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Because of this:and this...and this...Britain won many times in the battlefield but lost in the taverns. Taverns were plentiful and they were the social network of colonial life. Some areas of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania had them every few miles. One could get mail in a tavern, hire a hand, talk to friends, sell crops, buy land, and eat some good chow. In these places, capable and literate American settlers, many of whom had three or four generations on American soil, debated ideas, mustered militias and formed opinions. And after an apple jack and a roasted hen, with the warmth of a fireplace, one might even talk about throwing off the yoke of the Mother Country.It didn't start out immediately with a call for war. It started with a protest of the Stamp Act, other Intolerable acts, non-compliance, boycott and overall a call for assertion of American rights. I would argue that in those debates in homes, taverns and colonial assemblies (and assemblies were often conducted in taverns), London didn't have 'a man' in the tavern to argue their side. And so the resistance swelled and went from lobby to boycott to arms gathering, to arms-using.The colonies before being fully united were gathering news from each other and thus a blow in New England was felt in the Middle States and eventually South. Here's what Christopher Marshall, a "fighting Quaker' and patriot leader in Philadelphia writes about how Philadelphia reacted to the crackdown in Boston in 1775.Christopher Marshall writes:"This being the day when the cruel act for blocking the harbor of Boston took effect, many of the inhabitants of this city, to express their sympathy and show their concern for their suffering brethren in the common cause of liberty, had their shops shut up, their houses kept close from hurry and business; also the ring of bells at Christ Church were muffled, and rung a solemn peal at intervals, from morning till night; the colors of the vessels in the harbor were hoisted half-mast high; the several houses of different worship were crowded, where divine service was performed, and particular discourses, suitable to the occasion, were preached by F. Alison, Duffield, Sprout, and Blair. Sorrow, mixed with indignation, seemed pictured in the countenance of the inhabitants, and indeed the whole city wore the aspect of deep distress, being a melancholy occasion." -- Passages from the Remembrances of Christopher Marshall, p. 6.There was already by 1775 a national network, fueled by tavern talk, so that events in Boston could lead to protests in Philadelphia and Virginia.All of this popular appeal for resistance might have been satisfied by better policies towards America, by meaningful olive branches, perhaps even by having American MPs in Parliament, but absent those steps, popular appeal was lost and it was never broken during the war.Britain's armies were large and had many victories, swallowing large parts of American territory, holding the commercial center of New York for all of the war and holding Boston, MA, Charleston, S.C., Newport, R.I. and Philadelphia, PA at different times.When they captured Charleston, South Carolina, they had access to The Pink House, operating as a tavern since 1750.Then it was pink because of the Bermuda stone that it was made of. But the trouble maker in Charleston was McCrady's Tavern. There the resistance in that city was plotted. McCrady, in fact, ran the militia. And when the British captured Charleston they locked him up.The popular opinion so long developing in McCrady's, the Green Dragon, Fraunces in New York, City Tavern in Philadelphia, building against England meant that the American 'army' was not a stable puny force running around the woods, but a fair representation of the populace's mood and one that could be enlarged by new recruits and embodied local militias to match threats. It did shrink some too, as recruits left. But unlike the British, the American army had access to more people. Howe and other commanders had hoped for popular support, they got some, but not enough to negate the need for an imported army.Popular opinion meant that Britain had a devil of a time supplying its army because foraging teams sent out from Boston or New York during their occupation were met with resistance. Popular opinion meant that no matter how many East Enders Britain could drill into its army, it had 2.4 million people to subdue, and its army of 194,000 max strength British Army during the American War of Independence split across a Continent, was no match.Popular opinion meant that Howe needed to garrison areas that he conquered, such as Trenton and Princeton, leaving small amounts of Hessian and British troops. Easy prey for Washington's counterattacks in the famous battles in those towns. Popular support meant Britain could ravage seaports but often got caught in the back woods be it in King's Mountain or the deadly CowPens, or the fields near Monmouth courthouse where they tried to flee to get to their ferry back to their seaport safety under the sniping of patriot bullets.The American people thought of themselves as such. They were for the most part people born in the United States or born in Ulster or Germany. Most outside the wealthier Americans had not visited Britain. They were angry about the Stamp Acts, Sugar Acts, Iron Acts. They were angry about restrictions on trade, angry about limits on Western expansion (read my child's future homestead and my economic growth), angry about taxes and angry about controls on harbors and ports. And heck by 1775, the British army was out and out attacking American seaports and hiring mercenaries to do the King's bidding. So much of the discussion,the cooperation between colonies, the drafting of plans, sometimes the meeting of rebel governments, happened in taverns. The British did not have representatives at these meetings. By the time they did, they needed muskets and bayonets to get in. (Shame of it is for the British, they had in the early colonial days, encouraged the taverns as a way of having militia meetings and fostering commerce.)I especially like the creative name of this one -- the Man Full of Trouble Tavern in Philadelphia.Taverns in the Middle States were of a mixed and cautious opinion in the lead up to war of course. But they played a role even in the 'swing' areas. Lest we forget the founding of the U.S. Marines which happened in, well you probably know what I'll say: A tavern. The Tun Tavern in Philadelphia.From "Oh Say Did You Know" by Fred DuBoseAn early brew house, the Tun Tavern served many Revolutionary War leaders with good bear and Red Hot Beef Steak prepared by Peggy Mullan, the wife of the tavern owner. On November 10, 1775 when the Continental Congress authorized a marine corps, Robert Mullan was appointed Chief Marine recruiter. The tavern served as the first recruiting station.Not only that, the Indian Queen also in Philadelphia was a fav spot of Thomas Jefferson when he was crafting the Declaration of Independence.It must have been a scene. But you can't eat oysters there in 2015. You can eat these delicious oysters here, at the City Tavern:from its website:and In 1774, as the breech with great Britain widened, politics were the dominant topic of conversation at City Tavern. In May, leading citizens held a meeting in the Long Room to shape Pennsylvania's response to the "intolerable acts." Three months later, as the delegates to the First Continental Congress began to arrive in Philadelphia, the Tavern was thrust center stage in the dispute with England From that time until the close of the century, City Tavern knew the patronage of the great and near-great of the American Revolution.When they decided the question and war came, the taverns had new roles. Helpful roles. As locations of battlefields, as important points on the map, as supply and information depots, as a place to get a fresh horse, and and as gathering places for armed men. The first to tackle the British were at Lexington, and that militia was organized here..It is often said that Britain was so powerful, it could have easily won, but that ignores some logistics. Britain was a naval power and its army at the time of the Revolution was a measly 45,000 spread around the world. The Pennsylvania militia alone could (on paper) get near that. Population was the American's power base. The British had more people, but the Americans were