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Say f(x) is the sum of the squares of the digits of the natural number x.It’s easy to see that for any x with 4 or more digits f(x) has at least one fewer digit. So iterations of f eventually are trapped among the numbers from 1 to 999.After experimenting and guessing that all sequences of iterates settle into one or the other of these two cycles:1 -> 1 -> 1, etc,or4 -> 16 -> 37 -> 58 -> 89 -> 145 -> 42 -> 20 -> 4,I wrote some code to take a number x to a pair (count(x), terminus(x)) where count is the number of iterations it would take to get to either 1 or 4, and terminus is which of 1 or 4 was reached.Then I obtained a list of (count, terminus) for all numbers from 1 to 999, risking an infinite loop. But there was no infinite loop, and my guess was confirmed. All iterations eventually end in one or the other cycle.FWIW here’s the list below (a long string of numbers of the form ’x, (count(x), terminus(x)’). Unless I missed something it looks like count is largest for 997, at 15, and that number goes to the loop involving 4.1 (0, 1) 2 (1, 4) 3 (11, 4) 4 (0, 4) 5 (8, 4) 6 (13, 4) 7 (5, 1) 8 (9, 4) 9 (10, 4) 10 (1, 1) 11 (2, 4) 12 (9, 4) 13 (2, 1) 14 (10, 4) 15 (10, 4) 16 (7, 4) 17 (9, 4) 18 (9, 4) 19 (4, 1) 20 (1, 4) 21 (9, 4) 22 (10, 4) 23 (3, 1) 24 (2, 4) 25 (7, 4) 26 (9, 4) 27 (10, 4) 28 (3, 1) 29 (6, 4) 30 (11, 4) 31 (2, 1) 32 (3, 1) 33 (10, 4) 34 (8, 4) 35 (9, 4) 36 (12, 4) 37 (6, 4) 38 (7, 4) 39 (11, 4) 40 (8, 4) 41 (10, 4) 42 (2, 4) 43 (8, 4) 44 (4, 1) 45 (11, 4) 46 (8, 4) 47 (9, 4) 48 (10, 4) 49 (4, 1) 50 (8, 4) 51 (10, 4) 52 (7, 4) 53 (9, 4) 54 (11, 4) 55 (9, 4) 56 (8, 4) 57 (10, 4) 58 (5, 4) 59 (8, 4) 60 (13, 4) 61 (7, 4) 62 (9, 4) 63 (12, 4) 64 (8, 4) 65 (8, 4) 66 (11, 4) 67 (6, 4) 68 (2, 1) 69 (12, 4) 70 (5, 1) 71 (9, 4) 72 (10, 4) 73 (6, 4) 74 (9, 4) 75 (10, 4) 76 (6, 4) 77 (5, 4) 78 (4, 4) 79 (3, 1) 80 (9, 4) 81 (9, 4) 82 (3, 1) 83 (7, 4) 84 (10, 4) 85 (5, 4) 86 (2, 1) 87 (4, 4) 88 (14, 4) 89 (4, 4) 90 (10, 4) 91 (4, 1) 92 (6, 4) 93 (11, 4) 94 (4, 1) 95 (8, 4) 96 (12, 4) 97 (3, 1) 98 (4, 4) 99 (12, 4) 100 (1, 1) 101 (2, 4) 102 (9, 4) 103 (2, 1) 104 (10, 4) 105 (10, 4) 106 (7, 4) 107 (9, 4) 108 (9, 4) 109 (4, 1) 110 (2, 4) 111 (12, 4) 112 (14, 4) 113 (3, 4) 114 (10, 4) 115 (11, 4) 116 (8, 4) 117 (11, 4) 118 (12, 4) 119 (8, 4) 120 (9, 4) 121 (14, 4) 122 (11, 4) 123 (11, 4) 124 (10, 4) 125 (12, 4) 126 (11, 4) 127 (12, 4) 128 (13, 4) 129 (3, 1) 130 (2, 1) 131 (3, 4) 132 (11, 4) 133 (5, 1) 134 (10, 4) 135 (10, 4) 136 (9, 4) 137 (9, 4) 138 (10, 4) 139 (5, 1) 140 (10, 4) 141 (10, 4) 142 (10, 4) 143 (10, 4) 144 (11, 4) 145 (3, 4) 146 (10, 4) 147 (12, 4) 148 (10, 4) 149 (5, 4) 150 (10, 4) 151 (11, 4) 152 (12, 4) 153 (10, 4) 154 (3, 4) 155 (11, 4) 156 (10, 4) 157 (11, 4) 158 (11, 4) 159 (10, 4) 160 (7, 4) 161 (8, 4) 162 (11, 4) 163 (9, 4) 164 (10, 4) 165 (10, 4) 166 (7, 4) 167 (3, 1) 168 (3, 4) 169 (13, 4) 170 (9, 4) 171 (11, 4) 172 (12, 4) 173 (9, 4) 174 (12, 4) 175 (11, 4) 176 (3, 1) 177 (13, 4) 178 (11, 4) 179 (4, 4) 180 (9, 4) 181 (12, 4) 182 (13, 4) 183 (10, 4) 184 (10, 4) 185 (11, 4) 186 (3, 4) 187 (11, 4) 188 (4, 1) 189 (11, 4) 190 (4, 1) 191 (8, 4) 192 (3, 1) 193 (5, 1) 194 (5, 4) 195 (10, 4) 196 (13, 4) 197 (4, 4) 198 (11, 4) 199 (10, 4) 200 (1, 4) 201 (9, 4) 202 (10, 4) 203 (3, 1) 204 (2, 4) 205 (7, 4) 206 (9, 4) 207 (10, 4) 208 (3, 1) 209 (6, 4) 210 (9, 4) 211 (14, 4) 212 (11, 4) 213 (11, 4) 214 (10, 4) 215 (12, 4) 216 (11, 4) 217 (12, 4) 218 (13, 4) 219 (3, 1) 220 (10, 4) 221 (11, 4) 222 (10, 4) 223 (10, 4) 224 (3, 4) 225 (11, 4) 226 (5, 1) 227 (11, 4) 228 (11, 4) 229 (5, 4) 230 (3, 1) 231 (11, 4) 232 (10, 4) 233 (11, 4) 234 (7, 4) 235 (8, 4) 236 (5, 1) 237 (10, 4) 238 (6, 4) 239 (5, 1) 240 (2, 4) 241 (10, 4) 242 (3, 4) 243 (7, 4) 244 (13, 4) 245 (12, 4) 246 (9, 4) 247 (13, 4) 248 (11, 4) 249 (3, 4) 250 (7, 4) 251 (12, 4) 252 (11, 4) 253 (8, 4) 254 (12, 4) 255 (12, 4) 256 (9, 4) 257 (5, 4) 258 (12, 4) 259 (3, 4) 260 (9, 4) 261 (11, 4) 262 (5, 1) 263 (5, 1) 264 (9, 4) 265 (9, 4) 266 (7, 4) 267 (5, 4) 268 (11, 4) 269 (15, 4) 270 (10, 4) 271 (12, 4) 272 (11, 4) 273 (10, 4) 274 (13, 4) 275 (5, 4) 276 (5, 4) 277 (10, 4) 278 (12, 4) 279 (11, 4) 280 (3, 1) 281 (13, 4) 282 (11, 4) 283 (6, 4) 284 (11, 4) 285 (12, 4) 286 (11, 4) 287 (12, 4) 288 (12, 4) 289 (6, 4) 290 (6, 4) 291 (3, 1) 292 (5, 4) 293 (5, 1) 294 (3, 4) 295 (3, 4) 296 (15, 4) 297 (11, 4) 298 (6, 4) 299 (8, 4) 300 (11, 4) 301 (2, 1) 302 (3, 1) 303 (10, 4) 304 (8, 4) 305 (9, 4) 306 (12, 4) 307 (6, 4) 308 (7, 4) 309 (11, 4) 310 (2, 1) 311 (3, 4) 312 (11, 4) 313 (5, 1) 314 (10, 4) 315 (10, 4) 316 (9, 4) 317 (9, 4) 318 (10, 4) 319 (5, 1) 320 (3, 1) 321 (11, 4) 322 (10, 4) 323 (11, 4) 324 (7, 4) 325 (8, 4) 326 (5, 1) 327 (10, 4) 328 (6, 4) 329 (5, 1) 330 (10, 4) 331 (5, 1) 332 (11, 4) 333 (11, 4) 334 (9, 4) 335 (9, 4) 336 (12, 4) 337 (7, 4) 338 (4, 1) 339 (13, 4) 340 (8, 4) 341 (10, 4) 342 (7, 4) 343 (9, 4) 344 (11, 4) 345 (9, 4) 346 (8, 4) 347 (10, 4) 348 (5, 4) 349 (8, 4) 350 (9, 4) 351 (10, 4) 352 (8, 4) 353 (9, 4) 354 (9, 4) 355 (9, 4) 356 (6, 1) 357 (8, 4) 358 (5, 4) 359 (12, 4) 360 (12, 4) 361 (9, 4) 362 (5, 1) 363 (12, 4) 364 (8, 4) 365 (6, 1) 366 (10, 4) 367 (5, 1) 368 (5, 1) 369 (12, 4) 370 (6, 4) 371 (9, 4) 372 (10, 4) 373 (7, 4) 374 (10, 4) 375 (8, 4) 376 (5, 1) 377 (10, 4) 378 (12, 4) 379 (6, 1) 380 (7, 4) 381 (10, 4) 382 (6, 4) 383 (4, 1) 384 (5, 4) 385 (5, 4) 386 (5, 1) 387 (12, 4) 388 (10, 4) 389 (4, 4) 390 (11, 4) 391 (5, 1) 392 (5, 1) 393 (13, 4) 394 (8, 4) 395 (12, 4) 396 (12, 4) 397 (6, 1) 398 (4, 4) 399 (12, 4) 400 (8, 4) 401 (10, 4) 402 (2, 4) 403 (8, 4) 404 (4, 1) 405 (11, 4) 406 (8, 4) 407 (9, 4) 408 (10, 4) 409 (4, 1) 410 (10, 4) 411 (10, 4) 412 (10, 4) 413 (10, 4) 414 (11, 4) 415 (3, 4) 416 (10, 4) 417 (12, 4) 418 (10, 4) 419 (5, 4) 420 (2, 4) 421 (10, 4) 422 (3, 