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Yeah.! all the credit goes to BJP national president AMIT SHAH , the behind wining the 73 seats out of 80 in general election 2014 ; the target which even all time leader Shri ATAL BIHARI VAJPAYEE (former PM of INDIA nd the powerful leader of country nd BJP as well till 2004) haven’t let his party to get in his time. And once again proving himself the true CHANKYA of the modern INDIAN POLITICS by giving his party 325/403 seats in UP elections.FIRST GOA (40 SEATER LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY) :—-REASON 1 :— Let us understand in simple words - in politics power matters . so anyone even the independent MLA will definitely wish to go with that party which has govt at its centre and state.So if we focus on the elected candiadates , we find-BJP = 13 NCP =1 MAG=3 OTHERS=6 CONGRESS=17If we focus on the arithematic of goa elections:BJP+ =13+3+6(23) = MAJORITY.CONG+ =17+1(18) . NCP and MAG already declared that they r going to support BJP . so above equations proved BJP is gonna to form its gov.Another reasons behind cong loosing goa is the internal war b/w leaders and unsatifactions with central cong leaders such as DIGVIJAY SINGH (he was party IN-Charge of goa cong).REASON 2:— MANOHAR PARIKAR. Despite posting him as the bjp cm candidate for the upcoming goa elections ; bjp was in the mood to do same as it does in UP. But it fails here in Goa and uncertainity leads bjp to down fall from 21 (in 2012) to 13 (in 2017) , but still manohar parikar was the most popular face against anyone. So bjp used him as pawn of the goa politics so to arrange the required seat.NOW MANIPUR ( 60 SEATER LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY) :- The same acted here also. But here BJP was going to form its first govt since independence under N. BIREN SINGH leadership. So party was not in mood to let the chance miss so with the help of INDEPENDENT MLAs and of other state level winning parties they formed the govt.BJP(21) + NPP(4) + OTHERS(6) = 31= MAJORITY.

Okay so I will divide them into Democrats and Republicans based on today’s political positions and have a primary and general election.They will all have the complete knowledge of history with them.Democrats:John AdamsThomas JeffersonJames MadisonJames MonroeAndrew JacksonMartin van BurenJames K. PolkFranklin PierceJames BuchananAbraham LincolnAndrew JohnsonUlysses S. GrantGrover ClevelandTheodore RooseveltWoodrow WilsonFranklin Delano RooseveltHarry S. TrumanJohn. F. KennedyLyndon Baines JohnsonJimmy CarterBill ClintonBarack ObamaRepublicans:John Quincy AdamsWilliam Henry HarrisonJohn TylerZachary TaylorMillard FillmoreRutherford B. HayesJames A. GarfieldChester A. ArthurBenjamin HarrisonWilliam McKinleyWilliam Howard TaftWarren G. HardingCalvin CoolidgeHerbert HooverDwight D. EisenhowerRichard M. NixonGerald R. FordRonald ReaganGeorge H.W. BushGeorge W. BushDonald J. TrumpGeorge Washington would be an independent due to his hatred of political parties.Democratic Primaries:So in the Democratic world, it is a very intense and brutal campaign. A majority of the presidents suffer from severe name recognition in addition to other problems. The front-runners emerge as Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, FDR, and JFK. Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and LBJ are close behind. Jackson and Lincoln spar over slavery, while FDR and JFK argue over Russia. The debates are actually made into 2 debates at a time due to the large number of candidates. Jefferson, Jackson, Polk, Lincoln, TR, FDR, Truman, JFK, LBJ, Clinton, and Obama are all placed in the top tier debate. This becomes a very entertaining, very informative event. Lincoln makes some compelling cases. Jackson perfectly takes on the anger of the common man. JFK looks more handsome in color than he did in black and white. FDR and TR do well enough to have a real chance in the election. This is generally how all of the debates go.As the primary progresses, JFK starts to fall behind and it becomes a 3 way race between Jackson, Lincoln, and FDR. The super delegates favor FDR a little more than Lincoln and a lot more than Jackson, which makes him furious. Jackson expresses his distaste with the DNC and is shunned by the establishment. In the end, FDR gets the nomination due to super delegates. FDR picks James K. Polk to be his Vice President.However, Jackson and a few other presidents decide to form their own party and ticket to oppose the Democrats. Jackson becomes the True Union Party candidate for president. Theodore Roosevelt is the Vice President candidate.Republican Primaries:Now in the Republican world, it is basically a straight forward affair. Ronald Reagan becomes the presumptive nominee almost instantly. Only a little challenge from Trump hits his poll numbers. But, Reagan leads the field by almost 15 points. The primary becomes a lighthearted thing. The debates are very entertaining. At one of them, the question “If you could change one thing about your presidency, what would it be?” is asked. William Henry Harrison says “I wouldn’t be a windbag in the rain!” and Donald Trump says “Micheal Flynn.” Reagan easily wins the nomination. He selects Calvin Coolidge, his political