growing faster in population. That fact was lost on no one. Raising an army and sending them across the ocean is a very onerous task for a population. The British grew their army to four times the size with some drastic steps, including the drafting of prisoners and hiring of German mercenaries. But it still was not overwhelming considering the American population and the militias. Supporting an army for a sustained conflict by sea once you've recruited them is difficult. There were some terrible supply issues and to win the British needed on the ground support from the American people. They got some on the ground support, but never enough as London wanted or imagine.You've heard the talk about a third/a third and a third, that support and opposition to Independence was even, but that was a misquote of John Adams (he was talking about the French Revolution, years later). Resistance to British excess was very popular, armed revolution was more controversial but still had popular support. The American populace, with some exceptions, were won over by the idea of American Rights and eventually revolution by the time of 1775. Most states sent delegates to Philadelphia with instructions to vote for independence. Many movies and the musical 1776 distort the reality that most states (MA, RI, NH, CT, VA, GA, MD) had pro-independence majorities before Jefferson wrote a word. The debate in Congress was to try to get Middle States and the Carolinas to be unanimous. Some judges and towns had already declared independence or sent governors packing. Pennsylvania's western counties rose in a militia that numbered tens of thousands. Philadelphia also armed as of 1775.Loyalism had its proponents, especially in Middle States, Quakers, Scots, French Indian War Veterans with British land grants, merchants and among elites with British business or commissions, but never a full third across the Continent. In New England, planter Virginia, or in Scots-Irish enclaves, Loyalism would be hard to find support for King and Parliament at all.There was some indifference of course, some wait and see, but still mostly support for the Revolution. Americans ate up the pamphlet of Thomas Paine and pushed their colonies to declare independence and form state governments. They formed militias and took arms against British soldiers, whom they considered violators of their American rights. Before the declaration was signed. On June 10th, 1776 in a forgotten event those armed men, led by the Committee of Privates of Philadelphia mustered on the mall in front of what is now Independence Hall and surveyed the battalion of two thousand - they demanded the colony throw out its charter and allow pro-independence minded people to lead the provincial convention.By May 20th, a crowd of 4,000 appeared in the State House Yard in Philadelphia to demonstrate popular support for independence. William Hogeland describes this in his Declaration! (available on Google books:)Was the current government of Pennsylvania competent to the exigencies of affairs (as Congress had put it)? The crowd favoring independence, be created by a constitution, on advice of the city committee, the authority of the people, and the support of the Congress? The crowd said yesJust to put that in perspective, that's something like a crowd of 200,000 appearing in Philadelphia today with its current population. Leaders got the message. By June 24, 1776, a few days before the United States was born, the provincial of Pennsylvania declared independence."We the Deputies of the People of Pennsylvania, assembled in FULL PROVINCIAL CONFERENCE, for forming a Plan for executing the Resolve of Congress of the 15th of May last, " for suppressing all Authority in this Province derived from the Crown of Great-Britain: and for establishing a Government upon the Authority of the People only.This in a Middle State. So I do think that representations that America was divided in half are off. It wasn't. In New England and Virginia, the declarations already had been made. After that, those seeking reconcile with Britain felt the heat of popular opinion. John Dickinson didn't appear for the next vote in Continental Congress.There was no Gallup to take polls at that time, but it's pretty clear, Great Britain's approvals were not high.---Oh and as to the Americans fighting in the woods, Indian style, as old stories used to tell us (I must credit my history teacher for debunking it). When they fought the British, the men of Lexington lined up against them. For as long as they could...The British lined up and volleyed in a superior fashion and in that case, dispersed them.So, that stuff about the Americans always fighting in the trees like Indians while the Brits were so gentleman-like they fought in the open is not true. Though the works at Bunker Hill did help.and at Kings mountain, both sides fought in the woods.Some of the talk about "fighting in the woods" and the like might be reductionism and refer more to Saratoga - where this was critical because of the type of land, or King's Mountain,or Concord, where there was some crossfiring by troops that were parallel to the road the British were taking, which likely put them in the woods. However there was also a force in front and behind in a triangle, until the British could outrun them.)"The regulars soon reached a point in the road now referred to as the "Bloody Angle" where the road rises and curves sharply to the left through a lightly-wooded area.[84] At this place, the militia company from Woburn had positioned themselves on the southeast side of the bend in the road in a rocky, lightly-wooded field. Additional militia flowing parallel to the road from the engagement at Meriam's Corner positioned themselves on the northwest side of the road, catching the British in a crossfire, while other militia companies on the road closed from behind to attack. Some 500 yards (460 m) further along, the road took another sharp curve, this time to the right, and again the British column was caught by another large force of militiamen firing from both sides. In passing through these two sharp curves, the British force lost thirty soldiers killed or wounded, and four colonial militia were also killed, including Captain Jonathan Wilson Bedford, Captain Nathan Wyman of Billerica, Lt. John Bacon of Natick, and Daniel Thompson of Woburn. The British soldiers escaped by breaking into a trot, a pace that the colonials could not maintain through the woods and swampy terrain. Colonial forces on the road itself behind the British were too densely packed and disorganized to mount more than a harassing attack from the rear.[85]"Not surprisingly the nearest location to this part of the battle was, you guessed it, a tavern. Brook's House.But the reality is it's when the American army got more drilled and better adapted the modern fighting techniques that they had a chance. So some of the talk of Americans fighting like Indians or like guerrillas is the fantasy of the underdog story and some of it is based in a little reality here or there. The Americans did a) surprise b) fight while retreating to fight another day and c) attack supply lines, all of which might lead people to think it was some kind of guerrilla war. What they were not interested in doing is remaining in the woods and ceding the whole countryside to the British.Bayonets? British and their Hessian allies had plenty of bayonets. Ouch!But the reason there were always numbers to fight the British at these various engagement was that the popular tide was with the patriot cause.