A Comparative Study On Urban Transport System And Related Environmental Impact In As: Fill & Download for Free

The list which follows is for CSE Mains examination. If you complete the syllabus for Mains, syllabus for Prelims is by default completed.You don't need to read all the books cover to cover. Only NCERTs, NIOS, IGNOU and Laxmikanth should be read cover to cover. Rest should be read selectively.Reading The Hindu is must and should be supplemented with the below booklist.General Studies IIndian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.Introduction to Fine Arts Part 1CCRTNIOSNCERT NEW 6 to 12OLD NCERT Class 11 (Ancient, Medieval)Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present - significant, events, personalities, issuesThe Freedom Struggle - its various stages and important contributors/contributions from different parts of the country.Indian Freedom Struggle of independence - Bipin Chandra“A Brief History of Modern India” - Spectrum PubPost-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country.12th NCERT - Politics in India after IndependenceIndia since independence by Bipin Chandra (6 to 12)History of the world will include events from 18th century such as industrial revolution, world wars, redrawal of national boundaries, colonization, decolonization, political philosophies like communism, capitalism, socialism etc.- their forms and effect on the society.9th & 10th NCERT - India and the contemporary worldSalient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India.Role of women and women's organization, population and associated issues, poverty and developmental issues, urbanization, their problems and their remedies.Effects of globalization on Indian society. Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism.NCERT 12th: Indian SocietyNCERT 12th: Social Change and Development In IndiaIGNOU ESO 12: Society in IndiaIGNOU ESO 16: Social Problems In IndiaSocial Problems In India - Ram AhujaSalient features of world's physical geography.Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the Indian subcontinent); factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries in various parts of the world (including India)Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc., geographical features and their location- changes in critical geographical features (including water- bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.Certificate Physical and Human Geography by Goh Cheng Leong9th & 10th NCERTs Contemporary India I and II11th NCERTs: Fundamentals of Physical Geography and India: Physical Environment12th NCERTs: Fundamentals of Human Geography and India: People and EconomyGeneral Studies IIIndian Constitution- historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein.Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal mechanisms and institutions.Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countriesParliament and State Legislatures - structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of these.Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary Ministries and Departments of the Government; pressure groups and formal/informal associations and their role in the Polity.Salient features of the Representation of People's Act.Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies.Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.11th NCERT: Indian Constitution at WorkIndian Polity by M LaxmikantIntroduction to the Constitution of India : D D BasuComparing ConstitutionARC ReportOrganisational Structure of Government of IndiaGovernment policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation.Development processes and the development industry- the role of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholdersWelfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.Issues relating to poverty and hunger.Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability, e-governance- applications, models, successes, limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency & accountability and institutional and other measures.Role of civil services in a democracy.8th NCERT - Law and social justice9th NCERT - Economics11th NCERT - Economics: Indian Economic DevelopmentARC ReportRight to InformationPromoting e GovernanceCitizen Centric AdministrationSocial CapitalIndia and its neighborhood- relations.Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India's interestsEffect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India's interests, Indian diaspora.Important International institutions, agencies and fora- their structure, mandate.NCERT Class 12: Political Science: Contemporary World PoliticsMEAEPS-07 International RelationsMPSE-001 India and the WorldMPS-002 International Relations- Theory and ProblemsGeneral Studies IIIIndian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization of resources, growth, development and employment.Inclusive growth and issues arising from it.Government Budgeting.Major crops cropping patterns in various parts of the country, different types of irrigation and irrigation systems storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmersIssues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices; Public Distribution System- objectives, functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks and food security;Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing.Food processing and related industries in India- scope and significance, location, upstream and downstream requirements, supply chain management.Land reforms in IndiaEffects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on industrial growth.Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.Investment models.11th NCERT: Economics: Indian Economic Development12th NCERT: India People and EconomyEconomic Survey of IndiaARC ReportStrengthening Financial Management SystemIndian Economy Since Independence - Uma KapilaIndia since independence by Bipin Chandra [Land Reform]Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday lifeAchievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights.The HinduConservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.Class 7th NCERT - Our EnvironmentClass 12th Biology NCERT - Ecology: Unit XIndia Year Book – Environment chapterShankar BookDisaster and disaster management.MPA-018 Disaster ManagementARC ReportCrisis ManagementLinkages between development and spread of extremism.Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security.Challenges to internal security through communication networks, role of media and social networking sites in internal security challenges, basics of cyber security; money laundering and its preventionSecurity challenges and their management in border areas; linkages of organized crime with terrorismVarious Security forces and agencies and their mandateNCERT Class 12: Political Science: Contemporary World Politics ( Chapter : Security in the Contemporary World )ARC ReportPublic OrderCapacity Building for Conflict ResolutionCombating TerrorismMinistry of Home AffairsGeneral Studies IVEthics and Human Interface:Essence, determinants and consequences of Ethics in human actions; dimensions of ethics; ethics in private and public relationships. Human Values - lessons from the lives and teachings of great leaders, reformers and administrators; role of family, society and educational institutions in inculcating values.Attitude: content, structure, function; its influence and relation with thought and behaviour; moral and political attitudes; social influence and persuasion.Aptitude and foundational values for Civil Service,integrity, impartiality and non-partisanship, objectivity, dedication to public service, empathy, tolerance and compassion towards the weaker sections.Emotional intelligence-concepts, and their utilities and application in administration and governance.Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers from India and world.Public/Civil service values and Ethics in Public administration: Status and problems; ethical concerns and dilemmas in government and private institutions; laws, rules, regulations and conscience as sources of ethical guidance; accountability and ethical governance; strengthening of ethical and moral values in governance; ethical issues in international relations and funding; corporate governanceProbity in Governance: Concept of public service; Philosophical basis of governance and probity;Information sharing and transparency in government, Right to Information, Codes of Ethics, Codes of Conduct, Citizen's Charters, Work culture, Quality of service delivery, Utilization of public funds, challenges of corruption.LexiconARC ReportEthics in GovernanceRefurbishing of Personnel AdministrationRight to InformationCitizen Centric AdministrationMPA-011 Chapter : Ethical Concerns in Public Administration

The Department of Chemical Engineering across various universities globally have the following concentration/thrust areas for research which are listed below.Colloid and Interface ScienceColloid and interface science deals with multi-phase systems in which one or more phases are dispersed in a continuous phase of different composition or state. Classical colloid science deals with dispersions for which at least one dimension of a dispersed phase falls within about 1 and 1000 nm. In applied colloid science the upper size limit is commonly extended to at least 10,000 to 100,000 nm. Interface science deals with dispersions in which there is an extremely large interfacial area between two of the phases. The dispersed phases may be particles, droplets, or bubbles.This area holds a lot of importance in industrials, environmental, biomedical and biotech applications.The applications include applications include detergency, emulsification, and wetting; adhesives, coatings, and thin films; petrochemical processes; food, paint, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and photographic technologies; controlled-release of active ingredients in pharmaceuticals and consumer products; removal of trace contaminants from water sources; bioseparations; and biomedical applications including skin irritation and mitigation, and transdermal and oral drug delivery.Some of the systems that can be studied are micellar solutions (surfactant-water systems), solutions of nanoparticles and surfactants, polymer-surfactant systems,pharmaceutical drugs, aerosols etc.Catalysis and Reaction EngineeringSo we know chemical reactions occur. But how can a reaction yield maximum product? How does it occur in an industry? The answer by all means lies in studying reactor design and reaction kinetics.Chemical reactions lie in the heart of processes where molecules are transformed from raw materials to useful products. For the efficient and economic utilisation of such chemical transformations the domain where they are performed (the reactor) needs to be carefully designed accounting for kinetics, hydrodynamics, mass and heat transfer. Catalysis plays a significant role in many of these transformations, leading to more efficient, greener and more sustainable processing routes.Often this area is integrated with a Surface Chemistry group too. This helps to study how reactions occur on the surface of catalysts.Quite a lot is being studied about reactions in microreactors these days.Some of the other interest areas include photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, catalytic pyrolysis etc.Polymers and materialsPolymers are versatile because their properties are so wide-ranging. The versatility becomes more profound in the copolymers made from multiple precursors, and polymers compounded with filler materials. Research in polymers encompasses the chemical reactions of their formation, methods of processing them into products, means of modifying their physical properties, and the relationship between the properties and the underlying molecular and solid phase structure.As for Materials, either it can be studied as one of the research areas in Chemical Engineering or one could opt for the vast field of Materials Science and Engineering for the same.In any case, inorganic materials that are found in nature form the basis