Safety Declaration For Instrument Repairs: Fill & Download for Free

India’s hydro-power sector has come back into focus with the government clearing the path for the controversial, large-scale Dibang hydro-power project in Arunachal Pradesh state.The project, estimated to cost about $4 billion, is expected to be the highest dam in India once completed and aimed at preventing flooding in downstream areas. It’s controversial for its proposed felling of trees and possible impact on local communities, ecology, environment and wildlife of the area.In its focus on the hydro-power sector, the Indian government has also introduced a bill to parliament on dam safety, to regulate the more than 5,600 existing dams in India, some of them more than 100 years old, and the nearly 4,700 under construction.Hydro-power projects are back in focus in India, with the government declaring in the past sixth months that large hydro-power projects would have renewable energy status. The government has also brought in a dam safety bill.And now, it’s paved the way for the progress of the controversial 2,880-megawatt Dibang hydro-power project in the northeastern state of Arunachal Pradesh, believed to be the largest hydroelectric project and highest dam to be constructed in India.On July 17, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA), led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, approved the “expenditure on pre-investment activities and various clearances for Dibang Multipurpose Project (MPP) in Arunachal Pradesh” for an amount of 16 billion rupees ($232 million). The total estimated cost of the project is 280 billion rupees ($4 billion), with a timeline of nine years to completion from the receipt of government approval.Envisaged as a storage-based hydroelectric project with flood moderation as the key objective, the Dibang MPP will be located on the eponymous river and valley district of Arunachal Pradesh, featuring a 278-meter (912-foot) concrete gravity dam. The construction of the dam, by the state-controlled National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC), is expected to prevent flooding in downstream areas.With the environment, defense and the first level of forest clearance already in place, the project, as per an official statement, is awaiting final-stage forest clearance for investment approval from the government, which would enable the developers to provide compensation for land acquisition and resettlement of affected families, undertake compensatory afforestation, and other investments.In addition to the mandated resettlement and rehabilitation (R&R) plan for affected families, the project proposes to invest 2.41 billion rupees ($35 million) on community and social development and addressing concerns raised by the local community during the public hearings. “It is also proposed to spend an amount of 32.7 million rupees [$475,000] on a plan for the protection of culture and identity of local people,” the statement added.The project has been in the making for more than a decade now, with the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh laying the foundation stone for it in 2008, and has been controversial throughout.It would involve felling of more than 300,000 trees, which would disrupt the habitat of wildlife such as elephants (Elephas maximus), hoolock gibbons (Hoolock spp.), clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa), tigers (Panthera tigris), fishing cats (Prionailurus viverrinus), snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and Himalayan black bears (Ursus thibetanus laniger) that have the highest protection under the country’s wildlife laws.The project was previously rejected twice by the environment ministry’s forest advisory committee (FAC) — in July 2013 and April 2014 — on account of environmental and social concerns. In the first rejection, the FAC noted that “ecological, environmental and social costs of diversion of such a vast tract of forest land, which is a major source of livelihood of the tribal population of the state, will far outweigh the benefits likely to accrue from the project.”In the second rejection, the FAC said the area had a large number of endemic and endangered flora and fauna. But the first stage of forest clearance was finally approved in September 2014 without any major change in the plan, likely due to pressure from other sections of the government.A case against environment clearances associated with the Dibang project had even reached the National Green Tribunal, which hears environmental disputes, but was dismissed in November 2018.The former secretary of the water resources ministry, Shashi Shekhar, said there were doubts about the Dibang project’s feasibility.“Will the Dibang project be successful in serving the flood protection aspect?” Shekhar told Mongabay India. “I have serious doubts about that as it does not fit in the ecological knowledge and logic. The river carries snow-melt water and brings a huge amount of silt with it. The area also receives torrential rainfall and thus dislocates the soil and carries along with itself. It travels a short distance to reach Assam plains. Thus, any dam in the region there will soon get filled up with silt very soon. So, I have concerns about it.”Indigenous people living in the area have also been voicing their concerns.“There was a movement against the Dibang project but the Arunachal Pradesh government and the government of India successfully persuaded the locals to give up their land for proper compensation,” Ginko Lingi told Mongabay India. Lingi heads the Idu Mishmi Cultural and Literary Society, the apex body of the tribe of Dibang valley impacted by the hydro-power project.