--I focus on popular opinion. That's what feeds an army. But I do acknowledge that you can't overlook the military side. Because a few different events - George Washington doesn't escape New York for instance, a loss at Saratoga, and the British would really change events and thus change the 'tavern talk,' and convince enough sunshine patriots to abandon the cause.I have no doubt that popular will would not sustain a fool's errand, if the entire war was like the Battle of Long Island, redcoats storming and Washington running. It wasn't. There were enough American victories at the right times to sustain the popular support, support critical for keeping militia ranks full, recruiting Continentals and raising money.It should be remembered that the British had a well-trained army, made some great moves, kept the fight going for a long time -- 6 years between Bunker Hill and Yorktown, nearly crushed Washington in the first encounter under his command, and controlled a lot of what we know call American territory throughout the war. With control of the sea lane they were able to send troops to any part of the Continent and force Washington to split up his army defending these attacks.To some degree, Britain lost the "battle in the taverns" long before, probably at the time of the first King George, but it took until 1775 to seal the deal. Colonies governed themselves for the most part. Massachusetts had already rebelled, expelled a governor and presented themselves to London as gentlemen and merchants running a colony. Larger New England absolutely considered itself independently governing and only part of the Empire for defense purposes, not for administration. South Carolina overthrew its English owners in 1719. Maryland was given to the Baron of Baltimore by Charles II. Pennsylvania was a charter colony and thus had assumed a control of its governance.Indeed, it could be called the "American Assertion" instead of the Revolution. In this way it might be different from India or Jamaica. There were already established governments with colonial assemblies in the colonies, and at the time of Revolution the people from the Assemblies were among the first to form state governments and committees of Public Safety, easily bypassing British rule. The colonies already had the militia system which mean Americans were armed and trained. By the time the King sent the troops over, it was like they were attacking a foreign country.

Article 246 of the Indian Constitution, distributes legislative powers including taxation, between the Parliament of India and the State Legislature. Schedule VII enumerates these subject matters with the use of three lists:List - I entailing the areas on which only the parliament is competent to make laws,List - II entailing the areas on which only the state legislature can make laws, andList - III listing the areas on which both the Parliament and the State Legislature can make laws upon concurrently.Separate heads of taxation are no head of taxation in the Concurrent List (Union and the States have no concurrent power of taxation)Central TaxesIn 2015-2016, the gross tax collection of the Centre amounted to ₹14.60 trillion (US$220 billion).Direct TaxesDirect Taxes in India were governed by two major legislations, Income Tax Act, 1961 and Wealth Tax Act, 1957. A new legislation, Direct Taxes Code (DTC), was proposed to replace the two acts.However, the Wealth Tax Act was repealed in 2015 and the idea of DTC was dropped.As of 2015, Income Tax is the major source of direct tax in India.Income TaxMain article: Income tax in IndiaThe major tax enactment in India is the Income Tax Act, 1961 passed by the Parliament, which imposes a tax on the income of persons.This Act imposes a tax on income under the following five heads:Income from house propertyIncome from business and professionIncome from salariesIncome in the form of capital gainsIncome from other sourcesIn terms of the Income Tax Act, 1961, a person includesIndividualHindu Undivided Family (HUF)Association of Persons (AOP)Body of Individuals (BOI)CompanyFirmLocal authorityArtificial Judicial person not falling in any of the preceding categoriesThe tax rate is prescribed every year by Parliament in the Finance Act, popularly called the Budget. In terms of the Finance Act, 2015, the rate of tax for individuals, HUF, Association of Persons (AOP) and Body of individuals (BOI) is as under;A surcharge of 2.50% of the total tax liability is applicable in case the payee is a Non-Resident or a Foreign Company; where the total income exceeds ₹1 crore(US$150,000).Education cess (EC) is applicable @ 2% on income tax, inclusive of surcharge if there is any.Secondary and Higher Education Cess (SHEC) is applicable @ 1% on Income Tax.0.5 percent of swachh Bharat taxA marginal relief may be provided to ensure that the additional IT payable, including surcharge, on excess of income over ₹10 lakh (US$15,000) is limited to an amount by which the income is more than this mentioned amount.[citation needed]Indirect TaxesService taxMain article: Service TaxIt is a tax levied on services provided in India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir. The responsibility of collecting the tax lies with the Central Board of Excise and Customs(CBEC). From 2012, service tax is imposed on all services, except those which are specifically exempted under law(e.g. Exempt under Negative List, Exempt as exclusion from Service definition as per Service Tax, Exempt under MEN(Mega exemption notification)). In budget presented for 2008-2009, it was announced that all small service providers whose turnover does not exceed ₹10 lakh (US$15,000) need not pay service tax. Service tax at a rate of 14 percent(Inclusive of EC & SHEC) will be imposed on all applicable services from 1 June 2015.From 15th November 2015, Swacch Bharat cess of 0.5% has been added to all taxable service leading the new Service Tax rate to be 14.5 percent (Inclusive of EC, SHEC & Swacch Bharat cess).On 29 February 2016, Current Finance Minister Mr. Arun Jaitley announces a new Cess, Krishi Kalyan Cess that would be levied from the 1st June 2016 at the rate of 0.5% on all taxable services. The purpose of introducing Krishi Kalyan Cess is to improve agriculture activities and welfare of Indian farmers. Thus, the new Service Tax rate would be 15% incorporating EC, SHEC, Swachh Bharat Cess and Krishi Kalyan Cess.In 2015-2016, the gross tax collection of the Centre from service tax amounted to ₹2.10 trillion (US$31 billion).Excise and CustomsMain article: Central ExciseLogo of Customs and Central ExciseIn 2015-2016, the gross tax collection of the Centre from excise amounted to ₹2.80 trillion (US$42 billion).Central Excise Act, 1944, which imposes a duty of excise on goods manufactured or produced in India;Customs Act, 1962, which imposes duties of customs, countervailing duties, and anti-dumping duties on goods imported in India;Central Sales Tax, 1956, which imposes sales tax on goods sold in inter-state trade or commerce in Indisale of property situated within the stateState TaxesMain article: Value-added taxation in IndiaThis section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2015)Road NH 71 B to Shekhawati-Tax collection point for HaryanaValue Added Tax (VAT) is a major source of revenue for Indian States. Other state level taxes include Entertainment tax, Entry Tax and Octroi.Goods and Service TaxMain article: Goods and Services Tax (India)This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2015)The ex-Finance Minister of India, Pranab Mukherjee in his Budget speech has indicated the government's intent of merging all taxes like Service Tax, Excise and VAT into a common Goods and Service Tax by the year 2011. To achieve this objective, the rate of Central Excise and Service Tax will be progressively altered and brought to a common rate.. As of October 2015, Goods and Services Tax Bill has been passed by the Parliament and ratified by the states.The GST council is in deliberation with concerned authorities to arrive at an agreed rate of interest.The Rajya Sabha passed the Constitutional Amendment Bill required for introduction of GST bills on 3 August 2016 with more than two-third majority.The IT framework and services for implementation of the new taxation system will be managed by "Goods and Services Tax Network (GSTN)", a non-government company set up by the Centre and states.Local Body TaxesMain article: Local Body Tax"Local Body Tax", popularly known by its abbreviation as "LBT", is the tax imposed by the local civic bodies of India on the entry of goods into a local area for consumption, use or sale therein.The tax is imposed based on the Entry 52 of the State List from the Schedule VII of the Constitution of India which reads; "Taxes on the entry of goods into a local area for consumption, use or sale therein."The tax is to be paid by the trader to the civic bodies and the rules and regulations of these vary amongst different States in India. The LBT is now partially abolished as of August 1, 2015.Property TaxProperty tax or 'house tax' is a local tax on buildings, along with appurtenant land, and imposed on Possessor (certainly, not true custodian of property as per 1978, 44th amedment of constitution). It resembles the US-type wealth tax and differs from the excise-type UK rate. The tax power is vested in the states and it is delegated by law to the local bodies, specifying the valuation method, rate band, and collection procedures. The tax base is the annual rental value (ARV) or area-based rating. Owner-occupied and other properties not producing rent are assessed on cost and then converted into ARV by applying a percentage of cost, usually six percent. Vacant land is generally exempt. Central government properties are exempt. Instead a 'service charge' is permissible under executive order. Properties of foreign missions also enjoy tax exemption without an insistence for reciprocity. The tax is usually accompanied by a number of service taxes, e.g., water tax, drainage tax, conservancy (sanitation) tax, lighting tax, all using the same tax base. The rate structure is flat on rural (panchayat) properties, but in the urban (municipal) areas it is mildly progressive with about 80% of assessments falling in the first two slabs.