4) 423 (7, 4) 424 (13, 4) 425 (12, 4) 426 (9, 4) 427 (13, 4) 428 (11, 4) 429 (3, 4) 430 (8, 4) 431 (10, 4) 432 (7, 4) 433 (9, 4) 434 (11, 4) 435 (9, 4) 436 (8, 4) 437 (10, 4) 438 (5, 4) 439 (8, 4) 440 (4, 1) 441 (11, 4) 442 (13, 4) 443 (11, 4) 444 (11, 4) 445 (11, 4) 446 (3, 1) 447 (10, 4) 448 (13, 4) 449 (4, 4) 450 (11, 4) 451 (3, 4) 452 (12, 4) 453 (9, 4) 454 (11, 4) 455 (12, 4) 456 (6, 4) 457 (11, 4) 458 (11, 4) 459 (12, 4) 460 (8, 4) 461 (10, 4) 462 (9, 4) 463 (8, 4) 464 (3, 1) 465 (6, 4) 466 (15, 4) 467 (3, 4) 468 (9, 4) 469 (6, 1) 470 (9, 4) 471 (12, 4) 472 (13, 4) 473 (10, 4) 474 (10, 4) 475 (11, 4) 476 (3, 4) 477 (11, 4) 478 (4, 1) 479 (11, 4) 480 (10, 4) 481 (10, 4) 482 (11, 4) 483 (5, 4) 484 (13, 4) 485 (11, 4) 486 (9, 4) 487 (4, 1) 488 (12, 4) 489 (9, 4) 490 (4, 1) 491 (5, 4) 492 (3, 4) 493 (8, 4) 494 (4, 4) 495 (12, 4) 496 (6, 1) 497 (11, 4) 498 (9, 4) 499 (12, 4) 500 (8, 4) 501 (10, 4) 502 (7, 4) 503 (9, 4) 504 (11, 4) 505 (9, 4) 506 (8, 4) 507 (10, 4) 508 (5, 4) 509 (8, 4) 510 (10, 4) 511 (11, 4) 512 (12, 4) 513 (10, 4) 514 (3, 4) 515 (11, 4) 516 (10, 4) 517 (11, 4) 518 (11, 4) 519 (10, 4) 520 (7, 4) 521 (12, 4) 522 (11, 4) 523 (8, 4) 524 (12, 4) 525 (12, 4) 526 (9, 4) 527 (5, 4) 528 (12, 4) 529 (3, 4) 530 (9, 4) 531 (10, 4) 532 (8, 4) 533 (9, 4) 534 (9, 4) 535 (9, 4) 536 (6, 1) 537 (8, 4) 538 (5, 4) 539 (12, 4) 540 (11, 4) 541 (3, 4) 542 (12, 4) 543 (9, 4) 544 (11, 4) 545 (12, 4) 546 (6, 4) 547 (11, 4) 548 (11, 4) 549 (12, 4) 550 (9, 4) 551 (11, 4) 552 (12, 4) 553 (9, 4) 554 (12, 4) 555 (11, 4) 556 (3, 1) 557 (13, 4) 558 (11, 4) 559 (4, 4) 560 (8, 4) 561 (10, 4) 562 (9, 4) 563 (6, 1) 564 (6, 4) 565 (3, 1) 566 (4, 1) 567 (3, 4) 568 (13, 4) 569 (11, 4) 570 (10, 4) 571 (11, 4) 572 (5, 4) 573 (8, 4) 574 (11, 4) 575 (13, 4) 576 (3, 4) 577 (12, 4) 578 (11, 4) 579 (12, 4) 580 (5, 4) 581 (11, 4) 582 (12, 4) 583 (5, 4) 584 (11, 4) 585 (11, 4) 586 (13, 4) 587 (11, 4) 588 (11, 4) 589 (10, 4) 590 (8, 4) 591 (10, 4) 592 (3, 4) 593 (12, 4) 594 (12, 4) 595 (4, 4) 596 (11, 4) 597 (12, 4) 598 (10, 4) 599 (12, 4) 600 (13, 4) 601 (7, 4) 602 (9, 4) 603 (12, 4) 604 (8, 4) 605 (8, 4) 606 (11, 4) 607 (6, 4) 608 (2, 1) 609 (12, 4) 610 (7, 4) 611 (8, 4) 612 (11, 4) 613 (9, 4) 614 (10, 4) 615 (10, 4) 616 (7, 4) 617 (3, 1) 618 (3, 4) 619 (13, 4) 620 (9, 4) 621 (11, 4) 622 (5, 1) 623 (5, 1) 624 (9, 4) 625 (9, 4) 626 (7, 4) 627 (5, 4) 628 (11, 4) 629 (15, 4) 630 (12, 4) 631 (9, 4) 632 (5, 1) 633 (12, 4) 634 (8, 4) 635 (6, 1) 636 (10, 4) 637 (5, 1) 638 (5, 1) 639 (12, 4) 640 (8, 4) 641 (10, 4) 642 (9, 4) 643 (8, 4) 644 (3, 1) 645 (6, 4) 646 (15, 4) 647 (3, 4) 648 (9, 4) 649 (6, 1) 650 (8, 4) 651 (10, 4) 652 (9, 4) 653 (6, 1) 654 (6, 4) 655 (3, 1) 656 (4, 1) 657 (3, 4) 658 (13, 4) 659 (11, 4) 660 (11, 4) 661 (7, 4) 662 (7, 4) 663 (10, 4) 664 (15, 4) 665 (4, 1) 666 (10, 4) 667 (15, 4) 668 (10, 4) 669 (11, 4) 670 (6, 4) 671 (3, 1) 672 (5, 4) 673 (5, 1) 674 (3, 4) 675 (3, 4) 676 (15, 4) 677 (11, 4) 678 (6, 4) 679 (8, 4) 680 (2, 1) 681 (3, 4) 682 (11, 4) 683 (5, 1) 684 (9, 4) 685 (13, 4) 686 (10, 4) 687 (6, 4) 688 (11, 4) 689 (13, 4) 690 (12, 4) 691 (13, 4) 692 (15, 4) 693 (12, 4) 694 (6, 1) 695 (11, 4) 696 (11, 4) 697 (8, 4) 698 (13, 4) 699 (12, 4) 700 (5, 1) 701 (9, 4) 702 (10, 4) 703 (6, 4) 704 (9, 4) 705 (10, 4) 706 (6, 4) 707 (5, 4) 708 (4, 4) 709 (3, 1) 710 (9, 4) 711 (11, 4) 712 (12, 4) 713 (9, 4) 714 (12, 4) 715 (11, 4) 716 (3, 1) 717 (13, 4) 718 (11, 4) 719 (4, 4) 720 (10, 4) 721 (12, 4) 722 (11, 4) 723 (10, 4) 724 (13, 4) 725 (5, 4) 726 (5, 4) 727 (10, 4) 728 (12, 4) 729 (11, 4) 730 (6, 4) 731 (9, 4) 732 (10, 4) 733 (7, 4) 734 (10, 4) 735 (8, 4) 736 (5, 1) 737 (10, 4) 738 (12, 4) 739 (6, 1) 740 (9, 4) 741 (12, 4) 742 (13, 4) 743 (10, 4) 744 (10, 4) 745 (11, 4) 746 (3, 4) 747 (11, 4) 748 (4, 1) 749 (11, 4) 750 (10, 4) 751 (11, 4) 752 (5, 4) 753 (8, 4) 754 (11, 4) 755 (13, 4) 756 (3, 4) 757 (12, 4) 758 (11, 4) 759 (12, 4) 760 (6, 4) 761 (3, 1) 762 (5, 4) 763 (5, 1) 764 (3, 4) 765 (3, 4) 766 (15, 4) 767 (11, 4) 768 (6, 4) 769 (8, 4) 770 (5, 4) 771 (13, 4) 772 (10, 4) 773 (10, 4) 774 (11, 4) 775 (12, 4) 776 (11, 4) 777 (13, 4) 778 (12, 4) 779 (5, 4) 780 (4, 4) 781 (11, 4) 782 (12, 4) 783 (12, 4) 784 (4, 1) 785 (11, 4) 786 (6, 4) 787 (12, 4) 788 (14, 4) 789 (6, 4) 790 (3, 1) 791 (4, 4) 792 (11, 4) 793 (6, 1) 794 (11, 4) 795 (12, 4) 796 (8, 4) 797 (5, 4) 798 (6, 4) 799 (15, 4) 800 (9, 4) 801 (9, 4) 802 (3, 1) 803 (7, 4) 804 (10, 4) 805 (5, 4) 806 (2, 1) 807 (4, 4) 808 (14, 4) 809 (4, 4) 810 (9, 4) 811 (12, 4) 812 (13, 4) 813 (10, 4) 814 (10, 4) 815 (11, 4) 816 (3, 4) 817 (11, 4) 818 (4, 1) 819 (11, 4) 820 (3, 1) 821 (13, 4) 822 (11, 4) 823 (6, 4) 824 (11, 4) 825 (12, 4) 826 (11, 4) 827 (12, 4) 828 (12, 4) 829 (6, 4) 830 (7, 4) 831 (10, 4) 832 (6, 4) 833 (4, 1) 834 (5, 4) 835 (5, 4) 836 (5, 1) 837 (12, 4) 838 (10, 4) 839 (4, 4) 840 (10, 4) 841 (10, 4) 842 (11, 4) 843 (5, 4) 844 (13, 4) 845 (11, 4) 846 (9, 4) 847 (4, 1) 848 (12, 4) 849 (9, 4) 850 (5, 4) 851 (11, 4) 852 (12, 4) 853 (5, 4) 854 (11, 4) 855 (11, 4) 856 (13, 4) 857 (11, 4) 858 (11, 4) 859 (10, 4) 860 (2, 1) 861 (3, 4) 862 (11, 4) 863 (5, 1) 864 (9, 4) 865 (13, 4) 866 (10, 4) 867 (6, 4) 868 (11, 4) 869 (13, 4) 870 (4, 4) 871 (11, 4) 872 (12, 4) 873 (12, 4) 874 (4, 1) 875 (11, 4) 876 (6, 4) 877 (12, 4) 878 (14, 4) 879 (6, 4) 880 (14, 4) 881 (4, 1) 882 (12, 4) 883 (10, 4) 884 (12, 4) 885 (11, 4) 886 (11, 4) 887 (14, 4) 888 (4, 1) 889 (7, 4) 890 (4, 4) 891 (11, 4) 892 (6, 4) 893 (4, 4) 894 (9, 4) 895 (10, 4) 896 (13, 4) 897 (6, 4) 898 (7, 4) 899 (6, 1) 900 (10, 4) 901 (4, 1) 902 (6, 4) 903 (11, 4) 904 (4, 1) 905 (8, 4) 906 (12, 4) 907 (3, 1) 908 (4, 4) 909 (12, 4) 910 (4, 1) 911 (8, 4) 912 (3, 1) 913 (5, 1) 914 (5, 4) 915 (10, 4) 916 (13, 4) 917 (4, 4) 918 (11, 4) 919 (10, 4) 920 (6, 4) 921 (3, 1) 922 (5, 4) 923 (5, 1) 924 (3, 4) 925 (3, 4) 926 (15, 4) 927 (11, 4) 928 (6, 4) 929 (8, 4) 930 (11, 4) 931 (5, 1) 932 (5, 1) 933 (13, 4) 934 (8, 4) 935 (12, 4) 936 (12, 4) 937 (6, 1) 938 (4, 4) 939 (12, 4) 940 (4, 1) 941 (5, 4) 942 (3, 4) 943 (8, 4) 944 (4, 4) 945 (12, 4) 946 (6, 1) 947 (11, 4) 948 (9, 4) 949 (12, 4) 950 (8, 4) 951 (10, 4) 952 (3, 4) 953 (12, 4) 954 (12, 4) 955 (4, 4) 956 (11, 4) 957 (12, 4) 958 (10, 4) 959 (12, 4) 960 (12, 4) 961 (13, 4) 962 (15, 4) 963 (12, 4) 964 (6, 1) 965 (11, 4) 966 (11, 4) 967 (8, 4) 968 (13, 4) 969 (12, 4) 970 (3, 1) 971 (4, 4) 972 (11, 4) 973 (6, 1) 974 (11, 4) 975 (12, 4) 976 (8, 4) 977 (5, 4) 978 (6, 4) 979 (15, 4) 980 (4, 4) 981 (11, 4) 982 (6, 4) 983 (4, 4) 984 (9, 4) 985 (10, 4) 986 (13, 4) 987 (6, 4) 988 (7, 4) 989 (6, 1) 990 (12, 4) 991 (10, 4) 992 (8, 4) 993 (12, 4) 994 (12, 4) 995 (12, 4) 996 (12, 4) 997 (15, 4) 998 (6, 1)