“But the NHPC now has gone to the court against the compensation decided for the tribal community by the Arunachal Pradesh government,” Lingi said. “They are not giving compensation. We will be writing a letter to the NHPC authorities appealing them to settle the compensation to people of the Dibang valley district to start their project.”Large hydro-power projects now a ‘renewable energy source’In March 2019, the Indian government granted large hydro-power projects the status of “renewable energy source.” Previously, only hydro-power projects of less than 25 MW were considered renewable energy projects.The measures announced by the government to promote the hydro-power sector are expected to bolster India’s renewable power program. After this decision, the power generated from these projects can be brought under the non-solar renewable purchase obligation (RPO) and result in the better financial health of the projects.India has hydro-power potential of 145,320 MW of which only about 45,400 MW have been utilized so far. In the past five years, only about 4,700 MW of hydro-power capacity have been added; in the past 10 years, about 10,000 MW.India to finally get a dam safety actThe cabinet on July 17 also addressed the long-pending concern of dam safety, by clearing the 2019 dam safety bill for introduction to Parliament. The bill aims to help develop uniform countrywide procedures for ensuring the safety of the more than 5,600 dams that currently exist across India.According to an official statement, the Dam Safety Bill 2019 includes regular inspection of dams, emergency action plans, comprehensive dam safety reviews, adequate repair and maintenance funds for dam safety, instrumentation and safety manuals.The bill provides for the establishment of a national dam safety regulatory authority to implement the policy, guidelines and standards for dam safety, the statement said, as well as the establishment of state committees and state dam safety organizations for carrying out detailed safety-related works. The onus of dam safety lies on the dam owner, the statement said, and provides for penal provisions for commissions and omissions of certain acts.Environment minister Prakash Javadekar, addressing reporters after the cabinet meeting, said the country has more than 5,000 dams, with nearly 4,700 under construction. “So, for the safety of around 10,000 dams, there has been no law. There are many dams which are over 100 years old while some are over 50 years old,” Javadekar said, adding the bill would lead to the process of inspections, reviews, emergency plans and expert advice for dams.In early July, 19 people were reported killed after a breach in the Tiware dam, in Maharashtra state. “The bill would go a long way in addressing such cases and ensuring the safety of dams,” Javadekar said.According to the government, about 75 percent of the large dams in India are more than 25 years old, and about 164 dams are more than 100 years old. A badly maintained, unsafe dam poses a threat to human life, flora and fauna, public and private assets, and the environment. India has had 36 dam failures in the past: 11 in the state of Rajasthan, 10 in Madhya Pradesh, five in Gujarat, four in Maharashtra, two in Andhra Pradesh and one each in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu and Odisha.Shekhar said the dam safety bill marked a very important development. “Unfortunately, for want of money, the work for finding the health of dams was not done so far,” he said. “It is a very important step as the safety of dams is directly related to the lives of people. Also, in the wake of climate change, in cases of heavy rains, the dams faces danger and could result in a breach. For instance, heavy rains led to Kerala floods. When dams get breached, there is a direct danger to human lives. Thus, this bill is important, as we need to develop safety protocols for dams as well as mechanism about time to release water from dams.”Source: India pushes for its largest ever hydropower project despite concerns

After watching the Rich Rebuilds channel on YouTube the answer for an ICE transplant is obvious. Use a Subaru drivetrain. Also, hire someone very good at aluminum fabrication and welding to do the mods to carve out paths through the stripped battery shell for the driveshaft to the rear differential and exhaust pipe.You want to bolt the battery shell back in because it’s part of the structure. Any of it cut out for passageways needs to be replaced with metal to keep the strength.Rear drive would be easy, fabricate a cradle for the small rear differential to mount in place of the rear transaxle. There are companies that can make custom halfshafts, Subaru on the diff ends, Tesla at the wheel ends.The front is where the major modification would be done. To maintain the original suspension geometry you’d need to determine if it’s possible to fit a Subaru flat engine between the suspension bits. Given how wiiiide a Tesla is, that may not be a problem. Looks like a lot of metal would need to be cut out and replacement made in different shapes, along with cutting away and replacing most of the front suspension and transaxle cradle.You’d want to keep the speed potential up there. Losing the massive amount of battery weight will help. Chose one of the hotted up WRX models for a donor.Gas tank? Easy! Seal off several of the module sections of the battery shell, leaving passages between for fuel flow. Put in the same sort of open cell foam used in race car fuel cells for anti slosh. The foam also slows down leaks in case of crashes