for new materials which are used in novel applications due to their electronic, mechanical and optical properties.Thin films are studied which find applications in fuel cells, a source of alternative energy being widely studied across the globe.Nanomaterials are a special class of materials that can be studied as the properties of such materials can be tuned as per requirement.Biomaterials are also being studied extensively as new materials for biological applications are being generated from biological molecules.Transport PhenomenaDescriptions of transport of momentum, energy, and species, often accompanied by chemical reaction – i.e. fluid mechanics, heat transfer, mass transfer, and reaction engineering – are one of the central and most successful paradigms of modern chemical engineering.Modern research in transport processes addresses problems through combinations of theory, computation, and experiment.Some of the studies in this field include Dynamics of Complex Multiphase materials such as three phase fluid systems and granular materials, Non-Newtonian flow properties of complex fluid systems, problems involving mixing and blending of multiphase polymers and polymer-inorganic nanocomposites. In some universities, emulsions in drug-delivery and food processing are also studied as a part of Transport Phenomena. Microfluidic flow systems, mass transfer and heat transfer in nanostructures are some of the other areas of concentration in Transport Phenomena.Modeling, Theory and SimulationComputational power is changing the nature of science and engineering research in today's world. Modeling and simulation can help in cutting cost by focusing experiments on critical areas and creating frameworks in which diverse experimental results can be seen in a coherent picture.This research focus, thus, deals with computational aspects of complex systems covering modelling, simulation, control and optimization.Studies can be conducted on process control and monitoring with applications in large scale chemical plants, model- based control and monitoring of hybrid process systems with applications to chemical processes and biological networks. Computer simulations can also be used to understand how microscopic properties of materials influence macroscopic behavior.Modeling and simulation can also be done at the molecular and nano scale. In this case, fundamental principles of statistical mechanics and quantum theory are coupled with modern computing tools to derive atomistic descriptions of materials structure, materials properties, and a wide range of solid state and fluid phase physico-chemical phenomena.Process Design and Process EngineeringIn chemical engineering, process design is the design of processes for desired physical and/or chemical transformation of materials. Process design is central to chemical engineering, and it can be considered to be the summit of that field, bringing together all of the field's components.Process design can be the design of new facilities or it can be the modification or expansion of existing facilities. The design starts at a conceptual level and ultimately ends in the form of fabrication and construction plans. The documentation of the design can be done by preparing Block Flow Diagrams, Process Flow Diagrams or Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams.The Design of the process is made with the aid of mathematical tools that simulate the process and obtain optimum conditions for operation.Use of simulation in design allows the identification of dangerous operating regions and testing of accident conditions.During process design, economic analysis and feasibility of the process must also be analysed.Some of the areas that one can look into for process engineering are multiscale process operations and control, nanoscale process systems engineering, biochemical process engineering and process optimization.Alternate EnergyOne of those areas where a lot of money is being spent globally to find new and alternate sources of energy.The research themes in this area include, batteries, fuel cells, biofuels, solar energy, carbon dioxide capture and sequestration, hydrogen storage and conversion.Food Science and TechnologyFood Science or Bromatology is a branch of applied Sciences. It is a discipline in which engineering, biological and physical sciences are combines to study the nature of foods, causes of deterioration, underlying food processing principles, and improvement of food products for public consumption.Food industry is practically the largest industry in the world and needs professionals who will be developing food and beverages in response to the needs and demands of the society.There are ample career opportunities in this field as there are less number of graduates than there are positions available to them in the industry.So, what are the areas that you can study in this field?1. Sensory Science- This area primarily involves new product development, creating new tastes and flavors, develop more nutritous food items. It also involves tasting of a new food product, trying to identify what is desirable and what is not. Hence, this involves a lot of work with trained experts and consumers and interaction with them.2.Food Chemistry- It teaches you to understand the structure and function of food ingredients and how to make food healthier for consumption. This is the area where chemistry comes into picture and you learn to ensure product stability, consistent flavor and texture and ease of processing the food items.3. Microbiology- Microbes are all around us and so are they present in our food items. Thus it is necessary to ensure that the food products are safe for consumption. So, this field teaches you to ensure the safety of food supply right from initial storage through processing, transportation and retail channels, until the consumer purchases the item. Therefore, one develops processes, monitors conditions and tests foods for contamination.4. Engineering- Packaging foods in a way their shelf life is extended, flavor and nutrition is preserved and is appealing