role model, as his running mate.General Election:So, now we have the unexpected 4-way race between FDR, Jackson, Reagan, and Washington.FDR attacks Jackson on his disloyalty to the Democrats and calls him an “antiquated egotistic hothead”. Jackson counters by throwing the Japanese Interment at FDR, who responds with the Trail of Tears. The 2 of them spar the entire general election.Washington has been slowly building up a formidable campaign and a cult following of supporters. He taps Alaska Governor Bill Walker, a fellow Independent, as his running mate. He is trying to present himself as the alternative to politics as usual. His dislike of political parties is very helpful to his campaign. He is very successful and pretty clean. His only flaw is slavery. But, being the Father of the Country, the other candidates are unwilling to attack him.Reagan has been running a standard campaign. Attacks from the other candidates, grueling speaking engagements, and devoted supporters are becoming the norm. He is enjoying running again and spending time with Coolidge. The press don’t really have a lot of bad to publish about him and his poll numbers slowly rise.Debate season now arrives. The 4-way debates are the highest rated debates ever on national television. Nearly all networks broadcast them. Even Netflix adds them to their library. The candidates spar a lot over personal history. FDR and Jackson have visible tension between them, which hurts them both. Reagan has a lighthearted and warm attitude. Washington, on the other hand, looks a little out of place, as this is his 1st debate season. However, he quickly commands the room and everyone hangs onto hi every word.In the end, Reagan and Coolidge prevail. Washington gets 2nd, while FDR gets 3rd and Jackson has a close 4th. Reagan won due to FDR and Jackson splitting the Democratic vote. Washington’s legend appeal greatly helped him, as well as his being an outsider, but not enough to prevail.Final Tally:States Won:Reagan: CA,TX,LA,MS,AL,GA,SC,NC,FL,OH,OK,IN,KS,NE,MT,MO,ND,SD,ID,WY,IA,AR,AKWashington: VA,WA,OR,AZ,NH,DE,IL,MA,NJ,UT,MDFDR: NY,DC,ME,CO,NM,RI,NV,MN,CT,HI,VTJackson: KY,TN,WV,MI,WI,PAElectoral Votes:Reagan:273Washington:111FDR:84Jackson:70

This answer is a collaboration between Athena Walker and Dr. Natalie Engelbrecht, BA MSc ND RP. As such it is divided between two posts. The first half is presented in Athena Walker’s post with a link to Natalie Engelbrecht and the second half is presented in Natalie Engelbrecht’s post with a link to Athena Walker’s. Please start with Athena Walker’s post. Both posts were a collaboration, with neither being written solely by either individual.Part 1 of 2: Athena Walker's answer to What is the latest research on brain structure, chemistry, physiology and genetics as well as emerging theories regarding psychopathy?What is the latest research on brain structure, chemistry, physiology and genetics as well as emerging theories regarding psychopathy? Part 2 of 2Changes to Specific Areas of the Brain that Relate to PsychopathyAmygdalaLocation: Studies have revealed that the amygdala is not a homogeneous structure and can be differentiated into approximately 13 nuclei. Although the functional specificity of the nuclei in the human amygdala remains unclear, considerable evidence from animal studies suggests that several nuclei of the amygdala are involved in the processing of emotion. For example seminal research demonstrated that monkeys with damaged amygdalas have been shown to lack fear cue processing, and attempt to pick up live cobras.Function: Significant correlations were found between reduced amygdala volumes and increased total and facet psychopathy scores, with correlations strongest for the affective and interpersonal facets of psychopathy.Psychopath Phenology: Individuals with psychopathy showed significant bilateral volume reductions in the amygdala compared with controls (left, 17.1%; right, 18.9%). Surface deformations were localized in regions in the approximate vicinity of the basolateral, lateral, cortical, and central nuclei of the amygdala.This article introduces a novel hypothesis regarding amygdala function in psychopathy. The first part of this article introduces the concept of psychopathy and describes the main cognitive and affective impairments demonstrated by this population; that is, a deficit in fear-recognition, lower conditioned fear responses and poor performance in passive avoidance, and response-reversal learning tasks. Evidence for amygdala dysfunction in psychopathy is considered with regard to these deficits; however, the idea of unified amygdala function is untenable. A model of differential amygdala activation in which the basolateral amygdala (BLA) is underactive while the activity of the central amygdala (CeA) is of average to above average levels is proposed to provide a more accurate and up-to-date account for the specific cognitive and emotional deficits found in psychopathy. In addition, the model provides a mechanism by which attentional-based models and emotion-based models of psychopathy can coexist. Data to support the differential amygdala activation model are provided from studies from both human and animal research. Supporting evidence