that crack the tank. The hardest bit on the fuel tank is a fuel level sensor that will work well in the short vertical space. Put the fuel fill where the charger port is.Electronics? Rip it all out and sell it to guys like Rich. Program a Beagle Bone Black or similar single board computer to run the big dash display and instrument panel.This is about giving the finger to Tesla, a company that figures it has the right to tell people they can’t fix their own car, right?Tesla tried to deny legally mandated NHTSA safety recall service to Tesla cars they’d banned from getting service and software updates for having unauthorized repairs. The NHTSA told Tesla they’d be doing the airbag recall service on ALL their cars covered by the recall, no exceptions, just like every other car company. Just as nasty was when Tesla remotely disabled Supercharging and other functions on one when the car’s owners were in the middle of a long road trip. Why? The car had been declared ‘totaled’ by an insurance adjuster for minor cosmetic damage. It had been repaired and been issued a salvage title. Some numpty at Tesla decided that made the car ‘unsafe’, and the company wasn’t going to reinstate the goodies without having it in for a several thousand dollar inspection.So if you want the look of a Tesla, without being on Tesla’s leash, and have silly money to spend, buy a salvage Tesla and give it the gas! ;)

Conquest of ConstantinopleThe last Siege of Constantinople. It was the sixth of April, the soon to come siege was being carefully laid out amongst the Ottoman generals, and this planning, although effective, was a task that could only be accomplished with the new weapon of war…gunpowder! Let us delve into the Siege step by step, and understand truly how great of a battle this was.Firstly, lets look at what effects the siege had on the world. The conquest of Constantinople dealt a massive blow to Christendom, as the Muslim Ottoman armies thereafter were left unchecked to advance into Europe without an adversary to their rear.It was also a watershed moment in military history. Since ancient times, cities had used ramparts and city walls to protect themselves from invaders, and Constantinople's substantial fortifications had been a model followed by cities throughout the Mediterranean region and Europe. The Ottomans ultimately prevailed due to the use of gunpowder (which powered formidable cannons).STATE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE -Constantinople had been an imperial capital since its consecration in 330 under Roman Emperor, Constantine the Great. In the following eleven centuries, the city had been besieged many times but was captured only once: during the Fourth Crusade in 1204.The crusaders established an unstable Latin State in and around Constantinople while the remaining empire splintered into a number of Byzantine successor states, notably Nicea, Epius and Trebizond. They fought as allies against the Latin establishments, but also fought among themselves for the Byzantine throne.The Nicaeans eventually reconquered Constantinople from the Latins in 1261. Thereafter, there was little peace for the much-weakened empire as it fended off successive attacks by the Latins, the Serbians, the Bulgarians, and, most importantly, the Ottoman Turks.The Black Plaque between 1346 and 1349 killed almost half of the inhabitants of Constantinople.The city was severely depopulated due to the general economic and territorial decline of the empire, and by 1453 consisted of a series of walled villages separated by vast fields encircled by the fifth-century Theodosian Walls.By 1450 the empire was exhausted and had shrunk to a few square miles outside the city of Constantinople itself, the Princes’ Islands in the Sea of Marmara, and the Peloponnese with its cultural center at Mystras. The Empire of Trebizond, an independent successor state that formed in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, also survived on the coast of the Black Sea.PREPERATIONS -When Sultan Mehmed II succeeded his father in 1451, he was just nineteen years old. Many European courts assumed that the young Ottoman ruler would not seriously challenge Christian hegemony in the Balkans and the Aegean.This calculation was boosted by Mehmed's friendly overtures to the European envoys at his new court.But Mehmed's mild words were not matched by actions. By early 1452, work began on the construction of a second fortress (Rumeli hisari) on the Bosphorus,on the European side several miles north of Constantinople, set directly across the strait on the Asian side from the Anodulu Hisari fortress, built by his great-grandfather Bayezid I. This pair of fortresses ensured complete control of sea traffic on the Bosphorus;and defended against attack by the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea coast to the north. (This new fortress, was called Boğazkesen, which means 'strait-blocker' or 'throat-cutter', to emphasize its strategic position.) In October 1452, Mehmed ordered Turahkan Beg to station a large garrison force in the Peloponnese to block Thomas and Demetrios (despotes in Southern Greece) from providing aid to their brother Constantine XI Palaiologos during the impending siege of Constantinople.Michael Critobulus says about the speech of Mehmed II to his soldiers: "My friends and men of my empire! You all know very well that our forefathers secured this kingdom that we now hold at the cost of many struggles and very great dangers and that, having passed it along in succession from their fathers, from father to son, they handed it down to me. For some of the oldest of you were sharers in many of the exploits carried through by them—those at least of you who are of maturer years—and the younger of you have heard of these deeds from your fathers. They are not such very ancient events nor of such a sort as to be forgotten through the lapse of time. Still, the eyewitness of those who have seen testifies better than does the hearing of deeds that happened but yesterday or the day before." Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI swiftly understood Mehmed's true intentions and turned to Western Europe for help; but now the price of centuries of war and enmity between the eastern and western churches had to be paid. Since the mutual excommunications of 1054, the Pope in Rome was committed to establishing authority over the eastern church. Nominal union had been negotiated in 1274, at the Second Council of Lyon, and indeed, some Palaiologoi emperors (Latin, Palaeologan) had since been received into the Latin Church. Emperor John VIII Palaiologos had also recently negotiated union with Pope Eugene IV, with the Council of Florence of 1439 proclaiming a Bull of Union. These events, however, stimulated a propaganda initiative by anti-unionist Orthodox partisans in Constantinople; the population, as well as the laity and leadership of the Byzantine Church, became bitterly divided. Latent ethnic hatred between Greeks and Italians, stemming from the events of the Massacre of the Latins in 1182 by the Greeks and the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by the Latins, played a significant role. Finally, the attempted Union failed, greatly annoying Pope Nicholas V and the hierarchy of the Roman church.The Byzantine Empire in the first half of the 15th century. Thessaloniki was captured by the Ottomans in 1430. A few islands in the Aegean and the Propontis remained under Byzantine rule until 1453 (not shown on the map).In the summer of 1452, when Rumeli Hisari was completed and the threat had become imminent, Constantine wrote to the Pope, promising to implement the Union, which was declared valid by a half-hearted imperial court on 12 December 1452.Although he was eager for an advantage, Pope Nicholas V did not have the influence the Byzantines thought he had over the Western kings and princes, some of whom were wary of increasing Papal control, and these had not the wherewithal to contribute to the effort, especially in light of the weakened state of France and England from the Hundred Years War, Spain, being in the final part of the Reconquista, the internecine fighting in the German Principalities, and Hungary and Poland's defeat at the Battle of Varna of 1444. Although some troops did arrive from the mercantile city-states in the north of Italy, the Western contribution was not adequate to counterbalance Ottoman strength. Some Western individuals, however, came to help defend the city on their own account. Cardinal Isidore, funded by the pope, arrived in 1452 with 200 archersOne of these was an accomplished soldier from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani, who arrived with 400 men from Genoa and 300 men from Genoese Chios, in January 1453.As a specialist in defending walled cities, he was immediately given the overall command of the defense of the land walls by the emperor. Around the same time, the captains of the Venetian ships that happened to be present in the Golden Horn offered their services to the Emperor, barring contrary orders from Venice, and Pope Nicholas undertook to send three ships laden with provisions, which set sail near the end of March.In Venice, meanwhile, deliberations were taking place concerning the kind of assistance the Republic would lend to Constantinople. The Senate decided upon sending a fleet in February 1453, but there were delays, and when it finally set out late in April, it was already too late for it to be able to take part in the battle.Further undermining Byzantine morale, seven Italian ships with around 700 men slipped out of the capital at the moment when Giustiniani arrived, men who had sworn to defend the capital. At the same time, Constantine's attempts to appease the Sultan with gifts ended with the execution of the Emperor's ambassadors — even Byzantine diplomacy could not save the city.(The chain that closed off the entrance to the Golden Horn in 1453, now on display in the Istanbul Archeology Museums.)Fearing a possible naval attack along the shores of the Golden Horn, Emperor Constantine XI ordered that a defensive chain be placed at the mouth of the harbour. This chain, which floated on logs, was strong enough to prevent any Turkish ship from entering the harbour. This device was one of two that gave the Byzantines some hope of extending the siege until the possible arrival of foreign help.This strategy was enforced because in 1204 the armies of the Fourth Crusade successfully circumvented Constantinople's land defenses by breaching the Golden Horn Wall. Another strategy employed by the Byzantines was the repair and fortification of the Land Wall (Theodosian Walls). Emperor Constantine deemed it necessary to ensure that the Blachernae district's wall were the most fortified because that section of the wall protruded northwards. The land fortifications comprised a 60 ft (18 m) wide moat fronting inner and outer crenellated walls studded with towers every 45–55 metres.STRENGTH -(Map of Constantinople and the dispositions of the defenders and the besiegers)The army defending Constantinople was relatively small, totaling about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners.At the onset of the siege, probably fewer than 50,000 people were living within