to the customers falls in the domain of work of an engineer. An engineer is also responsible for developing processes to ensure product quality and maximising process efficiency.5. Fermentation Science- It involves the creation of wines, beers, and fermented food products. It is an ancient art, combined with modern science. It's all the aspects of food science—sensory science, food chemistry, microbiology, and engineering, focused in on a specific set of products. Fermentation scientists know how to analyze ingredients, how to monitor processes, how to adjust procedures to obtain a desired outcome—and how to create a product that is appealing to the consumer.Nanoscience and NanotechnologyDown to Nano Follow the link above to know everything about Nano.Petroleum EngineeringPetroleum engineering is a field of engineering concerned with the activities related to the production of hydrocarbons, which can be either crude oil or natural gas. Typically, a petroleum engineering graduate is given the job to discover natural sources of oil and examine the same. Similarly, developing the latest machines and equipments which can be used in the extraction and processing of oil is part of the job of a petroleum engineer. Petroleum engineers have global career and are hired by global oil companies. The petroleum Engineering is divided into two parts.Upstream SectorThe upstream sector consists of activities like exploration, production and exploitation of oil and natural gases. After gaining a qualification in petroleum engineering, the engineers work in the exploration and production activities of petroleum and other related products. Using the latest drilling technology and geophysics for the exploration of oil reservoirs, they exploit the same for maximum output.Downstream SectorThe downstream sector consist activities such as the refining, marketing and distributing of petroleum products. Production is not the only work carried out in a petroleum company and the job of petroleum engineer does not get over as the oil is produced, rather, it starts at this stage. Refining process is crucial for an oil product as then only it can be used. Marketing and distributing department may require a petroleum engineer to have some management degree.Petroleum engineers divide themselves into two types:1.Reservoir engineers work to optimize production of oil and gas via proper well placement, production rates, and enhanced oil recovery techniques.2.Drilling engineers manage the technical aspects of drilling exploratory, production and injection wells.3.Production engineers, including subsurface engineers, manage the interface between the reservoir and the well, including perforations, sand control, downhole flow control, and downhole monitoring equipment; evaluate artificial lift methods; and also select surface equipment that separates the produced fluids (oil, natural gas, and water).Environmental EngineeringEnvironmental Engineering is often offered as a part of civil engineering department or as a part of the Chemical Engineering department.It is the integration of science and engineering principles to improve the natural environment (air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation (house or home) and for other organisms, and to remediate pollution sites. Further more it is concerned with finding plausible solutions in the field of public health, such arthropod-borne diseases, implementing law which promote adequate sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas. It involves waste water management and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation protection, industrial hygiene, environmental sustainability, and public health issues as well as a knowledge of environmental engineering law. It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects.Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the environment. To do so, they conduct hazardous-waste management studies to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources. Environmental "chemical" engineers, focus on environmental chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies and separation processes.Scope of environmental engineeringSolid Waste ManagementEnvironmental impact assessment and mitigationWater supply and treatmentWaste heat conveyance and causeAir pollution managementBiotechnologyBiotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products. Biotechnology finds application in agriculture, food production and medicine. Over the last couple of centuries, biotechnology has expanded to include genomics, recombinant gene technologies, applied immunology and development of pharmaceutical therapies and diagnostic tests.The fact that living organisms have evolved such an enormous spectrum of biological capabilities means that by choosing appropriate organisms it is possible to obtain a wide variety of substances, many of which are useful to man as food, fuel and medicines. Over the past 30 years, biologists have increasingly applied the methods of physics, chemistry and mathematics in order to gain precise knowledge, at the molecular level, of how living cells make these substances. By combining this newly-gained knowledge with the methods of engineering and science, what has emerged is the concept of biotechnology which embraces all of the above-mentioned disciplines.Biotechnology has already begun to change traditional industries such as food processing and fermentation. It has also given rise to the development of a whole new technology for industrial production of hormones, antibiotics and other chemicals, food and energy sources and processing of waste materials. This industry must be staffed by trained biotechnologists who not only have a sound basis of biological knowledge, but a thorough grounding in engineering methods.The different terms that have been coined to identify the different applications of biotechnology are:1. Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.2. Blue biotechnology describes the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology.3.Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture.4. Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation.5.White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals.So what kind of applications are we looking at?1. MedicineDrug productionPharmacogenomics-study of how genetic inheritance affects an individual's response to drugsGenetic testing for examination of DNA molecule to identify mutated sequences.Gene therapy- a technique than can be used to treat or even cure genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDSHuman Genome ProjectCloning2. AgricultureCrop yieldReduced vulneraility of crops to environmental stressesImproved texture and taste or appearance of foodReduced dependance on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicalsProduction of novel substances in crop plantsAnimal biotechnology3. Biological engineeringBiotechnologists are employed to scale up bioprocesses from the laboratory to manufacturing scale. It includes branches like biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, bio-system engineering and bio process engineering etc. It is a field which has an integrated approach of fundamental biological sciences and traditional engineering principles.4. Marine biotechnologyIt is an emerging field encompassing marine biomedicine (new pharmaceuticals discovery), materials technology, bioremediation, marine biomedical model organisms, molecular genetics, genomics, bioinformatics and much more. The fundamental enthusiasm for this discipline is clearly derived from the enormous biodiversity and genetic uniqueness of life in the sea. Thirty four of the 36 fundamental Phyla of eukaryotes are found in the world's oceans. Many of these life forms, such as those that reside in the deep oceans, are poorly known.Materials Science and EngineeringMaterials Science is also known as Materials Engineering. It is an interdisciplinary applying the properties of matter to science and engineering. It incorporates principles of applied physics and chemistry. With significant media attention focused on nanoscience and nanotechnology in recent years, materials science is becoming more widely known as a specific and unique field of science and engineering. As a result, it has been propelled to the forefront at many universities.Materials Science and Engineering encompasses all natural and man-made materials – their extraction, synthesis, processing, properties, characterization, and development for technological applications. Advanced engineering activities that depend upon optimized materials include the medical device and healthcare industries, the energy industries, electronics and photonics, transportation, advanced batteries and fuel cells, and nanotechnology. Students in materials science and engineering develop a fundamental understanding of materials at the nano, micro and macro scales, leading to specialization in such topics as: biomaterials; chemical and electrochemical materials science and engineering; computational materials science and engineering; electronic, magnetic and optical materials; and structural materials.This field not only involves the study of different class of materials but also their synthesis and analysis techniques. There are various ways in which materials can be characterized such as Electron Microscopy, X-ray diffraction, calorimetry, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Photoluminescence, Electron diffraction. A student of materials Science has the opportunity to study and get hands-on experience with these analysis techniques.The sub disciplines of materials science are:Biomaterials – materials that are derived from and/or used with biological systems.Ceramography – the study of the microstructures of high-temperature materials and refractories, including structural ceramics such as RCC, polycrystalline silicon carbide and transformation toughened ceramicsCrystallography – the study of regular arrangement of atoms and ions in a solid, the defects associated with crystal structures such as grain boundaries and dislocations, and the characterization of these structures and their relation to physical properties.Electronic and magnetic materials – materials such as semiconductors used to create integrated circuits, storage media, sensors, and other devices.Forensic engineering – the study of how products fail, and the vital role of the materials of constructionForensic materials engineering – the study of material failure, and the light it sheds on how engineers specify materials in their productGlass science – any non-crystalline material including inorganic glasses, vitreous metals and non-oxide glasses.Materials characterization – such as diffraction with x-rays, electrons, or neutrons, and various forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), chromatography, thermal analysis, electron microscope analysis, etc., in order to understand and define the properties of materials. See also List of surface analysis methodsMetallography - Metallography is the study of the physical structure and components of metals, typically using microscopy.Metallurgy – the study of metals and their alloys, including their extraction, microstructure and processing.Microtechnology – study of materials and processes and their interaction, allowing microfabrication of structures of micrometric dimensions, such as Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).Nanotechnology – rigorously, the study of materials where the effects of quantum confinement, the Gibbs–Thomson effect, or any other effect only present at the nanoscale is the defining property of the material; but more commonly, it is the creation and study of materials whose defining structural properties are anywhere from less than a nanometer to one hundred nanometers in scale, such as molecularly engineered materials.Rheology – Some practitioners consider rheology a sub-field of materials science, because it can cover any material that flows. However, modern rheology typically deals with non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, so it is often considered a sub-field of continuum mechanics. See also granular material.Surface science/catalysis – interactions and structures between solid-gas solid-liquid or solid-solid interfaces.Textile reinforced materials – materials in the form of ceramic or concrete are reinforced with a primarily woven or non-woven textile structure to impose high strength with comparatively more flexibility to withstand vibrations and sudden jerks.Tribology – the study of the wear of materials due to friction and other factors.Sourec- Edulix