“…The formation of the idea of Iran-or rather, its invention- was the product of a specific kind of political and religious propaganda which derived from the agreement between the Sassanian court and the priests from Fars.”G. Gnoli, The Idea of Iran, P.152“ Persians thought of themselves as the best of mankind, considering others to be gradually less worthy the further away they lived from them.”Herodotus, Book I, section 134****Unlike the historiography of other places and peoples, in our country, Iran, historiography has developed in a quite catastrophic and for the most part dishonest manner. . . . It is for this reason that the obliteration and misrepresentation of Iran’s ancient history is tantamount to concealment, suppression, and misrepresentation of the history ….**( Persian Historian, Mohammad Taqi Zehtabi, 1999 )* [reference No. 1, p.32]__________________________________________________________________________________This question has been asked in different formats and contexts on numerous occasions. The question has deeper derogetory content. Summarily, the question’s motive stems from the cultural identity crisis among Persians With such an observation, let us find out if Persians are Aryans and if Afghans are Persian?Afghans are Aryans. Persians are non-Aryan ethnicon called Pārsa who were the offspring of the Parsumaŝ. They were subjects of Assyrians and Bactrians tutelage. The Pārsa ethnic group was the recipient of the Arya culture, language, and religion[Gnoli, The Idea of Iran, pp 29–36].The term Afghan is taking its roots from the Avestan gairi [m. f. mountain] and Sanskrit [गिर् m. gir-mountain]. The Aryan term gairi became ghâr (غر) in Pashto. So Afghan means the Aryan who lives on the mountain or “mountain people or Af-gha-n. Gha in Af-gha- stems from ghâr. Âsthana in Sanskrit (आस्थान) and aêtadha in Avestan means home, place of assembly, site. Hence, ghâr is the Asthana (ستان)and thereby we have Af-gha-n-estan افغانستان= (those who live on the mountain). aêtadha gave rise to estada (استا دن) or being standing as in being a sedentary state(home, inactive). The etymology of ستان -istan- and estadah استاده all stem from aêtadha and common to Âsthana. The Persian scholars in a derogatory and out of hubris that the term is new and subsumed by the Persian influence.Paradoxically, neither Farsi nor the term Iran is the Persian products. They are the product of Aryan Avestan culture that began in Balkh, Afghanistan between 2500 BCE-1400 BCE. The Bactrian language and Zoroastrianism migrated with the Aryans to Fars and the Sassanians began to call it first Pahlavi and later Farsi. The Aryans settled among Persians who adopted their customs, language and above all their religion.The Persian scholars are quick to argue that Afghanistan did not exist in 2500 BCE. Well neither did Iran. However, the home of Aryans was not in Western Iran. And did Zarathustra live in Tehran or Fars or anywhere closer. [Home Aryans, Witzel, Reference No.5, p.42, Note 3, 9].The land between Amu and Helmand and Indus flanked between the Hindu Kush is the land of Aryans and that corresponds airyanem vaejah or ancient Ariana or modern Afghanistan.[Note 3 and 5].The Aryans are from the Hindu Kush highland called Ariana that is modern Afghanistan. They migrated from Bactria, Kabul Valley, Lugar, Helmand migrated into two directions:Indus Valley in ca 1400 BCE1000 BCE into West Asia including Fars in Southeastern part of what is now Iran.The Aryans brought two things with them to Persia:Bactrian language that evolved into Farsi or what Anglo-Saxons call it “Persian.”Zarathustra’s religionCarbon dating, artifacts, Avesta, Rigveda, and the BMAC pieces of evidence have provided archeological evidence that matches and coincides with linguistic evidence both in Indus Valley civilization and the migration of Aryans into Persia and West Asia to Syria(Mitanni Treaty)Iran is not a Persian term either, and it does not appear in Zarathustra’s Gātha (sacred hymns) and Avesta or sacred Hindu texts such as Rigveda or Mahabratta. Only Ayran and bahilka or Bactria and other sacred names and geographical names such as Kabul River, Helmand river, Arachosia, Hindu Kush, etc. are mentioned in these texts. There are 33 references to Aryans in Rigveda. There is no trace of Persian or Iran in any of these texts. The Sassanians invented the term in 224 AD. The Persian kings took pride in being Persian but the recipient of the Aryan culture. They described themselves and their subject clan as Arya cica that essentially means minted from the Arayan stock -آریا سکه -but not being Aryan :Darius I’s inscription 14 f, (Naqs-e Rostam) and inscription 13 of Susa where refers to himself as “an Achaemenian, a Persian son of a Persian”[haxamanisya parsa parshya puca]. Then he describes himself an arya cica [of Aryan stock]Darius I proclaims on of his inscriptions at Bisitun: Auramazdah ima dipicicam, tay adam akunavam, patisam ariya(By the favor of