the walls, including the refugees from the surrounding area.Turkish commander Dorgano, who was in Constantinople in the pay of the Emperor, was also guarding one of the quarters of the city on the seaward side with the Turks in his pay. These Turks kept loyal to the Emperor and perished in the ensuing battle. The defending army's Genoese corps were well trained and equipped, while the rest of the army consisted of small numbers of well-trained soldiers, armed civilians, sailors and volunteer forces from foreign communities, and finally monks. The garrison used a few small-calibre artillery pieces, which nonetheless proved ineffective. The rest of the city repaired walls, stood guard on observation posts, collected and distributed food provisions, and collected gold and silver objects from churches to melt down into coins to pay the foreign soldiers.The Ottomans had a much larger force. Recent studies and Ottoman archival data state that there were about 50,000–80,000 Ottoman soldiers including between 5,000 and 10,000 Jannisaries, an elite infantry corps, and thousands of Christian troops, notably 1,500 Serbian cavalry that the Serbian lord Durad Brankovic was forced to supply as part of his obligation to the Ottoman sultan—just a few months before, he had supplied the money for the reconstruction of the walls of Constantinople. Contemporaneous Western witnesses of the siege, who tend to exaggerate the military power of the Sultan, they provide disparate and higher numbers ranging from 160,000 to 200,000 and to 300,000, the Florentine merchant Jacopo Tedaldi and the Great Logothete George Sphrantzes: estimated 200,000; the Cardinal Isodore of Kiev, the Archbishop of Mytilene and Leonardo di Chio: estimated 300,000.OTTOMAN DISPOSITIONS AND STRATEGIESThe Dardanelles Gun, cast in 1464 and based on the Orban Bombard that was used by the Ottoman besiegers of Constantinople in 1453 (British Royal Armouries collection).Mehmed built a fleet to besiege the city from the sea (partially manned by Greek sailors from Gallipoli). Contemporary estimates of the strength of the Ottoman fleet span between about 110 ships (Tedaldi), 145 (Barbaro), 160 (Ubertino Pusculo), 200–250 (Isidore of Kiev, Leonardo di Chio) to 430 (Sphrantzes).A more realistic modern estimate predicts a fleet strength of 126 ships comprising 6 large galleys, 10 ordinary galleys, 15 smaller galleys, 75 large rowing boats, and 20 horse-transports.Before the siege of Constantinople, it was known that the Ottomans had the ability to cast medium-sized cannons, but the range of some pieces they were able to field far surpassed the defenders' expectations. Instrumental to this Ottoman advancement in arms production was a somewhat mysterious figure by the name of Orban (Urban), a Hungarian (though some suggest he was German).One cannon designed by Orban was named "Basilica" and was 27 feet (8.2 m) long, and able to hurl a 600 lb (272 kg) stone ball over a mile (1.6 km).Modern painting of Mehmed and the Ottoman Army approaching Constantinople with a giant bombard, by Fausto Zonaro.The master founder initially tried to sell his services to the Byzantines, who were unable to secure the funds needed to hire him. Orban then left Constantinople and approached Mehmed II, claiming that his weapon could blast 'the walls of Babylon itself'. Given abundant funds and materials, the Hungarian engineer built the gun within three months at Edirne, from which it was dragged by sixty oxen to Constantinople. In the meantime, Orban also produced other cannons for the Turkish siege forces.Orban's cannon had several drawbacks: it took three hours to reload; cannonballs were in very short supply; and the cannon is said to have collapsed under its own recoil after six weeks.Having previously established a large foundry about 150 miles (240 km) away, Mehmed now had to undertake the painstaking process of transporting his massive artillery pieces. Orban's giant cannon was said to have been accompanied by a crew of 60 oxen and over 400 men.In preparation for the final assault, Mehmed had an artillery train of seventy large pieces dragged from his headquarters at Edirne, in addition to the bombards cast on the spot.Mehmed planned to attack the Theodosian Walls, the intricate series of walls and ditches protecting Constantinople from an attack from the West, the only part of the city not surrounded by water. His army encamped outside the city on the Monday after Easter, 2 April 1453.The bulk of the Ottoman army were encamped south of the Golden Horn. The regular European troops, stretched out along the entire length of the walls, were commanded by Karadja Pasha. The regular troops from Anatolia under Ishak Pasha were stationed south of the Lycus down to the Sea of Marmara. Mehmed himself erected his red-and-gold tent near the Mesoteichion, where the guns and the elite regiments, the Janissaries, were positioned. The Bashi-bazouks were spread out behind the front lines. Other troops under Zagan Pasha were employed north of the Golden Horn. Communication was maintained by a road that had been constructed over the marshy head of the Horn.BYZANTINE DISPOSITIONS AND STRATEGIES -The city had about 20 km of walls (Land Walls: 5.5 km; sea walls along the Golden Horn: 7 km; sea walls along the Sea of Marmara: 7.5 km), one of the strongest sets of fortified walls in existence. The walls had recently been repaired (under John VIII) and were in fairly good shape, giving the defenders sufficient reason to believe that they could hold out until help from the West arrived.In addition, the defenders were relatively well-equipped with a fleet of 26 ships: 5 from