Short answer:-Petrol price = cost price (procuring + refining + marketing) + tax (central + state)Cost price = f(international crude price)International Crude Price = f(Supply, Demand, Government policies, Financial Institutions, Geopolitics)International crude price is rising, therefore cost price is rising thus increasing the petrol price.What is government doing about it?Passing the international price rise on to the consumer slowly since it wants to move towards market determined price.Can this price rise be controlled?Yes and No.Yes, if government is willing to reduce its revenues from the taxes on petroleum No, if it decides to pass on the price increase and maintain its tax revenues.Will the government reduce its tax revenues?No, since oil revenues form a major chunk of government revenues (~35%) and there is no substitute to this revenue in the short run.So in the short term petrol are bound to increase.Why only petrol price is increasing as compared to diesel, LPG, Kerosene?Since the consumers of petrol are mainly middle and higher classes (as per income or expenditure), therefore these consumers have higher ability to absorb price rise.Why not diesel and Kerosene?Food prices are directly tied to diesel prices. Kerosene is mainly used by rural poor. So their ability to absorb the price rise is lesser.Therefore the government chooses to pass on the international price rise (without reducing its tax revenues) in petrol first.*Justifications and data supports can be found in the long answer.Long version Answer:-Importance of problem:Domestic consumption of petroleum products in 2011-12 registered a growth of ~5% (as compared to ~8% GDP growth). Based on domestic consumption of petroleum products, import dependence for oil in India was 76% in 2011-12 and based on the relative growth in demand and production, it is estimated that oil dependence will be as high as 85 per cent in 2020.In terms of spending, as a country we spend, around ~ 80-90% of import bill on petroleum products.The private vehicle ownership in India is growing at CAGR of 12% (two wheelers).71% of non-transport vehicles are two wheelers, which run on petrol. Also two wheelers continue to sell roughly 7 times every car sold within the country. Two wheelers essentially provide mobility to the aspiring class, the climbers and the middle class.Our freight transport (direct linked to inflation) is dependent on Diesel as following figure shows:-Figure 1:Share of Road and Rail Freight in IndiaGiven this one can imagine why the "Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth" document (which is THE guidance document for 12th five year plan) has given suggestions from multilevel interventions including dedicated freight corridors in stead of road networks, special provisions for non motorized transport etc.Context:Import Parity Pricing System to Administered Price Mechanism System:-On 16th March, 1974, the Government appointed Oil Prices Committee (OPC) under the stewardship of Executive Director, Reserve Bank of India. OPC recommended discontinuance of the import parity pricing system and introduction of a pricing system based on domestic cost of production. Their recommendations have led to the shift to Administered Pricing Mechanism (APM). The major reasons cited by OPC for a complete move away from import parity pricing to APM were as follows:-The import of products constituted less than 10% of the total demand of the country and with the continued increase in the domestic refining capacity, the share of imported products was expected to come further down. The export of products from Middle East constituted only about 5% of the total export of crude oil and products and hence, the posted price of the products did not reflect prices appropriate to Indian conditions.The APM regime:-APM continued through the late 1970s, 1980s and mid 1990s. But the explosive growth in the late 1990s required the Government to call for funds from private and international investors. Accordingly, the Government, in 1995, set up an industry study group under the Chairmanship from BPCL to prepare the blue print of the deregulation and tariff reforms required in the oil sector. The group’s recommendations were approved by the Government in principle in September, 1997 and further action was started by appointing an “Expert Technical Group (ETG)” to study the phasing and tariff structure of the oil sector. MOP&NG recommended, inter-alia, the following:-There should a phased deregulation of the sector spread over a period of four to five years, culminating in total deregulation by 1.4.2002.The first phase should encompass full deregulation of upstream/ refineries and partial deregulation of marketing sectorsChanges in tariff structure may be done over the transition phase, keeping in mind the equilibrium to be maintained between the Governments’ revenue needs, necessity to keep low consumer prices and the need to increase the profitability of the companies.Subsidies should be phased out gradually to within acceptable limits which will be provided through the budget.Deregulation and tariff reforms:-Accordingly, in the first phase (effective 1.4.1998), APM was dismantled for the upstream and refining sector and a partial deregulation took place for marketing sector. Subsequently, effective 1.4.2002, the Government announced complete dismantling of APM. In April 2002 India abolished the Administrative Pricing Mechanism (APM) controlling the domestic price of petroleum products in India.Under the APM, product prices were directly administered by India‟s Central Government based