Auramazda this (is) the form of writing which have made, besides in Aryan”To the Achaemenians arya-was a traditional, cultural and religious term that served to evoke their origin, a little of particular nobility, as it were, denoting that one belonged to a political and cultural hegemonic circle, in which the religious factors played a predominant part. Beyond these limits that have just been specified, Arya-did not have an actual political meaning in the Old Persian inscriptions: Neither the xŝaḉa, ‘the kingdom’, nor the xŝȃyaϑya, the king, were defined as arya-. That is to say, the empire was the property of the Pȃrsa and amongst the Pȃrsa, of the Haxȃmaniŝya in particular (Inscription of Darius I, 6–8)”[G. Gnoli, The Idea of Iran, p.20, Note 26]Afghanistan is the ancient Ariana. According to Avesta, Ariana is the land of Aryans surrounding the Hindukush mountains flanked between Amu (Oxus) and Helmand rivers connecting Badakhshan, Balkh, Herat, Helmand, and Kabul and the region between these cities. Qandahar or ancient Gandhara is located between Helmand and Kabul. Avesta describes the limits of Ariana as Airyanem Vaejah:1. Bakhdhi (Bactria)-Balkh2. Haroiva (Herat)3. Harakhvaiti (Arachosia)-south of Kabul river to Paktia-Swat region)4. Haetumant (Helmand)5. Ragha (Badakhshan) in the Pamir region of Afghanistan on the border of China[Mary Boyce, Note 1, pp. 274–275, Michael Witzel, Note 5, pp 1-42].Early History of PersiansPersians were under the tutelage of Bactrians, Assyrians, and Babylonians. The rose to power with the establishment of the Medes Kingdom(678 BC–549 BC), who was subservient to Bactrians and Assyrians. The Achaemenids(550 BC–330 BC) followed the Medes and toppled by the Greek invasion. From 247 BC – 224 AD, the Parthians ruled the Persians who were replaced by Sassanians in 224 AD and destroyed by the Arab invasion in 651 AD. From 651 AD to 1925, the Persians ceased to rule and were ruled for 12 centuries by various dynasties originated in Afghanistan and Central Asia. After 1925, the Persians established another phony Achanmenides quasi Sassanian kingdom called the Pahlavi regime that was a stooge regime for the West and Israel. The radical Shia Mullahs took over the power in 1979, and now we have the Islamic Republic of Iran.Why the Persians put a heritage and identity claim on the Afghan culture is complex. It is a mask and a product of Orientalism that managed to assert itself in Asia for a variety of purposes whose discussion will make this comment long and would make us go astray and digress.Summarily, such a claim has to do with the Persian history in the span of 834 BCE to 330 BCE when Medes liberated themselves from the bondage of Bactrian and Assyrians, and the Greeks destroyed their kingdom.During this period, the transmigration of culture from the Aryans to Persians took place. In the aftermath of the Arab invasion and the destruction of the Sassanian dynasty, Central Asia and Afghanistan dominated the Persians for 12 centuries through numerous empires and defined and shape Persians. The Samanides, Tahirids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Khawrazmians, Ghurids, Timurids, Seljuks, Safavids were all non-Persian Sunnis who created a vast amount of literature, philosophies, arts, music, and architecture that defined not just the Persian culture but also influenced the Arabs and Europeans.After the Pahlavi dynasty ended the non-Persian reign of Qajars in 1925, they began an indoctrination process to reestablish the Persian identity and pride of the past. Gradually, anything ever written, created, or invented in Central Asia and Afghanistan became a Persian possession and subject to the Persian cultural claims and artificial domain. Rumi or Zoroaster, Avicenna, or Farabi and many more overnight became “Persians,” even though they were born outside of Iran. The Persian Pahlavi dynasty manufactured the new national identity and cultural pride.The disenchantment with the past has created false historiography and has caused an identity crisis, identity transformation, and loss of identity among Persians. The root cause of the crisis is a double identity trauma: Greek and Arab invasion that exploited the history to create an identity. Hence, we have a perpetual tension between Persians and Afghans. This artificial cultural warfare has been addressing by a handfull of Persian scholars in recent times. In 2013, Dr. Mostafa Vaziri published a refreshing assessment of this phenomenon in his book titled Iran As Imagined Nation. In 2006, Mohsen Mobasher published an article dealing with the national identity crisis among Persians in diaspora in the American Behavioral Scientist journal.Before such recent academic engagements, the famous Italian scholar Geherdo Gnoli left a permanent impression of the crisis on his famous book “The Idea of Iran” that explored how the Aryans from Afghanistan and Central Asia shaped and molded the Persian culture. Michael Witzel, the German Sanskrit scholar, and linguist at Harvard University, has published dozens of papers analyzing the roots of Aryan, Avestan, Bactrian and Sanskrit to render a full historical development of languages in Central Asia and the India subcontinent and how these languages shaped and molded other cultures including the Persian language and heritage.Orientalists and the invention of “Eastern Iran”During the 50s and 60s, the Pahlavis hired and trained scholars to Persianize anything ever produced in Afghanistan and Central Asia. R.N.Frye, a Harvard lecturer even resided for free in Iran to produce monumental volumes of literature including the Cambridge History of Iran that was published in 1975 four years before the Mulllah’s revolution and the toppling of Reza Shah. Ironically, the compendium is the history of