Genoa, 5 from Venice, 3 from Venetian Crete, 1 from Ancona, 1 from Aragon, 1 from France, and about 10 Byzantine.On 5 April, the Sultan himself arrived with his last troops, and the defenders took up their positions. As their numbers were insufficient to occupy the walls in their entirety, it had been decided that only the outer walls would be manned. Constantine and his Greek troops guarded the Mesoteichion, the middle section of the land walls, where they were crossed by the river Lycus. This section was considered the weakest spot in the walls and an attack was feared here most. Giustiniani was stationed to the north of the emperor, at the Charisian Gate(Myriandrion); later during the siege, he was shifted to the Mesoteichion to join Constantine, leaving the Myriandrion to the charge of the Bocchiardi brothers. Minotto and his Venetians were stationed in the Blachernae palace, together with Teodoro Caristo, the Langasco brothers, and Archbishop Leonardo of Chios.To the left of the emperor, further south, were the commanders Cataneo, with Genoese troops, and Theophilus Palaeologus, who guarded the Pegae Gate with Greek soldiers. The section of the land walls from the Pegae Gate to the Golden Gate (itself guarded by a Genoese called Manuel) was defended by the Venetian Filippo Contarini, while Demetrius Cantacuzenus had taken position on the southernmost part of the Theodosian wall.The sea walls were manned more sparsely, with Jacobo Contarini at Stoudion, a makeshift defense force of Greek monks to his left hand, and prince Orhan at the Harbour of Eleutherius. Pere Julià was stationed at the Great Palace with Genoese and Catalan troops; Cardinal Isidore of Kiev guarded the tip of the peninsula near the boom. The sea walls at the southern shore of the Golden Horn were defended by Venetian and Genoese sailors under Gabriele Trevisano.Two tactical reserves were kept behind in the city, one in the Petra district just behind the land walls and one near the Church of the Holy Apostles, under the command of Loukas Notaras and Nicephorus Palaeologus, respectively. The Venetian Alviso Diedo commanded the ships in the harbor.Although the Byzantines also had cannons, they were much smaller than those of the Ottomans and the recoil tended to damage their own walls.According to David Nicolle, despite many odds, the idea that Constantinople was inevitably doomed is wrong, and the overall situation was not as one-sided as a simple glance at a map might suggest.It has also been claimed that Constantinople was "the best-defended city in Europe" at that time. Which I am a Firm believer in the strengths of Constantinople.SIEGE -At the beginning of the siege, Mehmed sent out some of his best troops to reduce the remaining Byzantine strongholds outside the city of Constantinople. The fortress of Therapia on the Bosphorus and a smaller castle at the village of Studius near the Sea of Marmara were taken within a few days. The Princes’ Islands in the Sea of Marmara were taken by Admiral Baltoghlu's fleet.Mehmed's massive cannon fired on the walls for weeks, but due to its imprecision and extremely slow rate of reloading the Byzantines were able to repair most of the damage after each shot, limiting the cannon's effect.(The Ottoman Turks transport their fleet overland into the Golden Horn)Meanwhile, despite some probing attacks, the Ottoman fleet under Suleiman Baltoghlu could not enter the Golden Horn due to the chain the Byzantines had previously stretched across the entrance. Although one of the fleet's main tasks was to prevent any ships from outside from entering the Golden Horn, on 20 April a small flotilla of four Christian ship managed to slip in after some heavy fighting, an event which strengthened the morale of the defenders and caused embarrassment to the Sultan.Baltoghlu's life was spared after his subordinates testified to his bravery during the conflict.Mehmed ordered the construction of a road of greased logs across Galata on the north side of the Golden Horn, and dragged his ships over the hill, directly into the Golden Horn on 22 April, bypassing the chain barrier.This seriously threatened the flow of supplies from Genoese ships from the — nominally neutral — colony of Pera, and demoralized the Byzantine defenders. On the night of 28 April, an attempt was made to destroy the Ottoman ships already in the Golden Horn using fire ships, but the Ottomans had been warned in advance and forced the Christians to retreat with heavy losses. Forty Italians escaped their sinking ships and swam to the northern shore. On orders of Mehmed, they were impaled on stakes, in sight of the city's defenders on the sea walls across the Golden Horn. In retaliation, the defenders brought their Ottoman prisoners, 260 in all, to the walls, where they were executed, one by one, before the eyes of the Ottomans.With the failure of their attack on the Ottoman vessels, the defenders were forced to disperse part of their forces to defend the sea walls along the Golden Horn.The Ottoman army had made several frontal assaults on the land wall of Constantinople, but were always repelled with heavy losses.Venetian surgeon Niccolo Barbaro, describing in his diary one of such frequent land attacks especially by the Janissaries, wrote:“They found the Turks coming right up under the walls and seeking battle, particularly the Janissaries ... and when one or two of them were killed, at once more Turks came and took away the dead ones ... without caring how near they came to the city walls. Our men shot at them with guns and crossbows, aiming at the Turk who was carrying away his dead countryman, and both of them would fall to the ground dead, and then there came other Turks and took them away, none fearing death, but being willing to let ten of themselves be killed rather than suffer the shame of leaving a single Turkish corpse by the walls.”