You should read the Founders, the men who wrote and signed the American Constitution; they envisioned America a Biblically literate and moral people and nation.Patrick HenryREVOLUTIONARY GENERAL; LEGISLATOR; “THE VOICE OF LIBERTY”;RATIFIER OF THE U. S. CONSTITUTION; GOVERNOR OF VIRGINIABeing a Christian… is a character which I prize far above all this world has or can boast.48The Bible… is a book worth more than all the other books that were ever printed.49Righteousness alone can exalt [America] as a nation…Whoever thou art, remember this; and in thy sphere practice virtue thyself, and encourage it in others.50The great pillars of all government and of social life [are] virtue, morality, and religion. This is the armor, my friend, and this alone, that renders us invincible.51This is all the inheritance I can give to my dear family. The religion of Christ can give them one which will make them rich indeed.52John HancockSIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE; PRESIDENT OF CONGRESS;REVOLUTIONARY GENERAL; GOVERNOR OF MASSACHUSETTSSensible of the importance of Christian piety and virtue to the order and happiness of a state, I cannot but earnestly commend to you every measure for their support and encouragement.37He called on the entire state to pray “that universal happiness may be established in the world [and] that all may bow to the scepter of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the whole earth be filled with His glory.”38He also called on the State of Massachusetts to pray . . .that all nations may bow to the scepter of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ and that the whole earth may be filled with his glory.39that the spiritual kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ may be continually increasing until the whole earth shall be filled with His glory.40to confess their sins and to implore forgiveness of God through the merits of the Savior of the World.41to cause the benign religion of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ to be known, understood, and practiced among all the inhabitants of the earth.42to confess their sins before God and implore His forgiveness through the merits and mediation of Jesus Christ, our Lord and Savior.43that He would finally overrule all events to the advancement of the Redeemer’s kingdom and the establishment of universal peace and good will among men.44that the kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ may be established in peace and righteousness among all the nations of the earth.45that with true contrition of heart we may confess our sins, resolve to forsake them, and implore the Divine forgiveness, through the merits and mediation of Jesus Christ, our Savior. . . . And finally to overrule all the commotions in the world to the spreading the true religion of our Lord Jesus Christ in its purity and power among all the people of the earth.46thus to lay a foundation for the offer of pardon and salvation to all mankind, so as all may be saved who are willing to accept the Gospel offer. . . . I believe a visible church to be a congregation of those who make a credible profession of their faith in Christ, and obedience to Him, joined by the bond of the covenant. . . . I believe that the sacraments of the New Testament are baptism and the Lord’s Supper. . . . I believe that the souls of believers are at their death made perfectly holy, and immediately taken to glory: that at the end of this world there will be a resurrection of the dead, and a final judgment of all mankind, when the righteous shall be publicly acquitted by Christ the Judge and admitted to everlasting life and glory, and the wicked be sentenced to everlasting punishment.106God commands all men everywhere to repent. He also commands them to believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and has assured us that all who do repent and believe shall be saved… [G]od… has absolutely promised to bestow them on all these who are willing to accept them on the terms of the Gospel – that is, in a way of free grace through the atonement. “Ask and ye shall receive [John 16:24]. Whosoever will, let him come and take of the waters of life freely [Revelation 22:17]. Him that cometh unto me I will in no wise cast out” [John 6:37].107[I]t is the duty of all to acknowledge that the Divine Law which requires us to love God with all our heart and our neighbor as ourselves, on pain of eternal damnation, is Holy, just, and good. . . . The revealed law of God is the rule of our duty.108True Christians are assured that no temptation (or trial) shall happen to them but what they shall be enabled to bear; and that the grace of Christ shall be sufficient for them.109“The volume which he consulted more than any other was the Bible. It was his custom, at the commencement of every session of Congress, to purchase a copy of the Scriptures, to peruse it daily, and to present it to one of his children on his return.”110Richard StocktonJUDGE; SIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE[A]s my children will have frequent occasion of perusing this instrument, and may probably be particularly impressed with the last words of their father, I think it proper here not only to subscribe to the entire belief of the great and leading doctrines of the Christian religion, such as the being of God; the universal defection and depravity of human nature; the Divinity of the person and the completeness of the redemption purchased by the blessed Savior; the necessity of the operations of the Divine Spirit; of Divine faith accompanied with an habitual virtuous life; and the universality of the Divine Providence: but also, in the bowels of a father’s affection, to exhort and charge [my children] that the fear of God is the beginning of wisdom, that the way of life held up in the Christian system is calculated for the most complete happiness that can be enjoyed in this mortal state, [and] that all occasions of vice and immorality is injurious either immediately or consequentially – even in this life.111Thomas StoneSIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE;SELECTED AS A DELEGATE TO THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTIONShun all giddy, loose, and wicked company; they will corrupt and lead you into vice and bring you to ruin. Seek the company of sober, virtuous and good people… which will lead [you] to solid happiness.112Joseph StoryU. S. CONGRESSMAN; “FATHER OF AMERICAN JURISPRUDENCE”;U. S. SUPREME COURT JUSTICE APPOINTED BY PRESIDENT JAMES MADISONOne of the beautiful boasts of our municipal jurisprudence is that Christianity is a part of the Common Law. There never has been a period in which the Common Law did not recognize Christianity as lying at its foundations.113I verily believe that Christianity is necessary to support a civil society and shall ever attend to its institutions and acknowledge its precepts as the pure and natural sources of private and social happiness.114Caleb StrongDELEGATE AT THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION TO FRAME THE U. S. CONSTITUTION;RATIFIER OF THE CONSTITUTION; U. S. SENATOR; GOVERNOR OF MASSACHUSETTSHe called on the State of Massachusetts to pray that . . .all nations may know and be obedient to that grace and truth which came by Jesus Christ.115Zephaniah SwiftU. S. CONGRESSMAN; DIPLOMAT; JUDGE; AUTHOR OF AMERICA’S FIRST LEGAL TEXT (1795)Jesus Christ has in the clearest manner inculcated those duties which are productive of the highest moral felicity and consistent with all the innocent enjoyments, to