concerning some of the neurochemicals implicated in psychopathy is then reviewed. Implications of the model and areas of future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).A model of differential amygdala activation in psychopathy.InsulaLocation: Located deep in the cerebral cortex.Function: Processing of disgust cues is not believed to rely upon amygdala; rather the relevant circuitry is thought to be the anterior insular cortex. The insula exhibits higher activity when neurotypicals make decisions and difficult personal moral dilemmas that they consider as repugnant acts.Psychopath Phenology: Hypofunctioning in psychopathy.Nucleus AccumbensLocation: In the basal forebrain rostral to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus.Function: Plays a central role in the reward circuit. Its operation is based chiefly on two essential neurotransmitters: dopamine (promotes desire), and serotonin (satiety and inhibition).Psychopath Phenology: The volume of the nucleus accumbens was 13% smaller in psychopathy. The atypical morphology consisted of predominant anterior hypotrophy bilaterally.Orbitofrontal CortexLocation: The part of the prefrontal cortex that is positioned directly over the orbits or eye sockets. It is located at the base of the frontal lobe.Function: Social interactions, inhibition of impulsive behavior, ethics, morality, reward and punishment, regret, and projection of future outcomes based on implied expectations of planned near term actions. Involved in the regulation of many social functions, which include ethics and morality.Psychopath Phenology: Lower activity in psychopathy.Note: The terms Orbitofrontal Cortex and Prefrontal Cortex in research are sometimes used interchangeably, and at other times, ‘ventromedial prefrontal cortex’ is used to describe a broad area in the lower (ventral) central (medial) region of the prefrontal cortex, of which the medial orbitofrontal cortex constitutes the lowermost part.Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (Lower)Location: The frontal lobe, located at the front of the brain, is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex.Function: The frontal lobe contains most of the dopamine-sensitive neurons in the cerebral cortex. The dopamine system is associated with reward, short term memory, planning and motivation. The function of the frontal lobe involves the ability to project future consequences resulting from current actions, the choice between good and bad actions (or better and best) (also known as conscience), the override and suppression of socially unacceptable responses, and the determination of similarities and differences between things or events. The vmPFC is critical in regulating emotion, threats, decision-making and social behavior. Furthermore, the vmPFC also plays an important part in integrating longer non-task-based memories stored across the brain. These are often memories associated with emotions derived from input from the brain’s limbic system. The frontal lobe modifies those emotions to generally fit socially acceptable norms. It is known as the ethics and morality section of the brain.Psychopath Phenology: Notice that the normal scan shows much more activity (yellow and red) in the lower frontal lobe than Fallon’s (mostly blue).ConclusionBrain structural and functional changes in psychopathy suggest that psychopathic individuals have a different way of seeing the world. Further research suggests they may use alternative strategies—such as cognitive empathy and rationality—more than neurotypicals use to make moral judgments. Much of the current research presents psychopathy brain alterations as pathological. Words like “healthy people” (meaning neurotypicals), “brain damage” and “brain dysfunction” serve to bias readers and researchers to view psychopathy as a dysfunction. As psychopathy is inherited and not caused by environmental triggers such as abuse, the word variant may be a better alternative, and lead to less bias.Brain Chemistry Difference of Psychopathy.High resolution PET and fMRI scans suggest that alterations in the function of the brain’s reward system may contribute to psychopathy.Research indicates that dopamine genes leading to alterations in an increased amount of dopamine released in comparison with neurotypicals brains is associated with psychopathy. In fact research indicated that psychopaths release four times more dopamine in the nucleus accumbens than neurotypicals.Dopamine plays important roles in executive functions, motor control, motivation, arousal, reinforcement, and reward. Studies found that increases in dopamine resulted in a trait aggression and impulsive-antisocial psychopathic traits. Further, an increase in dopamine reduces a hyper-altruistic tendency, altering it to prefer harming others over harming oneself.Research of the gene 5-HIAA also indicates lower levels of serotonin occur in psychopathy. Studies demonstrated that a decrease in serotonin resulted in a decrease in harm aversion for both self and others.Psychopathy also demonstrates higher methylation of oxytocin resulting in lower oxytocin levels. Lower circulating oxytocin results in decreased in interpersonal empathy. Although known for increasing bonding and trust, recent