(Siege of Constantinople as depicted between 1453 and 1475.)After these inconclusive frontal offensives, the Ottomans sought to break through the walls by constructing underground tunnels in an effort to Mine them from mid-May to 25 May. Many of the sappers were miners of Serbian origin sent from Novo Brdo by the Serbian despot. They were placed under the command of Zagan Pasha. However, an engineer named Johannes Grant, a German who came together with the Genoese contingent, had counter-mines dug, allowing Byzantine troops to enter the mines and kill the workers. The Byzantines intercepted the first Serbian tunnel on the night of 16 May. Subsequent tunnels were interrupted on 21, 23, and 25 May, and destroyed with Greek Fire and vigorous combat. On 23 May, the Byzantines captured and tortured two Turkish officers, who revealed the location of all the Turkish tunnels, which were then destroyed.On 21 May, Mehmed sent an ambassador to Constantinople and offered to lift the siege if they gave him the city. He promised he would allow the Emperor and any other inhabitants to leave with their possessions. Moreover, he would recognize the Emperor as governor of the Peloponnese. Lastly, he guaranteed the safety of the population that might choose to remain in the city. Constantine XI only agreed to pay higher tributes to the sultan and recognized the status of all the conquered castles and lands in the hands of the Turks as Ottoman possession.“Giving you though the city depends neither on me nor on anyone else among its inhabitants; as we have all decided to die with our own free will and we shall not consider our lives.”Around this time, Mehmed had a final council with his senior officers. Here he encountered some resistance; one of his Viziers, the veteran Halil Pasha, who had always disapproved of Mehmed's plans to conquer the city, now admonished him to abandon the siege in the face of recent adversity. Zaga Pasha argued against Halil Pasha, and insisted on an immediate attack. Mehmed planned to overpower the walls by sheer force, expecting that the weakened Byzantine defense by the prolonged siege would now be worn out before he ran out of troops and started preparations for a final all-out offensive.FINAL ASSAULT -Painting by the Greek folk painter Theophilos Hatzimihail showing the battle inside the city, Constantine is visible on a white horse. Preparations for the final assault were started in the evening of 26 May and continued to the next day.For 36 hours after the war council decision to attack, the Ottomans extensively mobilized their manpower in order to prepare for the general offensive.Prayer and resting would be then granted to the soldiers on the 28th, and then the final assault would be launched. On the Byzantine side, a small Venetian fleet of 12 ships, after having searched the Aegean, reached the Capital on May 27 and reported to the Emperor that no large Venetian relief fleet was on its way.On May 28, as the Ottoman army prepared for the final assault, large-scale religious processions were held in the city. In the evening a last solemn ceremony was held in the Hagia Sophia, in which the Emperor and representatives of both the Latin and Greek church partook, together with nobility from both sides.Shortly after midnight on May 29 the all-out offensive began. The Christian troops of the Ottoman Empire attacked first, followed by the successive waves of the irregular azaps, who were poorly trained and equipped, and Anatolians who focused on a section of the Blachernae walls in the northwest part of the city, which had been damaged by the cannon. This section of the walls had been built earlier, in the eleventh century, and was much weaker. The Anatolians managed to breach this section of walls and entered the city but were just as quickly pushed back by the defenders. Finally, as the battle was continuing, the last wave, consisting of elite Janissaries, attacked the city walls. The Genoese general in charge of the land troops,Giovanni Giusstiniani, was grievously wounded during the attack, and his evacuation from the ramparts caused a panic in the ranks of the defenders.Sultan Mehmed II's entry into Constantinople, painting by Fausto Zonaro (1854–1929).With Giustiniani's Genoese troops retreating into the city and towards the harbor, Constantine and his men, now left to their own devices, kept fighting and managed to successfully hold off the Janissaries for a while, but eventually they could not stop them from entering the city. The defenders were also being overwhelmed at several points in Constantine's section. When Turkish flags were seen flying above a small postern gate, the Kerkoporta, which was left open, panic ensued, and the defense collapsed, as Janissary soldiers, led by Ulubatli Hasan pressed forward. Many Greek soldiers ran back home to protect their families, the Venetians ran over to their ships, and a few of the Genoese got over to Galata. The rest committed suicide by jumping off the city walls or surrendered.The Greek houses nearest to the walls were the first to suffer from the Ottomans. It is said that Constantine, throwing aside his purple regalia, led the final charge against the incoming Ottomans, perishing in the ensuing battle in the streets just like his soldiers. On the other hand, Nicolò Barbaro, a Venetian eyewitness to the siege, wrote in his diary that it was said that Constantine hanged