasions one side was able to neutralize the other’s advantage. After the war, in a secret report (“three copies only”) dated 10 November 1945, Paymaster Commander WGS Tighe, R.N., of the Signals Division, Admiralty, presented a report titled “German Success Against British Codes and Ciphers.” It exists today in nineteen-page summary form.In it Tighe described the Signals Division as “shocked” to have learned after the war from captured documents and interrogations of German cryptanalysts that Naval Cipher No. 3 had been thoroughly compromised, and that this security failure “not only cost us dearly in men and ships, but very nearly lost us the war.” That extravagance was matched by Tighe’s subsequent claim that “all successes obtained by U-boats against convoys HX229 and SC122 in March 1943, when 22 ships were sunk, can be directly traced to the information obtained by reading our signals.”Various sources state that knowledge of the German reconstruction of Naval Cipher No. 3 was smelled out by American Naval Intelligence in March and May 1943. But GC&CS had learned from Enigma solutions as early as December 1942 that B-Dienst was reading the cipher.

To me it means tomorrow and after tomorrow will mean yesterday. But that is about it.But, because it was a day and, people do stuff every day, here is a list of things people did on the 21. Most of it horrible stuff but some of it “normal” stuff. :356 BC Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World.365 Crete Earthquake followed by a tsunami around the Eastern Mediterranean allegedly destroys Alexandria976 Emperor Otto II gives earl Leopold I, East Bavaria1403 Battle of Shrewsbury fought by Percys against King Henry IV1542 Pope Paul III begins inquisition against Protestants (Sanctum Officium)1545 The first landing of French troops onto the coast of the Isle of Wight during the French invasion1568 Battle at Jemmingen: Alva's troops beat Dutch rebellion1579 Mechelen surrenders to Duke of Parma1718 The Treaty of Passarowitz between the Ottoman Empire, Austria and the Republic of Venice is signed1730 States of Holland put the death penalty on "sodomy"1749 Pieter Steyn becomes pension advisor of Holland1773 Pope Clemens XIV bans Jesuits1774 Russo-Turkish War, 1768-74: Russia and the Ottoman Empire sign Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji ending the war1825 Java princess Dipo Negoro/Mangkubumi declare war on all non-Islamics1831 Belgium gains independence from the Netherlands, Leopold I made the king1836 1st Canadian RR opens, between Laprairie and St John, Quebec1846 Mormons found 1st English settlement in California (San Joaquin Valley)1861 First Battle of Bull Run [Battle of First Manassas], 1st major battle of the US Civil War is fought near Manassas, Virginia, Confederate victory1865 In the market square of Springfield, Missouri, Wild Bill Hickok shoots and kills Davis Tutt in what is regarded as the first true western showdown1866 Cholera epidemic kills hundreds in London1867 City Gardens on Folsom in San Francisco opens1873 Jesse James and James Younger gang's 1st train robbery (Adair Iowa)1877 US army breaks railroad strike1880 Compressed air accident kills 20 workers on Hudson River tunnel, NY1884 1st Test Cricket match played at Lord's1888 Wimbledon Women's Tennis: Lottie Dod retains her title beating Blanche Bingley-Hillyard 6-3, 6-31896 National Federation of Colored Women established in Washington D.C.1904 After 13 years, the 4,607-mile Trans-Siberian railway is completed1904 Camille Jenatzy sets world auto speed record at 65.79 MPH1915 Woodrow Wilson sends the third Lusitania note, warning Germany that future infringement of American rights will be deemed 'deliberately unfriendly'1917 Russian Revolution: Socialist Alexander Kerensky becomes Russian Prime Minister1918 U-156 shells Nauset Beach, in Orleans, Massachusetts.1919 Anthony Fokker's establishes aeroplane factory at Hamburg and Amsterdam1919 Dirigible crashes through bank skylight killing 13 in Chicago, Illinois1920 Irish Nationalist and Loyalists engage in street fighting over the issue of Irish independence from Britain, though Loyalist are reinforced by 1500 British Auxiliaries and 5800 British troops1921 Indians (9) & Yankees (7) hit a record 16 doubles1921 To prove his contention that airpower is superior to sea power, US Colonel William Mitchell demonstrates how bombs from planes can sink a captured German battleship1923 Phillies score 12 in 6th and beat Cubs 17-41925 John T. Scopes found guilty of teaching evolution in the “Scopes monkey trial”, Dayton, Tennessee, fined $100 & costs1930 110°F (43°C) at Millsboro, Delaware (state record)1930 US Veterans Administration forms1931 Reno race track, becomes 1st in US to use daily double wagering1933 Haifa Harbor in Palestine opens1934 113°F (45°C), near Gallipolis, Ohio (state record)1938 Paul Hindemith and Leonide Massine's ballet premieres in London1940 Soviet Union annexes Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania1940 VARA-management accepts Rost of Tonningens demands1941 200 Jewish Torahs are burned in Ukraine1941 Himmler orders building of Majdanek concentration camp1942 8 die as coal waste heap slides in river valley near Oakwood, Va1943 "Stormy Weather", directed by Andrew L. Stone, starring Bill Robinson, Lena Horne and Fats Waller singing "Ain't Misbehavin'" premieres in the US1944 British premier Winston Churchill flies to France, meets Montgomery1944 General Koiso becomes Premier of Japan1944 US forces land on Guam during its recapture from the Japanese (Operation Forager)1944 Field Marshal Günther von Kluge warns Hitler of the impending collapse of front in Normandy1945 Detroit Tigers and Philadelphia A's play 24 innings 1-1 tie1946 Jesus T Pinerol becomes 1st native-born Puerto Rican governor1947 Indonesia begins 1st political election1948 WSPD TV channel 13 in Toledo, OH (NBC) begins broadcasting1949 US Senate ratifies North Atlantic Treaty by a vote of 82-13 (NATO)1951 Dalai Lama returns to Tibet1952 7.8 earthquake shakes Kern County California, 14 killed1952 Premier Ghavam es-Sultaneh of Persia, resigns1952 "The Quiet Man" film directed by John Ford and starring John Wayne and Maureen O'Hara is released in the UK1954 At Geneva, France agrees to the independence of North & South Vietnam1955 USS Seawolf launched, 1st submarine powered by liquid metal cooled nuclear reactor1956 Cincinnati Reds pitcher Brooks Lawrence loses after 13 straight wins1956 US performs atmospheric nuclear Test at Enewetak1957 1st black to win a major US tennis tournament (Althea Gibson)1957 PGA Championship, Miami Valley GC: Lionel Hebert wins 2 & 1 from Dow Finsterwald; last time event played under match-play format1959 1st nuclear-powered merchant ship, NS Savannah, named, Camden NJ1959 Red Sox are the last team to use a black player (Pumpsie Green)1960 Country of Katanga forms in Africa1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaike becomes the world's 1st female head of state elected in modern times, as Prime Minister of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka)1960 Francis Chichester arrives in NY aboard Gypsy Moth II, setting a record of 40 days for a solo Atlantic crossing1961 Launch of Mercury 4 (Liberty Bell) with Grissom1962 160 civil right activists jailed after a demonstration in Albany, Georgia1962 Battles on Chinese & Indies boundary1964 Arnold Long takes 11 catches in the match for Surrey v Sussex1964 Mildred Simpson runs female world record marathon (3:19:33)1964 Last Dutch whaling ship Willem Barents Sea sold to Japan1964 Race riots in Singapore between Chinese and Malay groups, 23 killed, 454 injured1965 Pakistan, Iran and Turkey sign Regional Co-Operation pact1966 Gemini X returns to Earth1966 USSR performs nuclear Test at Eastern Kazakh/Semipalitinsk USSR1968 PGA Championship, Pecan Valley GC: Julius Boros (48) becomes oldest winner of a major; wins by 1 from Bob Charles & Arnold Palmer1968 55th Tour de France won by Jan Janssen of Netherlands1969 Apollo 11: Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to step on the Moon at 2:56:15 AM (GMT)1969 Russia's Luna 15 impacts moon after 52 lunar orbits1970 Aswan High Dam opens in Egypt, enables human control of the flooding of the Nile1970 Libya orders confiscation of all Jewish property1970 USSR performs nuclear Test at Eastern Kazakh/Semipalitinsk USSR1970 Clay Kirby has a no-hitter going for 8 inns, but is lifted for a pinch hitter, Reliever Jack Baldschun gives up 3 hits & Padres lose, 3-01971 US performs a nuclear test at Nevada Test Site1971 Sam Giancana returns to the United States after spending seven years of exile in Mexico1972 2 passenger trains collide head-on killing 76 (Seville, Spain)1972 27.5 cm rainfall at Fort Ripley, Minnesota (state record)1972 Los Angeles Dodgers release and end career of knuckleball pitcher Hoyt Wilhelm1972 In New York 57 murders occur in 24 hours1972 Bloody Friday: within the space of seventy-five minutes, the Provisional Irish Republican Army explode twenty-two bombs in Belfast; six civilians, two British Army soldiers and one UDA volunteer were killed, 130 injured1973 France performs nuclear Test at Mururoa Atoll in the Pacific1973 USSR launches Mars 4 for fly-by (2600 km) of red planet1974 US Open Women's Golf, La Grange CC: Sandra Haynie wins by 1 shot from Beth Stone and Carol Mann1974 US House Judiciary approves two Articles of Impeachment against President Richard Nixon1974 61st Tour de France: Eddy Merckx of Belgium wins 5th Tour that he enters; equals Jacques Anquetil record for Tour victories1975 Billy Martin fired as Texas Rangers manager1975 NY Met Félix Millán hits 4 singles; erased by Joe Torres 4 double plays1976 "Guys & Dolls" opens at Broadway Theater NYC for 239 performances1976 1st outbreak of "Legionnaire's Disease" kills 29 in Philadelphia1976 Christopher Ewart-Biggs, British Ambassador to the Republic of Ireland, and his secretary Judith Cook are assassinated by a bomb planted by the Provisional IRA in his car in Dublin1976 9th San Diego Comic-Con International opens at El Cortez Hotel1977 Libyan-Egyptian border fights1977 Sri Lankan Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike loses the general election1977 Sanjiva Reddy is elected sixth President of India unopposed1978 Bolivian military coup under General Juan Pereda, President Hugo Banzer flees1978 US Postal Service & unions agree on a contract averting mail strike1978 World's