studies found that people who were given oxytocin had more envy and gloating during a game of chance. It appears that oxytocin increases both negative and positive emotions. Thus researchers are unclear as of yet whether the effect on increasing oxytocin will be to make a psychopath more social, as well as enhancing anger and aggression.Genes:IntroductionFourteen years ago (2003) the human genome was fully sequenced (in the year 2000 a rough draft was first identified). With this momentous discovery, the genetic basis of some of the most common disorders have begun to be revealed. One area of such research has been the genetics associated with psychopathy. Twin studies do support that psychopathy is strongly heritable. However no single SNP has shown a large or even moderate effect size for psychopathy. The idea of nature/ nurture is outdated. Instead it seems the effect of genes for psychopathy appears to be both polymorphic (tendencies are conferred by multiple genes of small effect size that probabilistically increase the risk for poor behavioural outcome), as well as epistatic (where one gene interacts with another gene at a different location) and epigenetic (environmental buffers that can be used to moderate the effects of risk genes).There are no good genes or bad genes, but there are alleles that are associated with violence and also a lack of empathy. For example antisocial behaviour (AB) is strongly heritable for callous-unemotional traits in children. AB+/ CU+ children show low emotional reactivity to punishment and distress, as well as poor ability to empathize with others. On the other hand non-callous AB (AB+/CU–) children show mainly environmental influences for their antisocial behaviour. They are emotionally reactive to threat, and are created via environmental risk influences (such as harsh parenting) epigenetically driving the expression of antisocial behaviour for this group. However, certain genes create a significant risk for violence when activated via appropriate epigenetic factors. Studies demonstrate that it is unlikely that genes directly code for violence; rather, allelic variations are responsible for individual differences in neurocognitive functioning that, in turn, may determine differential predisposition to violent behavior. Of the genes associated with psychopathy, MAOA-L is the most well-known and was among the first evidence that the variant MAOA-L interacts with childhood maltreatment to modulate antisocial tendencies (Caspi et al, 2002). “Specifically, severely maltreated participants carrying the low-activity allele of the MAOA gene displayed the highest scores in disposition toward violence and antisocial personality disorder scores, and demonstrated the greatest proportions of adolescent conduct disorder and convictions due to violent behavior.” (Buades-Rotger & Gallardo-Pujol, 2014). Recent research suggests that genetic vulnerability to violence conferred by the low-activity allele of MAOA-L variant may only become evident in the presence of environmental triggers of maltreatment. In favorable conditions, genetic predisposition alone may be of little consequence for behavior.Gene & Their Associated SNPs (alphabetical order)5-HTTLPR (serotonin transporter gene)SNP: rs25531 (G;G) The long allele of the serotonin transporter gene is a potential risk factor for psychopathy. It is associated with less pain sensitivity.ARL6IP6 (ADP-ribosylation-like factor 6 interacting protein 6 )Associated with autistic psychopathy (form of autism spectrum disorder that is less severe than other forms, characterized by difficulty with social interaction and communication and by repetitive behavior or restricted interests) in childhood.SNP rs11682518DRD2 and DRD4Positively correlated with a continuously coded psychopathic personality traits scale.HTR1B (Serotonin 1B Receptor Gene)Serotonin 1B Receptor Gene (HTR1B)Methylation as a Risk Factor for Callous-Unemotional Traits in Antisocial Boys. One neurochemical system that has been implicated both theoretically and empirically in CU traits and psychopathy is the serotonin system. For example, recent research identified an association between SNPs in the genes encoding serotonin receptor 2A (HTR2A) and serotonin receptor 1B (HTR1B) as well as CU traits in children with antisocial behaviour problems.HTR1B is of particular interest because it has been found to be linked with behaviors and characteristics commonly associated with CU traits. Most notable are the animal studies which have demonstrated that mice without the serotonin 1B receptor gene show significantly elevated levels of aggression and lower levels of anxiety; both of which are typically associated with psychopathy. Studies in humans have also found an association between HTR1B and impulsive aggression, suggesting that serotonin 1B receptors may be involved in the control of aggression and impulsivity in humans.SNP rs11568817 (T;T)Associated with traits linked with ‘psychopathy’ including alcohol dependence, self-reported anger and hostility in young men, and autism spectrum disorder which is characterized by deficits in empathy that overlap those found in people with high CU traits. However, as psychopaths have been shown to be immune to dependence