Afghanistan and Central Asia. The orientalists beginning with Theodor Nöldeke refer to “Eastern Iran,” who followed the footsteps of Ferdowsi while analyzing the Shahnameh. Ferdowsi, however, does not talk about Eastern Iran but rather describes the Aryans and their faith. Daqiqi from Balkh who was a convert from Zoroastrianism started the Shahnameh.Frye and his co-authors including Henry Corban and his student Roy Mottahedah (b. 1940-), British C. E. Bosworth ( 1928–2015), are essentially the followers of the British Orientalist Edward G Browne (1862-1926) who authored the Literary History of Persia where he introduces literature that was produced outside of Iran proper from 800 AD to 1000 AD (see the list of poets below).Browne was influenced by his predecessors such as the German Orientalist Theodor Nöldeke(1836–1930) who wrote extensively on the history of the Quran and Shahnameh. He is the first Orientalist who erroneously coined the term Iranian Plateau and Eastern Iran(modern Afghanistan). Shahnameh is the history of Aryans, their kings, and Zoroaster and authored by the poet Daqiqi in Balkh, Afghanistan. Ferdowsi of Tus(Persian) continued the work at the request of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni(Afghanistan).These authors decided to transform other people’s literary and cultural heritage into possession and domain of “Persian” hegemony. For them, Rumi, Sanai, Zoroaster, or Behzad and Daqiqi are all Iranian and they come from the “Iranian plateau.”For example, the founder of the Samanid dynasty was Saman Khuda. He was an Uzbek from the village of Sāman outside of Balkh, Afghanistan. He worked for the Ummayyed ruler and founded the dynasty in 819 that ruled over central Asia and what is now Iran until 999 AD. According to Frye, Saman Khuda was a Persian and therefore an Iranian because he spoke “Persian.” Saman Khuda spoke Uzbeki and Dari. He was neither an Iranian nor a Persian. Frye did not know the difference.Frye’s theories and subjective analysis of events after the Arab invasion of 651 AD and the rising of Central Asia dynasties have been mostly debunked. Sayyed Hossein Nasr was one of his students who was the secretary for Shah’s wife and became the Chancellor of Tehran University. He has co-authored the section on Religious Sciences and Cosmology in Frye’s Cambridge History of Iran. Nasr believes that Rumi and his parents were Iranians. They were Tajiks, spoke Dari and were born in Balkh. Two centuries before these Orientalists, Sir William Jones would have never used the term Persian or Iranian. Both Freye and his student Roy Mottahedah traveled to Afghanistan and Central Asia. In fact, Freye began his research in Kabul for the first time at the Habibya College (1942–44). In the year 1938, Zahir Shah of Afghanistan received a proposal to change the name of the country to its original name Ariana. For geopolitical purposes involving the Durand line and the fate of 34 million Pashtuns living in Northwest Frontiers between south of the Line, he did not change the country’s name. Reza Shah in 1935 changed his country’s name from Persia to Iran.The rise of nationalism and racism among Persians have religious components as well. The creation of Shia doctrine and toppling of the Persian Shah in 1953 and sending him into exile as well as the rise of Khomenei to power in 1979 all have similar racialized socio-economic and religious dimensions that are beyond the limits of this comment.To hight the magnitude of the crisis, let us consider the list of prominent poets. To a patriotic Persian, each and everyone on this list is an “Iranian” because they wrote in “Persian” despite the fact is Farsi (Persian) is an Aryan language developed in Afghanistan and transferred to Persians.Let us take Rumi from the list. He was born in Balkh in Afghanistan. He never lived in Iran. Before and after his birth in Afghanistan, Persians did not own or ruled Rumi’s nation. His parents were from Balkh. He was a Sunni Muslim. However, Rumi is claimed to be a “Perisian” and hence, an Iranian because he wrote in “Persian” even though Farsi is not a Persian cultural product. So what makes Rumi a Persian or an Iranian? To call Rumi a Persian would be analogous to calling Shakespear an American although he was an English.In general, Persians do not put a categorical claim on every poet or artist born in Afghanistan. They are selective and usually pick those who have a substantial gravity and shaped the world literature such as Zarathustra, Rumi, Avicenna, Daqiqi, Behazd, or Sanai or Farabi.That is the scope of identity and identity formation.Poets, Philosophers, Artist by birthplace and nationalityZarathustra, 1700 BCE, Hindu Kush highland, Bactria(Balkh), Afghanistan-[see Notes 2,3 and 5]Hanzalah of Badghis(حنظله بادغیسی)‎, b. 820 in Badghis, d-872 in Badghis, Afghanistan.* Rudaki born c. 859, in Rudak, modern-day Tajikistan—died 940/941 Greater Khorasan: Afghanistan, northeastern Iran, southern Uzbekistan, and western Tajikistan that was ruled by the Samanid Empire. Rudak is north of Amu river and Balkh.Rābi'a Balkhī (رابعه بلخی), Balkh, Afghanistan, (914-943), the first female poet in the Persian literature. Samanid DynastyMansur al-Hallaj, born 858 AD, Fars, Iran Died 26 March 922 AD Baghdad, Iraq, Sunni, authored twenty-seven Riwāyāt (stories or narratives) collected by his disciples in about 290/902, Kitāb al-Tawāsīn, a series of eleven short works. Poems collected in Dīwān al-Hallāj.Al-Farabi ( ابو نصر محمد بن محمد فارابي‎), born 872 AD, Faryab, Afghanistan, died 950 AD, Damascus, Syria, authored Aphorisms of the Stateman(Fusǖl al-madani) On the Intellect (Risȃlah fi al-a’ql)* Daqiqi e Balkhi born c. 935, Balkh, Afghanistan, Samanid empire, Died 977 AD. Started the Shahnameh Epic in Balkh and completed by Ferdowsi.