which we are impelled by the dictates of nature. Religion, when fairly considered in its genuine simplicity and uncorrupted state, is the source of endless rapture and delight.116Charles ThomsonSECRETARY OF THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS;DESIGNER OF THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES; ALONG WITH JOHN HANCOCK,THOMSON WAS ONE OF ONLY TWO FOUNDERS TO SIGN THE INITIAL DRAFT OFTHE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE APPROVED BY CONGRESSI am a Christian. I believe only in the Scriptures, and in Jesus Christ my Savior.117Jonathan TrumbullJUDGE; LEGISLATOR; GOVERNOR OF CONNECTICUT;CONFIDANT OF GEORGE WASHINGTON AND CALLED “BROTHER JONATHAN” BY HIMThe examples of holy men teach us that we should seek Him with fasting and prayer, with penitent confession of our sins, and hope in His mercy through Jesus Christ the Great Redeemer.118Principally and first of all, I bequeath my soul to God the Creator and giver thereof, and my body to the earth to be buried in a decent Christian burial, in firm belief that I shall receive the same again at the general resurrection through the power of Almighty God, and hope of eternal life and happiness through the merits of my dear Redeemer Jesus Christ.119He called on the State of Connecticut to pray that . . .God would graciously pour out His Spirit upon us and make the blessed Gospel in His hand effectual to a thorough reformation and general revival of the holy and peaceful religion of Jesus Christ.120George WashingtonJUDGE; MEMBER OF THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS;COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE CONTINENTAL ARMY;PRESIDENT OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION;FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES; “FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY”You do well to wish to learn our arts and ways of life, and above all, the religion of Jesus Christ. These will make you a greater and happier people than you are.121While we are zealously performing the duties of good citizens and soldiers, we certainly ought not to be inattentive to the higher duties of religion. To the distinguished character of Patriot, it should be our highest glory to add the more distinguished character of Christian.122The blessing and protection of Heaven are at all times necessary but especially so in times of public distress and danger. The General hopes and trusts that every officer and man will endeavor to live and act as becomes a Christian soldier, defending the dearest rights and liberties of his country.123I now make it my earnest prayer that God would… most graciously be pleased to dispose us all to do justice, to love mercy, and to demean ourselves with that charity, humility, and pacific temper of the mind which were the characteristics of the Divine Author of our blessed religion.124Daniel WebsterU. S. SENATOR; SECRETARY OF STATE; “DEFENDER OF THE CONSTITUTION”[T]he Christian religion – its general principles – must ever be regarded among us as the foundation of civil society.125Whatever makes men good Christians, makes them good citizens.126[T]o the free and universal reading of the Bible… men [are] much indebted for right views of civil liberty.127The Bible is a book… which teaches man his own individual responsibility, his own dignity, and his equality with his fellow man.128Noah WebsterREVOLUTIONARY SOLDIER; JUDGE; LEGISLATOR; EDUCATOR; “SCHOOLMASTER TO AMERICA”[T]he religion which has introduced civil liberty is the religion of Christ and His apostles… This is genuine Christianity and to this we owe our free constitutions of government.129The moral principles and precepts found in the Scriptures ought to form the basis of all our civil constitutions and laws.130All the… evils which men suffer from vice, crime, ambition, injustice, oppression, slavery and war, proceed from their despising or neglecting the precepts contained in the Bible.131[O]ur citizens should early understand that the genuine source of correct republican principles is the Bible, particularly the New Testament, or the Christian religion.132[T]he Christian religion is the most important and one of the first things in which all children under a free government ought to be instructed. No truth is more evident than that the Christian religion must be the basis of any government intended to secure the rights and privileges of a free people.133The Bible is the chief moral cause of all that is good and the best corrector of all that is evil in human society – the best book for regulating the temporal concerns of men.134[T]he Christian religion… is the basis, or rather the source, of all genuine freedom in government… I am persuaded that no civil government of a republican form can exist and be durable in which the principles of Christianity have not a controlling influence.135John WitherspoonSIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE; RATIFIER OF THE U. S. CONSTITUTION; PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON[C]hrist Jesus – the promise of old made unto the fathers, the hope of Israel [Acts 28:20], the light of the world [John 8:12], and the end of the law for righteousness to every one that believeth [Romans 10:4] – is the only Savior of sinners, in opposition to all false religions and every uninstituted rite; as He Himself says (John 14:6): “I am the way, and the truth, and the life: no man cometh unto the Father but by Me.”136[N]o man, whatever be his character or whatever be his hope, shall enter into rest unless he be reconciled to God though Jesus Christ.137[T]here is no salvation in any other than in Jesus Christ of Nazareth.138I shall now conclude my discourse by preaching this Savior to all who hear me, and entreating you in the most earnest manner to believe in Jesus Christ; for “there is no salvation in any other” [Acts 4:12].139It is very evident that both the prophets in the Old Testament and the apostles in the New are at great pains to give us a view of the glory and dignity of the person of Christ. With what magnificent titles is He adorned! What glorious attributes are ascribed to him!… All these conspire to teach us that He is truly and properly God – God over all, blessed forever!140[I]f you are not rec¬onciled to God through Jesus Christ – if you are not clothed with the spotless robe of His righteousness – you must forever perish.141[H]e is the best friend to American liberty who is the most sincere and active in promoting true and undefiled religion, and who sets himself with the greatest firmness to bear down profanity and immorality of every kind. Whoever is an avowed enemy of God, I scruple not to call him an enemy to his country.142Oliver WolcottSIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE; MILITARY GENERAL;GOVERNOR OF CONNECTICUTThrough various scenes of life, God has sustained me. May He ever be my unfailing friend; may His love cherish my soul; may my heart with gratitude acknowledge His goodness; and may my desires be to Him and to the remembrance of His name….May we then turn our eyes to the bright objects above, and may God give us strength to travel the upward road. May the Divine Redeemer conduct us to that seat of bliss which He himself has prepared for His friends; at the approach of which every sorrow shall vanish from the human heart and endless scenes of glory open upon the enraptured eye. There our love to God and each other will grow stronger, and our pleasures never be dampened by the fear of future separation. How indifferent will it then be to us whether we obtained felicity by travailing the thorny or the agreeable paths of life – whether we arrived at our rest by passing through the envied and unfragrant road of greatness or sustained hardship and unmerited reproach in our journey. God’s Providence and support through the perilous perplexing labyrinths of human life will then forever excite our astonishment and love. May a happiness be granted to those I most tenderly love, which shall continue and increase through an endless existence. Your cares and burdens must be many and great, but put your trust in that God Who has hitherto supported you and me; He will not fail to take care of those who put their trust in http://Him….It is most evident that this land is under the protection of the Almighty, and that we shall be saved not by our wisdom nor by our might, but by the Lord of Host Who is wonderful in counsel and Almighty in all His operations.143Endnotes1.Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (Washington D. C.: The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1904), Vol. XIII, p. 292-294. In a letter from John Adams to Thomas Jefferson on June 28, 1813.2. John Adams, The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States, Charles Francis Adams, editor (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1856), Vol. X, p. 254, to Thomas Jefferson on April 19, 1817.3. John Adams, Works, Vol. III, p. 421, diary entry for July 26, 1796.4. John Adams, Works, Vol. II, pp. 6-7, diary entry for February 22, 1756.5. John Adams, Works, Vol. X, p. 85, to Thomas Jefferson on December 25, 1813.6. John Adams and John Quincy Adams, The Selected Writings of John and John Quincy Adams, Adrienne Koch and William Peden, editors (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1946), p. 292, John Quincy Adams to John Adams, January 3, 1817.7. Life of John Quincy Adams, W. H. Seward, editor (Auburn, NY: Derby, Miller & Company, 1849), p. 248.8. John Quincy Adams, An Oration Delivered Before the Inhabitants of the Town of Newburyport at Their Request on the Sixty-First Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1837 (Newburyport: Charles Whipple, 1837), pp. 5-6.9. From the Last Will & Testament of Samuel Adams, attested December 29, 1790; see also Samuel Adams, Life & Public Services of Samuel Adams, William V. Wells, editor (Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1865), Vol. III, p. 379, Last Will and Testament of Samuel Adams.10. Letters of Delegates to Congress: August 16, 1776-December 31, 1776, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1979), Vol. 5, pp. 669-670, Samuel Adams to Elizabeth Adams on December 26, 1776.11. From a Fast Day Proclamation issued by Governor Samuel Adams, Massachusetts, March 20, 1797, in our possession; see also Samuel Adams, The Writings of Samuel Adams, Harry Alonzo Cushing, editor (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908), Vol. IV, p. 407, from his proclamation of March 20, 1797.12. Samuel Adams, A Proclamation For a Day of Public Fasting, Humiliation and Prayer, given as the Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, from an original broadside in our possession; see also, Samuel Adams, The Writings of Samuel Adams, Harry Alonzo Cushing, editor (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908), Vol. IV, p. 385, October 14, 1795.13. Samuel Adams, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 10, 1793.14. Samuel Adams, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 15, 1796.15. Josiah Bartlett, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 17, 1792.16. Gunning Bedford, Funeral Oration Upon the Death of General George Washington (Wilmington: James Wilson, 1800), p. 18, Evans #36922.17. Elias Boudinot, The Life, Public Services, Addresses, and Letters of Elias Boudinot, J. J. Boudinot, editor (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1896), Vol. I, pp. 19, 21, speech in the First Provincial Congress of New Jersey.18. Elias Boudinot, The Age of Revelation (Philadelphia: Asbury Dickins, 1801), pp. xii-xiv, from the prefatory remarks to his daughter, Susan, on October 30, 1782; see also Letters of the Delegates to Congress: 1774-1789, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington, D. C.: Library of Congress, 1992), Vol. XIX, p. 325, from a letter of Elias Boudinot to his daughter, Susan Boudinot, on October 30, 1782; see also, Elias Boudinot, The Life Public Services, Addresses, and Letters of Elias Boudinot (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, and Company, 1896), Vol. I, p. 260-262.19. Elias Boudinot, The Age of Revelation, or the Age of Reason Shewn to be An Age of Infidelity (Philadelphia: Asbury Dickins, 1801), p. xv, from his “Dedication: Letter to his daughter Susan Bradford.”20. Jacob Broom to his son, James, on February 24, 1794, written from Wilmington, Delaware, from an original letter in our possession.21. From an autograph letter in our possession written by Charles Carroll to Charles W. Wharton, Esq., September 27, 1825.22. Lewis A. Leonard, Life of Charles Carroll of Carrollton (New York: Moffit, Yard & Co, 1918), pp. 256-257.23. Kate Mason Rowland, Life of Charles Carroll of Carrollton (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1890), Vol. II, pp. 373-374, will of Charles Carroll, Dec. 1, 1718 (later replaced by a subsequent will not containing this phrase, although he reexpressed this sentiment on several subsequent occasions, including repeatedly in the latter years of his life).24. Journal of the House of the Representatives of the United States of America (Washington, DC: Cornelius Wendell, 1855), 34th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 354, January 23, 1856; see also: Lorenzo D. Johnson, Chaplains of the General Government With Objections to their Employment Considered (New York: Sheldon, Blakeman & Co., 1856), p. 35, quoting from the House Journal, Wednesday, January 23, 1856, and B. F. Morris, The Christian Life and Character of the Civil Institutions of the United States (Philadelphia: George W. Childs, 1864), p. 328.25. Reports of Committees of the House of Representatives Made During the First Session of the Thirty-Third Congress (Washington: A. O. P. Nicholson, 1854), pp. 6-9.26. From the Last Will & Testament of John Dickinson, attested March 25, 1808.27. John Dickinson, The Political Writings of John Dickinson (Wilmington: Bonsal and Niles, 1801), Vol. I, pp. 111-112.28. From his last will and testament, attested on September 21, 1840.29. Benjamin Franklin, Works of Benjamin Franklin, John Bigelow, editor (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904), p. 185, to Ezra Stiles, March 9, 1790.30. Benjamin Franklin, Works of the Late Doctor Benjamin Franklin (Dublin: P. Wogan, P. Byrne, J. More, and W. Janes, 1793), p. 149.31. Elbridge Gerry, Proclamation for a Day of Thanksgiving and Praise, October 24, 1810, from a proclamation in our possession, EAI #20675.32. Elbridge Gerry, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 13, 1811, from a proclamation in our possession, Shaw #23317.33. Elbridge Gerry, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 6, 1812, from a proclamation in our possession, Shaw #26003.34. John M. Mason, A Collection of the Facts and Documents Relative to the Death of Major General Alexander Hamilton (New York: Hopkins and Seymour, 1804), p. 53.35. John M. Mason, A Collection of the Facts and Documents Relative to the Death of Major General Alexander Hamilton (New York: Hopkins and Seymour, 1804), pp. 48-50.36. Alexander Hamilton, The Works of Alexander Hamilton, John C. Hamilton, editor (New York: John F. Trow, 1851), Vol. VI, p. 542, to James A. Bayard, April, 1802; see also, Alexander Hamilton, The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, Harold C. Syrett, editor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), Vol. XXV, p. 606, to James A. Bayard, April 16, 1802.37. Independent Chronicle (Boston), November 2, 1780, last page; see also Abram English Brown, John Hancock, His Book (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1898), p. 269.38. John Hancock, A Proclamation For a Day of Public Thanksgiving 1791, given as Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, from an original broadside in our possession.39. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Public Thanksgiving, October 28, 1784, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #18593.40. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Public Thanksgiving, October 29, 1788, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #21237.41. John Hancock, Proclamation For a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 16, 1789, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #21946.42. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Thanksgiving and Praise, September 16, 1790, from an original broadside in our possession.43. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, February 11, 1791, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #23549.44. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting, Prayer and Humiliation, February 24, 1792, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #24519.45. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Public Thanksgiving, October 25, 1792, from an original broadside in our possession.46. John Hancock, Proclamation for Day of Public Fasting, Humiliation and Prayer, March 4, 1793, from a broadside in our possession.47. From his last will and testament, attested April 16, 1779.48. A. G. Arnold, The Life of Patrick Henry of Virginia (Auburn and Buffalo: Miller, Orton and Mulligan, 1854), p. 250.49. William Wirt, Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry (Philadelphia: James Webster, 1818), p. 402; see also George Morgan, Patrick Henry (Philadelphia & London: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1929), p. 403.50. Patrick Henry, Patrick Henry: Life, Correspondence and Speeches, William Wirt Henry, editor (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1891), Vol. II, p. 632, addendum to his resolutions against the Stamp Act, May 29, 1765.51. Patrick Henry, Patrick Henry: Life, Correspondence and Speeches, William Wirt Henry, editor (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1891), Vol. II, p. 592, to Archibald Blair on January 8, 1799.52. Will of Patrick Henry, attested November 20, 1798.53. Samuel Huntington, A Proclamation for a Day of Fasting, Prayer and Humiliation, March 9, 1791, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #23284.54. James Iredell, The Papers of James Iredell, Don Higginbotham, editor (Raleigh: North Carolina Division of Archives and History, 1976), Vol. I, p. 11 from his 1768 essay on religion.55. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J & J Harper, 1833), Vol. I p. 518, Appendix V, from a prayer found among Mr. Jay’s papers and in his handwriting.56. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), Vol. I, pp. 519-520, from his Last Will & Testament.57. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J & J Harper, 1833), Vol. II, p. 386, to John Murray, April 15, 1818.58. John Jay, The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay, 1794-1826, Henry P. Johnston, editor (New York: Burt Franklin, 1890), Vol. IV, pp. 494, 498, from his “Address at the Annual Meeting of the American Bible Society,” May 13, 1824.59. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), Vol. I, pp. 457-458, to the Committee of the Corporation of the City of New York on June 29, 1826.60. John Jay, John Jay: The Winning of the Peace. Unpublished Papers 1780-1784, Richard B. Morris, editor (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1980), Vol. II, p. 709, to Peter Augustus Jay on April 8, 1784.61. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), Vol. II, p. 266, to the Rev. Uzal Ogden on February 14, 1796.62. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), Vol. II, p. 376, to John Murray Jr. on October 12, 1816.63. Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Albert Bergh, editor (Washington, D. C.: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Assoc., 1904), Vol. XV, p. 383, to Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse on June 26, 1822.64. Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Alberty Ellery Bergh, editor (Washington D.C.: The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1904), Vol. XII, p. 315, to James Fishback, September 27, 1809.65. Thomas Jefferson, Memoir, Correspondence, and Miscellanies from the Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Jefferson Randolph, editor (Boston: Grey & Bowen, 1830), Vol. III, p. 506, to Benjamin Rush, April 21, 1803.66. Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Albert Ellery Bergh, editor (Washington, D.C.: The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1904), Vol. XIV, p. 385, to Charles Thomson on January 9, 1816.67. Edwards Beardsley, Life and Times of William Samuel Johnson (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1886), p. 184.68. E. Edwards Beardsley, Life and Times of William Samuel Johnson (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1886), pp. 141-145.69. William Kent, Memoirs and Letters of James Kent, (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1898), pp. 276-277.70. Hugh A. Garland, The Life of John Randolph of Roanoke (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1853), Vol. II, p. 104, from Francis Scott Key to John Randolph.71. James Madison, Letters and Other Writings of James Madison (New York: R. Worthington, 1884), Vol. I, pp. 5-6, to William Bradford on November 9, 1772.72. James Madison, The Papers of James Madison, William T. Hutchinson, editor (Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1962), Vol. I, p. 96, to William Bradford on September 25, 1773.73. Letters of Delegates to Congress: November 7, 1785-November 5, 1786, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1995), Vol. 23, p. 337, James Manning to Robert Carter on June 7, 1786.74. Letters of Delegates to Congress: May 1, 1777 – September 18, 1777, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1981), Vol. 7, pp. 645-646, Henry Marchant to Sarah Marchant on September 9, 1777.75. Kate Mason Rowland, Life of George Mason (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1892), Vol. I, p. 373, Will of Colonel George Mason, June 29, 1715 (this will was later replaced by the will below.)76. Will of George Mason, attested March 20, 1773.77. Bernard C. Steiner, One Hundred and Ten Years of Bible Society Work in Maryland, 1810-1920 (Maryland Bible Society, 1921), p. 14.78. Bernard C. Steiner, One Hundred and Ten Years of Bible Society Work in Maryland, 1810-1920 (Maryland Bible Society, 1921), p. 14.79. A. J. Dallas, Reports of Cases Ruled and Adjudged in the Courts of Pennsylvania (Phila¬delphia: P. Byrne, 1806), p. 39, Respublica v. John Roberts, Pa. Sup. Ct. 1778.80. William B. Reed, Life and Correspondence of Joseph Reed (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1847), Vol. II, pp. 36-37.81. Collections of the New York Historical Society for the Year 1821 (New York: E. Bliss and E. White, 1821), pp. 32, 34, from “An Inaugural Discourse Delivered Before the New York Historical Society by the Honorable Gouverneur Morris, (President,) 4th September, 1816.”82. Letters of Delegates to Congress: February 1, 1778-May 31, 1778, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1982), Vol. 9, pp. 729-730, Gouverneur Morris to General Anthony Wayne on May 21, 1778.83. Jedidiah Morse, A Sermon, Exhibiting the Present Dangers and Consequent Duties of the Citizens of the United States of America, Delivered at Charlestown, April 25, 1799, The Day of the National Fast (MA: Printed by Samuel Etheridge, 1799), p. 9.84. From his last will and testament, attested January 28, 1777.85. James Otis, The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved (London: J. Williams and J. Almon, 1766), pp. 11, 98.86. Robert Treat Paine, The Papers of Robert Treat Paine, Stephen T. Riley and Edward W. Hanson, editors (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1992), Vol. I, p. 48, Robert Treat Paine’s Confession of Faith, 1749.87. From the Last Will & Testament of Robert Treat Paine, attested May 11, 1814.88. Robert Treat Paine, The Papers of Robert Treat Paine, Stephen T. Riley and Edward W. Hanson, editors (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1992), Vol. I, p. 49, Robert Treat Paine’s Confession of Faith, 1749.89. United States Oracle (Portsmouth, NH), May 24, 1800.90. Charles W. Upham, The Life of Timothy Pickering (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1873), Vol. IV, p. 390, from his prayer of November 30, 1828.91. Mary Orne Pickering, Life of John Pickering (Boston: 1887), p. 79, letter from Thomas Pickering to his son John Pickering, May 12, 1796.92. From his last will and testament, attested October 8, 1807.93. Collected Letters of John Randolph of Roanoke to Dr. John Brockenbrough, Kenneth Shorey, editor (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988), p. 17, to John Brockenbrough, August 25, 1818.94. Hugh A. Garland, The Life of John Randolph of Roanoke (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1853), Vol. II, p. 99, to Francis Scott Key on September 7, 1818.95. Hugh A. Garland, The Life of John Randolph of Roanoke (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1853), Vol. 1I, p. 374.96. Hugh A. Garland, The Life of John Randolph of Roanoke (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1853), Vol. II, p. 106, to Francis Scott Key, May 3, 1819.97. Benjamin Rush, The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush, George W. Corner, editor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1948), pp. 165-166.98. Benjamin Rush, Letters of Benjamin Rush, L. H. Butterfield, editor (Princeton, New Jersey: American Philosophical Society, 1951), Vol. I, p. 475, to Elias Boudinot on July 9, 1788.99. Benjamin Rush, Letters of Benjamin Rush, L. H. Butterfield, editor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951), Vol. II, p. 936, to John Adams, January 23, 1807.100. Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral and Philosophical (Philadelphia: Thomas and William Bradford, 1806), p. 84, Thoughts upon Female Education.”101. Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral & Philosophical (Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford, 1798), p. 112, “A Defence of the Use of the Bible as a School Book.”102. Benjamin Rush, Letters of Benjamin Rush, L. H. Butterfield, editor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951), Vol. I, p. 521, to Jeremy Belknap on July 13, 1789.103. Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral & Philosophical (Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford, 1798), p. 93, “A Defence of the Use of the Bible as a School Book.” See also Rush, Letters, Vol. I, p. 578, to Jeremy Belknap on March 2, 1791.104. Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral & Philosophical (Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford, 1798), p. 93, “A Defence of the Use of the Bible as a School Book;” see also Rush, Letters, Vol. I, p. 578, to Jeremy Belknap on March 2, 1791.105. Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral & Philosophical (Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford, 1798), pp. 94, 100, “A Defence of the Use of the Bible as a School Book.”106. Lewis Henry Boutell, The Life of Roger Sherman (Chicago: A. C. McClurg and Company, 1896), pp. 271-273.107. Correspondence Between Roger Sherman and Samuel Hopkins (Worcester, MA: Charles Hamilton, 1889), p. 9, from Roger Sherman to Samuel Hopkins, June 28, 1790.108. Correspondence Between Roger Sherman and Samuel Hopkins (Worcester, MA: Charles Hamilton, 1889), p. 10, from Roger Sherman to Samuel Hopkins, June 28, 1790.109. Correspondence Between Roger Sherman and Samuel Hopkins (Worcester, MA: Charles Hamilton, 1889), p. 26, from Roger Sherman to Samuel Hopkins, October, 1790.110. The Globe (Washington DC newspaper), August 15, 1837, p. 1.111. Will of Richard Stockton, dated May 20, 1780.112. John Sanderson, Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence (Philadelphia: R. W. Pomeroy, 1824), Vol. IX, p. 333, Thomas Stone to his son, October 1787.113. Joseph Story, Life and Letters of Joseph Story, William W. Story, editor (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851), Vol. II, p. 8.114. Joseph Story, Life and Letters of Joseph Story, William W. Story, editor (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851), Vol. I, p. 92, March 24, 1801.115. Caleb Strong, Governor of Massachusetts, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting, Prayer and Humiliation, February 13, 1813, from a proclamation in our possession, Shaw #29090.116. Zephaniah Swift, The Correspondent (Windham: John Byrne, 1793), p. 135.117. The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush; His “Travels Through Life” together with his Commonplace Book for 1789-1813, George W. Carter, editor (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1948), p. 294, October 2, 1810.118. Jonathan Trumbull, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 9, 1774, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #13210.119. Last will and testament of Jonathan Trumbull, Sr., attested on January 29, 1785.120. Jonathan Trumbull, Governor of Connecticut, A Proclamation for a Day of Public Thanksgiving, October 12, 1770, from a proclamation in our possession.121. George Washington, The Writings of Washington, John C. Fitzpatrick, editor (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1932), Vol. XV, p. 55, from his speech to the Delaware Indian Chiefs on May 12, 1779.122. George Washington, The Writings of Washington, John C. Fitzpatrick, editor (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1932), Vol. XI, pp. 342-343, General Orders of May 2, 1778.123. George Washington, The Writings of George Washington, John C. Fitzpatrick, editor (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1932), Vol. 5, p. 245, July 9, 1776 Order.124. George Washington, The Last Official Address of His Excellency George Washington to the Legislature of the United States(Hartford: Hudson and Goodwin, 1783), p. 12; see also The New Annual Register or General Repository of History, Politics, and Literature, for the Year 1783 (London: G. Robinson, 1784), p. 150.125. Daniel Webster, Mr. Webster’s Speech in Defence of the Christian Ministry and in Favor of the Religious Instruction of the Young. Delivered in the Supreme Court of the United States, February 10, 1844, in the Case of Stephen Girard’s Will (Washington: Printed by Gales and Seaton, 1844), p. 41.126. Daniel Webster, The Works of Daniel Webster (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1853), Vol. I, p. 44, A Discourse Delivered at Plymouth, on December 22, 1820.127. Daniel Webster, Address Delivered at Bunker Hill, June 17, 1843, on the Completion of the Monument (Boston: T. R. Marvin, 1843), p. 31; see also W. P. Strickland, History of the American Bible Society from its Organization to the Present Time (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1849), p.128. Daniel Webster, Address Delivered at Bunker Hill, June 17, 1843, on the Completion of the Monument (Boston: T. R. Marvin, 1843), p. 31; see also W. P. Strickland, History of the American Bible Society from its Organization to the Present Time (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1849), p.129. Noah Webster, History of the United States (New Haven: Durrie and Peck, 1832), p. 300, ¶ 578.130. Noah Webster, History of the United States (New Haven: Durrie & Peck, 1832), p. 339, “Advice to the Young,” ¶ 53.131. Noah Webster, History of the United States (New Haven: Durrie & Peck, 1832), p. 339, “Advice to the Young,” ¶ 53.132. Noah Webster, History of the United States (New Haven: Durrie and Peck, 1832), p. 6.133. Noah Webster, A Collection of Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral Subjects (New York: Webster and Clark, 1843), p. 291, from his “Reply to a Letter of David McClure on the Subject of the Proper Course of Study in the Girard College, Philadelphia. New Haven, October 25, 1836.”134. Noah Webster, The Holy Bible . . . With Amendments of the Language (New Haven: Durrie & Peck, 1833), p. v.135. K. Alan Snyder, Defining Noah Webster: Mind and Morals in the Early Republic (New York: University Press of America, 1990), p. 253, to James Madison on October 16, 1829.136. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 255, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ,” January 2, 1758.137. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 245, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ,” January 2, 1758.138. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 248, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ,” January 2, 1758.139. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 276, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ’ January 2, 1758.140. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 267, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ,” January 2, 1758.141. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 278, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ,” January 2, 1758.142. John Witherspoon, The Works of the Reverend John Witherspoon (Philadelphia: William W. Woodward, 1802), Vol. III, p. 42.143. Letters of Delegates to Congress: January 1, 1776-May 15, 1776, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1978), Vol. 3, pp. 502-503, Oliver Wolcott to Laura Wolcott on April 10, 1776.printShare on FacebookShare on TwitterBy WallBuilders|December 29th, 2016|Categories: Issues and Articles|0 CommentsShare This Story!FacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditGoogle+TumblrPinterestVkEmailRelated PostsSigners of the Declaration Resource Page GallerySigners of the Declaration Resource PageJuly 18th, 2019Ten Facts About George Washington GalleryTen Facts About George WashingtonMay 9th, 2019Defending Thomas Jefferson – John Birch Society v. Jefferson GalleryDefending Thomas Jefferson – John Birch Society v. 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