on an opaque and complex „cost of operating capital plus‟ formula. Because of the importance of LPG and kerosene as cooking fuels to poorer strata of India‟s population, flat-rate subsidies funded from Government‟s budget were renewed, however these were to be phased out between 2005 and 2007 (not yet phased out) [1].Under the new regime, Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) would be free to set retail product prices based on an import parity pricing formula, under the supervision of a petroleum sector regulator. Hence it was expected that retail prices for petroleum products (including prices for domestic kerosene and LPG) would therefore fluctuate with changes in the price of India‟s crude basket. However, as depicted in Chart 1, however, this has not been the case.Now this transition phase of deregulation became even more unbearable because of sustained price increase in crude oil prices from year 2004.Market Structure:Typically the petroleum industry has three tier structure: Upstream explorers/miners, Process industry/refineries and OMCs/ retailers. In Indian case, process industries are mostly the OMCs e.g. BPCL, ONGC etc. Because, of which when international prices continued to climb, the losses incurred were partly mitigated through refining margins making it difficult to ascertain the net position.There are couple of shock absorbers between international crude prices and domestic petroleum products. The absorbers can be seen in following equation:Cost price for OMC [Crude oil price + value addition (refineries) price] + taxes > Domestic petroleum product selling price----imbalanced equationEssentially, GoI on one side increasingly restricting the ability of OMCs to increase prices, in order to protect Indian consumers and simultaneously trying to keep the taxation at same level even with increasing international prices for Crude Oil. As a result of which, by mid-2004, the post-APM model of product pricing had been effectively abandoned, with the Central Government once again centrally sanctioning upward price revisions. Since 2004, retail prices for petrol and diesel have been revised upward less than ten times by the Central Government, while LPG and kerosene prices have remained effectively fixed.Imbalanced Equation (Under-recoveries):Under-recovery is a notional measure representing the difference between the trade-parity cost of refined product paid by OMCs and their realized sale price. Following figure makes this picture more clear:The key fact is that Indian domestic product prices have not risen in line with the sharp increase in international crude prices that has occurred until recently since 2004-2005, and, as such, have placed a significant subsidy burden on OMCs. As a result of which, between April and December 2008, India‟s three key OMCs lost between 43 per cent and 25 per cent of their total net worth.How Central Government is managing business friendly environment in OMC market? (i.e. Dealing with Under-recoveries)1. Equitable Burden Sharing Mechanism (EBSM):In order to lessen the burden of under-recoveries, GoI developed the Equitable Burden Sharing Mechanism (EBSM). Under this system, it was agreed that India's upstream public oil companies (Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), Oil India Limited (OIL)) would shoulder one-third of the burden of under-recoveries. This total was to be appropriated by the Central Government through suitable adjustment of the cess surcharge borne by ONGC and OIL. In practice, however, the GoI has been increasingly unwilling to burden ONGC and OIL with one-third of rapidly escalating under-recovery costs.2. Oil BondsCentral Government to increasingly issue off-budget 'oil bonds' as a means to address the impact of current product pricing practices on OMCs. Oil bonds have, since 2007-2008, become the key fiscal tool for 'solving' the petroleum pricing issue. In 2008-2009, GoI is expected to issue just over $US20 billon in oil bonds to OMCs. with OMCs struggling to generate the foreign exchange (forex) liquidity necessary to purchase imported inputs –GoI has asked the RBI to make bond-for-forex swaps at prevailing market rates. As the situation stands, however, the losses made by OMCs on bond values only serve to heighten the fiscal impact of India's current petroleum pricing regime. As bond values fall and OMCs ability to use these assets to absorb the impact of under-recoveries lessens, the GoI is inevitably forced into yet further rounds of debt issuance.2. Rationalization of Taxes and DutiesClearly, given a centrally administered retail price for petroleum products, a reduction in the proportion of realized prices that are made up by tax, will reduce the under-recovery accruing to OMCs.By June 2008, the Central Government had brought excise tax on petrol down from 26 per cent ad valorem plus Rs.7.50 per litre (as at end-2004) to a flat rate of Rs.13.35 per litre, and excise on diesel had been reduced by a similar magnitude. Excise on LPG and kerosene was reduced from 8 per cent and 16 per cent respectively in 2004 to nil by mid-2008. Between 2004 and June 2008, the Central Government also reduced customs duty on imported petrol and diesel from 20 per cent ad valorem to 2.5 per cent. This is after abolishing custom duties on LPG and kerosene in early-2005. Customs duty on imported crude oil was reduced to nil in June 2008.The subsidy for the four products was not part of the Government budget but came out of the so-called oil pool account. The oil pool account was funded by surcharges on petroleum products to be dispensed in times of rapidly increasing international prices and re-filled during times of lower prices. With the beginning of the new FY on 1 April 2002, the APM and with it the oil pool account was abolished.3. Vertical Fiscal Imbalance Glitch:Petroleum products are taxed both at the level of the center as well as at the level of State and local bodies. Central duties consist of customs and excise. Customs duty, consists of basic customs duty + duty of customs aka countervailing duty (CVD) [2]. While