*Avicena ( ابن سینا بلخی), born 980, Afshana (Bukhara), to Abd Allah and Sitara(ستاره) from Balkh, Afghanistan, died June 1037, Hamadan, Iran. The father was appointed by Nuh ibn Mansur as the governor of Kharmaithan near Bukhara. Authored Qanun (Medicine), Shifa (encyclopedia of Aristotelian philosophy)* Farrukhi Sistani (c. 980 – 1037 or 1038), Ghazni, Afghanistan, Ghaznavid empire* Ferdowsi c. 940, Tus, Iran, Ghaznavid empire, died 1020, authored Shahnameh that depict the history or Zoroastrianism and Aryas through Achamenides and Sassassnians and arrival or Islam.*Nasir Khusraw, born 1004 CE, Khuttal (modern Afghanistan-Tajikistan region by the Amu River(Oxus), Khorasan, Ghaznavid Empire, Afghanistan, died 1088 CE in Badakhshan, Afghanistan.*Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (1006–1088), born and died in Herat, Afghanistan.Ali Hujwiri, born 1009, Ghazni, Afghanistan, died 1072, Lahore, Pakistan, Ghaznavid empire.[wrote Kashf-ul-Mahjoob]Ahmad Ghazālī (احمد غزالی), born Tus, Iran, died Qazvin, Iran, 1123, philosophy, Epistle of the Birds(Risālat al-ṭayr ), Sawāneḥ*Khayyam: born 18 May 1048 in Nishapur, Iran, died 4 December 1131 Nishapur, IranAnvari (1126–1189), born and died in Balkh, Afghanistan*Sanayee Ghaznavi, born c. 1080, Ghazni, Afghanistan, Ghaznavid empire, Died 1131/1141*Nizami, born in 1141 in Ganja, (Azerbaijan), died in Ganja in 1209, Seljuk empire* Aṭṭār, born c. 1145, Nishapur, Iran, Died c. 1220Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, born 1150, Ray, Iran, died 1210, Herat, Afghanistan, Sunni. philosophy* Rumi ( مولانا جلالدین بلخی )born c. 30 September 1207 in Balkh, Afghanistan, Khawarazmian empire, died in Konya, Turkey, 17 December 1273* Saadi Shirazi, Born 1210 Shiraz, Iran, Died 1291 or 1292 Shiraz*Amir Khusrow (Ab'ul Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn K͟husrau) Born 1253Patiyali, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, India, Delhi Sultanate Died, October 1325,* Hafiz Shirazi, 1315 Shiraz, Iran, Died 1390 Shiraz, Iran (Timurid Empire).* Jami, Born 7 November 1414 Jam, Ghor, Afghanistan, Died 9 November 1492 in Herat, Afghanistan*Ali-Shir Nava'i (نظام‌الدین علی‌شیر نوایی‎), born 9 February 1441, Herat, Afghanistan, Timurid Empire, died 3 January 1501 in Herat.Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, B. 1450 AD, Herat, Afghanistan, died 1535, Herat. Master of Miniature Painting. Paintings in the West: British "The Seduction of Yusuf" from Sa’di’s Bustan of 1488, and paintings from the British Library's Nizami manuscript of 1494-95 - particularly scenes from Layla and Majnun and the Haft Paykar* Bīdel Dehlawī (1642–1720), born in Azimabad, Patna, India, Mughal empire.* Iqbal, Panjab, modern Pakistan, born, 9 November 1877, died 21 April 1938Sofi Ashqari, born in 1892, Kabul, Afghanistan, died, Kabul,(unknown)* Parvin E'tesami, Born 16 March 1907, Tabriz, Iran Died 5 April 1941* Khalilullah Khalili, Born 1907 in Kabul, Afghanistan, Died 1987* Forough Farrokhzad, December 29, 1934, Tehran, Iran, died February 13, 1967, Darband, Iran.* Ahmad Shamlou, December 12, 1925, Tehran, Iran, died July 23, 2000,* Fereydoon Moshiri, September 23, 1926, Tehran, Iran, died October 24, 2000, Tehran, Iran* Bareq-Shafi' born in 1932 Kabul, Afghanistan, Dari and Pashtu poetryHere is a List of ReadingIran and the Challenges of Diversity: Islamic Fundamentalism, Aryanists Racism, and Democratic Struggles by Alireza Asgharzadeh, 2007The Idea of Iran by G.Gnoli, 1989.Zoroaster in History by Gherardo Gnoli Jan 1, 2000Iran As Imagined Nation by Mostafa Vaziri, Jun 14, 2013Home of Aryans, http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/AryanHome.pdfEarly Indian history: Linguistic and textual parametres by Michael Witzel, 1995ASKO PARPOLA, The Coming Of Aryans To Iran And India And The Cultural and Ethnic Identity Of The Dãsas, 1987The Histories by Herodotus and G. C. Maccauley | Feb 14, 2017A History of Zoroastrianism: Volume 1, The Early Period (Handbook of Oriental Studies/Handbuch Der Orientalistik) by Mary Boyce, Dec 31, 1995A History of Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrianism under Achaemenians, by Mary Boyce, Jan 1, 1982Treasures from the Oxus: The Art and Civilization of Central Asia by Massimo Vidale, September 26, 2017Bactria: The History of a Forgotten Empire by H. G. Rawlinson | Apr 18, 2018Arab Conquests and Early Islamic Historiography by Ryan J. Lynch and Roy Mottahedeh | Nov 14, 2019The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4: From the Arab Invasion to Saljugs by R. N. Frye Jun 27, 1975ARIANA

Yes, first let me explain what causes hangovers and then why Mentis works.This explanation lays out the four main causes of a hangover, as far as research has shown to this point, and then explains how our product addresses each one.Underlying causes of a hangoverAlthough scientists are still trying to fully understand hangovers, there are four main contributors that have been identified by scientific research: 1) acetaldehyde buildup, 2) glutamine rebound, 3) immunologic disturbances, and 4) vitamin and electrolyte loss.1. Acetaldehyde buildupAcetaldehyde significantly contributes to hangovers.[6] As ethanol is broken down in the liver, this toxic molecule is created, wreaking havoc on the body. “Alcohol is metabolized in a multi-step process into various metabolites which have unique biochemical effects of their own. The first step in this process is the conversion of alcohol to acetaldehyde.”[7] This acetaldehyde is up to 30 times more toxic than ethanol.