himself at the moment when the Turks broke in at the San Romano gate, although his ultimate fate remains unknown.After the initial assault, the Ottoman Army fanned out along the main thoroughfare of the city, the Mese, past the great forums, and past the Church of the Holy Apostles, which Mehmed II wanted to provide a seat for his newly appointed patriarch which would help him better control his Christian subjects. Mehmed II had sent an advance guard to protect key buildings such as the Church of the Holy Apostles.A small few lucky civilians managed to escape. When the Venetians retreated over to their ships, the Ottomans had already taken the walls of the Golden Horn. Luckily for the occupants of the city, the Ottomans were not interested in killing them, but rather in the loot they could get from raiding the city's houses, so they decided to attack the city instead. The Venetian captain ordered his men to break open the gate of the Golden Horn. Having done so, the Venetians left in ships filled with soldiers and refugees. Shortly after the Venetians left, a few Genoese ships and even the Emperor's ships followed them out of the Golden Horn. This fleet narrowly escaped prior to the Ottoman navy assuming control over the Golden Horn, which was accomplished by midday.The Army converged upon the Augusteum, the vast square that fronted the great church of Hagia Sophia whose bronze gates were barred by a huge throng of civilians inside the building, hoping for divine protection. After the doors were breached, the troops separated the congregation according to what price they might bring in the slave markets.Ottoman casualties are unknown but they are believed by most historians to be very heavy due to several unsuccessful Ottoman attacks made during the siege and final assault. Barbaro described blood flowing in the city "like rainwater in the gutters after a sudden storm", and bodies of the Turks and Christians floating in the sea "like melons along a canal".PLUNDERING PHASE -Mehmed II had promised to his soldiers three days to plunder the city, to which they were entitled. Soldiers fought over the possession of some of the spoils of war.According to the Venetian surgeon Nicolò Barbaro "all through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city". According to Philip Mansel, widespread persecution of the city's civilian inhabitants took place, resulting in thousands of murders and rapes and 30,000 civilians being enslaved or forcibly deported.The looting was extremely thorough in certain parts of the city. Weeks later on 2 June, the Sultan would find the city largely deserted and half in ruins; churches had been desecrated and stripped, houses were no longer habitable and stores and shops were emptied. He is famously reported to have been moved to tears by this, speaking "What a city we have given over to plunder and destruction."AFTERMATH -On the third day of the conquest, Mehmed II ordered all looting to stop and issued a proclamation that all Christians who had avoided capture or who had been ransomed could return to their homes without further molestation, although many had no homes to return to, and many more had been taken captive and not ransomed.Byzantine historian George Sphrantzes, an eyewitness to the fall of Constantinople, described the Sultan's actions:“On the third day after the fall of our city, the Sultan celebrated his victory with a great, joyful triumph. He issued a proclamation: the citizens of all ages who had managed to escape detection were to leave their hiding places throughout the city and come out into the open, as they were to remain free and no question would be asked. He further declared the restoration of houses and property to those who had abandoned our city before the siege. If they returned home, they would be treated according to their rank and religion, as if nothing had changed.”The Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque, but the Greek Orthodox Church was allowed to remain intact and Gennadius Scholarius was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople. This was once thought to be the origin of the Ottoman millet system, however, it is now considered a myth and no such system existed in the fifteenth century.After the sack, many feared other European Christian kingdoms would suffer the same fate as Constantinople. Two possible responses emerged amongst the humanists and churchmen of that era: Crusade or dialogue. Pope Pius II strongly advocated for another Crusade, while Nicholas of Cusa supported engaging in a dialogue with the Ottomans.The Morean (Peloponnesian) fortress of Mystras, where Constantine's brothers Thomas and Demetrius ruled, constantly in conflict with each other and knowing that Mehmed would eventually invade them as well, held out until 1460. Long before the fall of Constantinople, Demetrius had fought for the throne with Thomas, Constantine, and their other brothers John and Theodore.Thomas escaped to Rome when the Ottomans invaded Morea while Demetrius expected to rule a puppet state, but instead was imprisoned and remained there for the rest of his life. In Rome, Thomas and his family received some monetary support from the Pope and other Western rulers as Byzantine emperor in exile, until 1503. In 1461 the independent Byzantine state in Trebizond fell to Mehmed.After being sieged for several weeks, Constantinople, the jewel and bastion of Christendom, was finally conquered, smashed, and looted on Tuesday, May 29, 1453 ending the most renowned empire to have ever lived…the Romans. Their empire lasted over 2,000 years…what a way to end a story.Thanks for reading, Cheers!