strongest dog, 80-kg St Bernard, pulls 2909-kg load 27 m1978 "Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" film, based on the Beatles' album of the same name, premieres in NYC1980 Jean-Claude Droyer climbs Eiffel Tower in 2 hrs 18 mins1981 Australia set 130 to win, all out 111 at Headingley Willis 8-431982 France performs nuclear Test at Mururoa atoll1983 Polish government ends 19 months of martial law1983 Storm cuts short Diana Ross' free concert in NY's Central Park1983 US announces Lebanon freed American hostage David Dodge1983 World's lowest-ever natural temperature recorded −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F; 184.0 K) at Soviet Vostok Station, Antarctica1984 Marita Koch of East Germany sets world women's mark for 200m, 21.71s1984 USSR performs underground nuclear Test1985 "Leader of the Pack" closes at Ambassador Theater NYC after 120 performances1985 British Open Golf, Royal St George's GC: Scotsman Sandy Lyle wins his only Open title by 1 stroke from runner-up Payne Stewart; last time event features double cut (after 36 and 54 holes), introduced in 19681985 Amina Fakir (Detroit), 23, crowned 18th Miss Black America1985 72nd Tour de France won by Bernard Hinault of France1986 Barbara Palacios Teyde, 22, of Venezuela, crowned 35th Miss Universe1986 Pleasure Island plans unveiled1987 Kristi Addis, of Mississippi, crowned 5th Miss Teen USA1988 ESA's Ariane-3 launches 2 communications satellites (1 Indian)1988 Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis accepts Democratic nomination for president1989 Eastern Airlines submits a reorganization plan to creditors1989 Mike Tyson KOs Carl Williams in 1:33 for heavyweight boxing title1994 Tony Blair is declared the winner of the leadership election of the British Labour Party, paving the way for him to become Prime Minister in 19971995 Brian Lara completes a pair for West Indians v Kent1995 KC Royals set club-record of 22 singles in 15 innings1996 British Open Golf, Royal Lytham & St. Annes: American Tom Lehman wins his only major championship by 2 strokes from Mark McCumber and Ernie Els; first American to win at Lytham since Bobby Jones 70 years earlier1996 Wayne Gretzky signs a 2 year deal with NY Rangers1996 "The Daily Show" hosted by Craig Kilborn premieres on Comedy Central in the US1996 83rd Tour de France won by Bjarne Riis of Denmark1997 NY Yank Mike Whiton held in Milwaukee on charges of sexual assault1997 The fully restored USS Constitution (aka "Old Ironsides") celebrates her 200th birthday, setting sail for the first time in 116 years2002 Telecom giant WorldCom files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the then-largest such filing in United States history2002 British Open Golf, Muirfield: Ernie Els of South Africa wins first of 2 Open titles in a playoff from Australians Stuart Appleby & Steve Elkington, and Frenchman Thomas Levet2002 With a record 6 races remaining, German Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher clinches his 5th F1 World Drivers Championship with victory in the French Grand Prix at Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours; 3rd straight title win2004 The United Kingdom government publishes Delivering Security in a Changing World, a paper detailing wide-ranging reform of the country's armed forces2005 Four terrorist bombers target London's public transportation system, exactly two weeks after the July 7 bombings. All four bombs fail to detonate leading to the capture of all the bombers.2007 Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, the final book in the series by J. K. Rowling is published worldwide. 11 million copies sell in 24 hrs2007 New Zealand beats Australia, 26-12 at Eden Park, Auckland to win their 3rd consecutive Tri Nations Rugby Series; flyhalf Dan Carter lands 7 penalties for the All Blacks2008 Bosnian-Serb war criminal Radovan Karadžić is arrested in Serbia and is indicted by the UN's ICTY tribunal2011 NASA's Space Shuttle program ends with the landing of Space Shuttle Atlantis on mission STS-1352011 44th San Diego Comic-Con International opens at San Diego Convention Center2013 15 Egyptian Army soldiers are killed after their bus crashes into a truck on the Mediterranean Coast Highway2013 12 people are killed in a clash between two Muslim families in Lanao del Sur, Philippines2013 British Open Golf, Muirfield: Phil Mickelson wins his 5th major, by 3 strokes from Henrik Stenson of Sweden2013 100th Tour de France won by Chris Froome of Great Britain2014 After 3 weeks, the Israeli Defense Force (IDF) has struck about 2,800 targets in Gaza, while Gaza has fired 1,497 rockets at Israel2014 "Guardians of the Galaxy", directed by James Gunn, starring Chris Pratt and Zoe Saldana, premieres in Hollywood, Los Angeles2017 Singer Justin Bieber barred from performing in China by Beijing Municipal Bureau of Culture citing his "bad behaviour"2017 White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer resigns after opposing the appointment of Anthony Scaramucci2018 India scraps tax on sanitary products after a campaign by activists2018 Re-boot of the TV show "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" announced with creator Joss Whedon as executive producer