[8] It accounts for the “Asian glow,” which is a genetic deficiency in the acetaldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme in Asian populations. Acetaldehyde also interferes with functions of other molecules through a process called “cross-linking.”The enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase breaks down alcohol into acetaldehyde, which is metabolized by aldehyde dehydrogenase into its harmless form, acetate. Acetaldehyde is reactive, and binds to biologically essential compounds.2. Glutamine reboundAlcohol influences neurotransmitter systems in the brain, including glutamate receptors and the glutamate signaling pathway.[9] Glutamine (a precursor to glutamate) temporarily increases with drinking alcohol, leading to higher energy levels. After alcohol consumption is finished the glutamate receptors in the brain sense reduced glutamine signaling, leading to increased glutamine production, or so called “glutamine rebound.”[10] This frequently occurs during deep sleep, stimulating the brain and often causing drinkers to wake up earlier than their body would like. Disrupted sleep is a major cause of fatigue the next morning. Although further testing is needed, “severe glutamine rebound during a hangover may be responsible for tremors, restlessness, anxiety and increased blood pressure.”[11]3. Immunologic disturbancesImmunologic disturbances may occur from excess alcohol consumption as the body reacts to its toxic effects.[12] Alcohol triggers your immune system to produce an inflammatory reaction. One major sign of this process is the overproduction of cytokines, essentially the body’s immune system in overdrive, which causes physical and mental discomfort. According to one study, “Concentrations of [cytokines] were significantly increased during the hangover state compared with the concentrations in normal conditions. These results support the suggestion that the dysregulated cytokine pathway (IL-10, IL-12, and IFN-gamma) is associated with the symptoms of hangovers.”[13]Increased cytokines contribute not only to the discomfort of hangovers (aching and malaise), but also “to the ‘cognitive’ alcohol hangover effects such as memory impairment and mood changes.”[14] Recent studies support a link between the immune system and central nervous system[15],[16] strengthening this conjecture. Studies have shown how the effects caused by cytokines are nearly identical to hangover symptoms, including “loss of appetite, sleepiness, withdrawal from normal social activities, fever, aching joints and fatigue.”[17] Cytokines have also been causally linked to memory impairment, in addition to mood changes.[18]4. Vitamin lossStudies have shown that alcohol depletes essential vitamins[19],[20],[21] and electrolytes,[22] which play a major role in the body’s daily functions. Along with using up such nutrients in the metabolic processes required to digest alcohol, the diuretic nature of alcohol also contributes to vitamin and electrolyte loss through urination. After a night of drinking, the resulting lack of key B and C vitamins, as well as potassium, magnesium and zinc can have a devastating effect on the body. B vitamins help regulate the nervous system, form red blood cells, turn food into energy, as well as aiding in other important biological processes. Vitamin C is a key antioxidant with a variety of functions, including neuroprotective effects and regulation of blood flow. Electrolytes support vital functions in the body, such as nerve reaction, muscle function and blood pressure regulation, and a deficiency may cause fatigue, aching and other hangover-like symptoms. The loss of key antioxidants is further compounded by alcohol’s effect on free radicals: “Alcohol promotes the generation of ROS [reactive oxygen species] and/or interferes with the body’s normal defense mechanisms against these compounds through numerous processes, particularly in the liver.”[23]Our shieldThere has been insufficient scientific research directed at hangover prevention for two primary reasons: 1) it is hard to perform a blind test since considerable amounts of alcohol must be consumed, which cannot be concealed from the patient, and 2) it is difficult to control for all factors potentially influencing a hangover (such as meals eaten, type of alcohol, time period/ amount of consumption, weight, hereditary predisposition, sleep, etc). As a consequence, we and others have relied on studies in rodents to test effectiveness of various compounds. Of the few studies in humans, several tested hangover preventatives (including prickly pear, used by some of our competitors) demonstrated “no compelling evidence… to suggest that any conventional or complementary intervention is effective for preventing or treating alcohol hangover.”[24]In contrast, tests of the ingredients in our dietary supplement, used in isolation or in combination, have shown some efficacy to prevent the four underlying causes of a hangover detailed above. We are the only hangover product (to our knowledge) that targets all four causes. For full disclosure, many of these studies were performed on rodents, not humans, and there is limited scientific evidence linking our ingredients directly to hangover prevention. However, our inferences on our product’s potential effectiveness are not baseless, rather making assumptions from the limited scientific research in this field.Helping enzymes break down toxic acetaldehydeA key part of our original formula stems from a study that we came across that provides evidence that sulforaphane (a compound found in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli) helps eliminate acetaldehyde by inducing the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH).[25]Along with sulforaphane, other ingredients in our formula seek to help enzymes eliminate acetaldehyde by boosting glutathione, “the mother of all antioxidants,” an amino acid that protects cells from free radicals and helps neutralize acetaldehyde. However, because glutathione breaks down into amino acids in the stomach, we use glutathione precursors n-acetylcysteine (NAC),[26] vitamin C, and alanyl glutamine[27] to stimulate its production in the body.