the Central Government has shown a willingness to cut into revenues to help deal with petroleum pricing issues, State Governments have been mostly unwilling to undermine this reliable, inelastic source of revenues. Excise duty is levied on all petroleum products by the Centre whereas State Governments levy sales tax on them. While States have almost uniformly moved from an ad valorem sales taxation structure to a flat-rate structure (in order to reduce pressure on prices in times of rapidly increasingly crude costs), they have aimed to ensure that total revenue has not been undermined. Also, within states local government units and municipalities cities can levy extra charges on petroleum products. Rangarajan Committee observes that sales tax collection from oil sector have consistently been contributing to a third or more of the total sales tax collections of states thereby burdening the consumers as well as building an undesirable dependencyat the state level for revenues on a single sector.By cutting taxes the Central Government therefore risks undermining a crucial source of revenue – which may be spent in support of basic developmental programs – while providing only a very partial and incomplete solution to the issue of petroleum pricing in India. In fact, by cutting taxes it at once undermines its ability to fund the rapidly increasing outlays required to support the subsidies regime reducing taxes now will make it very difficult for successive Indian Governments to raise taxation rates on petroleum products again – depriving policymakers of a key demand-side management and environmental policy tool.Petroleum basket of India:Major other products from basket are: Diesel, Kerosene and LPG.Basically passing the shock in international crude oil to any individual petroleum product domestically depends upon 1. end user of which product can absorb the shock and to what extent [3] and 2. GoI is committed to protect economically vulnerable and weaker sections of society by providing life-line energy at affordable prices to achieve inclusive growth and other Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). In this context following figure shows fuel share for cooking activity in India:The same survey also find that, for both urban and rural India, fuel and light took up 10% of total consumer expenditure, together these two facts explain the need for such an objective in policy planning. Hence subsidies for these two cooking fuels are considered an important social instrument to help poorer households shift from biomass to modern fuels.OMCs were not given any honeymoon period of market based retail pricing. Right after abolishment of the APM, they were “advised” by the Government, who is their majority owner and the de-factor sector regulator, to consider the social implications of adjusting retail prices for kerosene and LPG in line with the import parity principal. GoI has decided that the subsidies on these products will be on a specified flat rate basis for each Depot/ Bottling Plant and will be met from the fiscal budget. After providing for the aforesaid subsidy, the retail prices would then vary as per changes in the international oil prices.Few initiatives which can provide long term benefits:-fuel shift (Hybrid, CNG, non-motorised transport)modal shift (road freight transport to rail freight transport)Energy Efficiency (vehicle fuel economy standards)Demand side management (car pooling etc.)Better targeting of Subsidies ( subsidized Kerosene for only BPL families, and subsidized LPG for only domestic purposes) [4]Implementing a unified Goods and Services Tax (GST) across the country on petroleum products.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Foot notes:[1]: why not phased out?=> refer to section 'Petroleum basket of India'[2]: CVD is equivalent to the excise duty on the same product produced domestically.[3]: while international prices for petrol increased by about 140% between 1 April 2002 and 31 March 2005, Indian retail prices for petrol increased by only 64%. For diesel the Indian retail prices increased by 83% while the international price increase was 175%. Over the same period LPG prices increased by about 23% whereas international LPG prices rose by almost 150% in the same period. Most drastic is the comparison for kerosene, where retail prices increased by less than 1% while international prices increased by almost 200%.[4]: Much of the highly subsidized products were diverted from their originally intended usage: instead of supporting poor families to move up the fuel ladder and to slowly integrate into the modern fuel economy, subsidized LPG and kerosene found their way into restaurants, cars and tricycles and was smuggled across the border into neighboring countries. A recent Government study found that only 20% of LPG and 62% of kerosene is actually consumedby the intended population group: families living below the poverty line and primarily in the rural areas. The study made by NCAER has pointed out thediversion of PDS Kerosene to be in the order of about 38 percent. Government has recently, in principle, accepted the recommendations of the Rangarajan Committee that subsidy on PDS Kerosene should be restricted to BPL families, for which detailed implementation modalities are being finalised. This will help in reducing the subsidies by 41%.References:http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2011/aug/d2011080101.pdfhttp://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/index.php?repts=report_carbon.htmhttp://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2011/aug/d2011080101.pdfhttp://sanhati.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/surya_sethi_epw2010.pdfhttp://www.iea.org/work/2006/gb/papers/petroleum_product_pricing.pdfhttp://mospi.nic.in/mospi_new/upload/nsso/63R_1.0.pdfhttp://www.acts.or.ke/dmdocuments/PROJECT_REPORTS/Status%20Report%20on%20Use%20of%20Fuelwood%20in%20India.pdfhttp://morth.nic.in/writereaddata/linkimages/SSL_RoadTransport2006_07_Book292768426.pdf---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------