[28]We also use NAC to combat acetaldehyde toxicity in the liver.[29],[30] “Cysteine and glutathione are active against acetaldehyde (and formaldehyde) because they contain a reduced (unoxidized) form of sulfur called a sulfhydryl group, which contains a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom.”[31] The sulfhydryl renders aldehydes unable to form cross links, which do damage to cells. Another study demonstrates how a combination of cysteine, thiamine (a sulfur-containing nutrient depleted by alcohol) and Vitamin C aid in acetaldehyde detoxification.[32]Balancing glutamine levelsNo other hangover-related product that we know of seeks to help with the glutamine rebound that disturbs sleep patterns. Glutamine stores can be increased by simply ingesting L-alanylglutamine, a dipeptide molecule of glutamine and alanine. Studies have shown that L-alanylglutamine is better absorbed in the body than L-glutamine.[33] Glutamine also acts to stabilize blood sugar levels by suppressing insulin to stop decline of sugar levels and stimulating glycogen release in order to increase blood sugar to more normal levels.[34]Additionally, B vitamins, zinc, and magnesium are thought to deepen REM sleep,[35] which is the important part of sleep that is disrupted by glutamine rebound.Preventing overproduction of cytokinesOur hangover product formula also contains anti-inflammatory agents. We use two main ingredients to reduce the inflammatory cytokines that cause sickness-like symptoms. The first, mung bean powder, has been shown to decrease inflammation due to cytokines.[36] The second ingredient, epigallocatechin gallate (ECGC), has shown similar results. As one study concludes: “These results indicate that ECGC suppresses LPS-induced inflammatory response and oxidant stress.”[37] For mung bean and ECGC, inflammatory cytokine reduction can likely be attributed to their anti-HMGB1[38] properties.[39][40]Increasing electrolytes and vitaminsOur blend of vitamins and electrolytes aims to increase these essential nutrients in the body to prepare for the loss resulting from alcohol consumption. In addition to playing important roles in normal biological functions, these vitamins and electrolytes also help prevent a hangover in other ways. Zinc, Magnesium and B Vitamins, in addition to benefiting REM sleep, support the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme that breaks down acetaldehyde.[41][42] Vitamin C, Magnesium and Zinc also serve as antioxidants, fighting the free radicals that become a problem with alcohol consumption.TimingOur product is designed to be taken before alcohol consumption to allow for complete update of supplements. In addition, studies have shown that ingesting NAC after alcohol consumption could cause liver damage, while NAC taken before alcohol intake may reduce liver damage.[43]ConclusionMany of the body’s basic natural processes are overwhelmed by large quantities of alcohol, unable to carry on their usual functions, and key nutrients are depleted. Our dietary supplement helps restore balance and function to the body, allowing it to return to normal after a night of drinking by attacking the four underlying causes of hangover symptoms: acetaldehyde buildup, glutamine rebound, immunologic disturbances, and vitamin and electrolyte loss.[1] Fowkes, Steven. "Living with Alcohol." CERI: Living with Alcohol. Cognitive Enhancement Research Institute, 13 Dec. 1996. Web. 12 Dec. 2016. <Living with Alcohol>.[2] Verster, Joris C. "The alcohol hangover–a puzzling phenomenon." Alcohol and alcoholism 43.2 (2008): 124-126.[3] Penning, Renske, et al. "The pathology of alcohol hangover." Current drug abuse reviews 3.2 (2010): 68-75.[4] Verster, Joris C. "The alcohol hangover–a puzzling phenomenon." Alcohol and alcoholism 43.2 (2008): 124-126.[5] "Excessive Alcohol Use Continues to Be Drain on American Economy." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 15 Oct. 2015. Web. 12 Dec. 2016. <CDC Press Releases>.[6] Eriksson, C. J. "The role of acetaldehyde in the actions of alcohol (update 2000)." Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 25.s1 (2001): 15S-32S.[7] Fowkes, Steven. "Living with Alcohol." CERI: Living with Alcohol. Cognitive Enhancement Research Institute, 13 Dec. 1996. Web. 12 Dec. 2016. <Living with Alcohol>.[8] Sprince, Herbert, et al. "Protection against Acetaldehyde Toxicity in the rat byl-cysteine, thiamin andl-2-Methylthiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid." Agents and actions 4.2 (1974): 125-130.[9] Valenzuela, C. Fernando. "Alcohol and neurotransmitter interactions." Alcohol Research and Health 21.2 (1997): 144.[10] "What Causes Hangovers?" Dihydromyricetin Depot | What Causes Hangovers. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2016. <DHMDepot.com - Purchase Dihydromyricetin Online>.[11] "Hangovers – How to Lessen the Pain." Liver Doctor. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2016. <Hangovers – how to lessen the pain>.[12] Swift, Robert, and Dena Davidson. "Alcohol hangover." Alcohol Health Res World 22 (1998): 54-60.[13] Kim, Dai-Jin, et al. "Effects of alcohol hangover on cytokine production in healthy subjects." Alcohol 31.3 (2003): 167-170.[14] Verster, Joris C. "The alcohol hangover–a puzzling phenomenon." Alcohol and alcoholism 43.2 (2008): 124-126.[15] Maier, Steven F. "Bi-directional immune–brain communication: implications for understanding stress, pain, and cognition." Brain, behavior, and immunity 17.2 (2003): 69-85.[16] Maier, Steven F., and Linda R. Watkins. 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