on addictive substances, it is unclear whether this gene is present in psychopathy, or if it may be a genetic marker for ASPD, which does have significant issues with substance dependence.HTR2A (serotonin receptor 2A)Provoked aggression associated with primary psychopathy traits. Hostility, Anger and Physical Aggression—but not verbal aggression—were associated with this gene, but only for provoked incidents.SNP rs7322347 (T;T)MAOA-L (Monoamine oxidase A)“MAO-A has been named the ‘warrior gene’, and also more unfavourably the ‘psycho gene’. The gene is a variation of a gene on the X chromosome and therefore inherited from your mother. Females have two X chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome. Mothers always pass an X chromosome on to their children. While if a father passes on his X chromosome (leading to a pair of X chromosomes and a female offspring) or his Y chromosome (leading to one X and one Y chromosomes and a male offspring).This variation occurs in the X chromosome gene that produces monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), an enzyme in the brain that breaks down the neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline, adrenaline, serotonin, and dopamine.People with the low-activity MAO-A gene (2R, 3R) are overall more prone to violence, impulsiveness and aggression. Specifically, when people with the MAOA-L feel very provoked or socially isolated their aggression will come out. Again, from an evolutionary perspective, this makes sense; a warrior needs to respond to threat, rather than act in a chaotic manner. Research demonstrates that low-activity MAO-A people are more likely to take revenge for someone who does something to leave them in a bad situation; however they do not act on small misdeeds.Those with MAOA-L also showed hyperresponsiveness of the amygdala during tasks such as copying facial expressions. This accounts for an increased ability in this group to recognize emotions and also mimic them (the psychopathic mask).”Natalie Engelbrecht's answer to What are the effects of having MAOA?What are the effects of having MAO-A? Scientists believe it leads to impulsive behavior (such as as hypersexuality), sleep disorders, mood swings, and violent tendencies.SNP: rs909525: Warrior; M: C= 3 allele; F: CC= 3 alleleSNP: rs12551906(G;G)SNP: rs10865864 (G;G)SNP: rs151997 (T;T)OXTR (oxytocin receptor gene)Polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor gene are associated with the development of psychopathy. Evidence suggests that epigenetic changes in the OXT receptor gene (OXTR) are associated with lower circulating OXT and social–cognitive difficulties. Oxytocin promotes emotional and cognitive aspects of empathy; however increasing oxytocin can have the effect of increasing aggression.SNP: rs53576 (A;A) Associated with lack of empathy.SNP: rs2254298 (A;A) Smaller amygdala volume, both right and left sides.SNP: rs1042778(T;T) Polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor gene are associated with the development of psychopathy.SNP: rs237887 (A;A) Lower emotional empathy.SNP: rs4686302 (T;T) Lower emotional empathy.Other Top Potential SNPs: rs124111132; rs7531603; rs2514788; rs4383690; rs6846114; rs2376016; rs2311846; rs11088618; rs41516949; rs7640807; rs1490666; rs293844; rs4241597; 6446569; rs1441990; rs1893815; rs11637779; rs10859716; rs1785633; rs4479686; rs10050093; rs12647756; rs1345959; rs13064369; rs8059321; rs6560704In conclusionEmerging research in psychopathy has begun to focus on psychopathy as a normal variant of neurotypical personality and brain function. Genetic brain scans and brain chemistry are all lending to this turn in the tides form psychopathy as a mental illness to psychopathy as a unique personality.SummaryPsychopathy is a distinct personality variation. In psychology, psychopathy is referred to as a personality disorder, often associated with criminal behaviour, however researchers are now arguing that psychopathy is a neurological variation.Researchers in the area of psychopathy have stated that psychopathy does not equal ASPD, but that ASPD is a behavior that may co-occur in some with psychopathy.The preferred method of assessment is no longer the PCL-R, but instead is now the PPI-R. It is intended to measure the psychopathic personality traits on a spectrum, without assuming particular links to antisocial or criminal behaviors. The test has been standardized to a non-prison population.Emerging research in genetics shows that MAOA-L has a significant role in psychopathy, however psychopathy is polygenetic, and it is the interplay of the genes and the effects of the environment that creates the person.Brain scan images demonstrate a smaller amygdala, a lower activity PFC, and a down-regulated pathway between the two in psychopathy, along with other brain changes.Areas such as the insula and nucleus accumbens are also different in psychopathy. An increased amount of dopamine is released in psychopathy in comparison with neurotypicals. Serotonin levels and oxytocin levels are lower in psychopathy.References:Buades-Rotger, M., & Gallardo-Pujol, D. (2014). The role of the monoamine oxidase A gene in moderating the response to adversity and associated antisocial behavior: a review. Psychology research and behavior management, 7, 185.Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., ... & Poulton, R. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297(5582), 851–854Dutton, K., & McNab, A. (2014). The Good Psychopath's Guide to Success. Random House.Viding, E., Hanscombe, K. B., Curtis, C. J., Davis, O. S., Meaburn, E. L., & Plomin, R. (2010). In search of genes associated with risk for psychopathic tendencies in children: a two‐stage genome‐wide association study of pooled DNA. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 51(7), 780–788.Sources:http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3230167/Is-child-psychopath-Traits-lack-emotion-empathy-detected-just-THREE-years-old.htmlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4124068/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763410001181https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2933872/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23874384?dopt=Abstracthttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23874384?dopt=Abstracthttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21208749?dopt=Abstracthttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22357335?dopt=Abstracthttp://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0065789http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/ten-years-ago-today-it-was-revealed-that-the-human-genome-had-been-decoded-a-medical-revolution-2011016.htmlhttp://www.bremertonschools.org/cms/lib/WA01001541/Centricity/Domain/222/Psychopaths%20How%20Can%20You%20Spot%20Once%20article%201415.pdfhttp://moritzlaw.osu.edu/osjcl/Articles/Volume3_2/Symposium/Fallon-PDF-03-29-06.pdfhttp://www.businessinsider.com/what-a-psychopath-brain-looks-like-2015-7http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982215005953http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235213000238http://psychnews.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/pn.45.9.psychnews_45_9_022https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3603572/http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/48/17348http://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/releases/the-dark-side-of-oxytocin.html#.WLQ_qhLyuRshttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/232579271_Psychic_blindness_and_other_symptoms_following_bilateral_temporal_lobectomy_in_Rhesus_monkeyshttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1458834/Edits:From Q&A in commentsQuestion 2. from: Martin Silvertant“You need both the genes and changes in brain pattern to result in psychopathy. By themselves neither will result in psychopathy.”Could you elaborate on this? What would one without the other do?Martin SilvertantEpigenetics has the potential to explain various biological phenomena that have heretofore defied complete explication. Ultimately, the environment presents these various factors to the individual that influence the epigenome, and the unique epigenetic and genetic profile of each individual also modulates the specific response to these factors. During the course of human life, we are exposed to an environment that abounds with a potent and dynamic milieu capable of triggering chemical changes that activate or silence genes. There is constant interaction between the external and internal environments that is required for normal development and health maintenance as well as for influencing disease load and resistance. For example, exposure to pharmaceutical and toxic chemicals, diet, stress, exercise, and other environmental factors are capable of eliciting positive or negative epigenetic modifications with lasting effects on development, metabolism and health. These can impact the body so profoundly as to permanently alter the epigenetic profile of an individual. We also present a comprehensive new hypothesis of how these diverse environmental factors cause both direct and indirect epigenetic changes and how this knowledge can ultimately be used to improve personalized medicine.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4207041/Answer: Athena Walker & Natalie EngelbrechtEpigenetics is revolutionizing how scientists think about genetics. Epigenetics refers to external changes to DNA that turn genes “on” or “off” without altering the DNA sequence. Gene expression—the manifestation of genetic potential—is modified in epigenetic processes, even though the gene itself stays intact.The research indicates:gene + brain changes =psychopathygene + 0 brain changes = NT who has increased resilience to stress (monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)-COMT interaction that affects endocrine responses to a psychological challenge)https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2833107/#R580 + brain changes = pseudopsychopathy; brain changes due to early (teen) drug abuse, trauma, etc.Question 4. from: Martin Silvertant“As psychopathy is inherited and not caused by environmental triggers such as abuse, the word variant may be a better alternative, and lead to less bias.”I agree dysfunctional is not a proper term to describe psychopathy, although it seems that should depend on whether the individual is leading a dysfunctional life. Perhaps you would rather assign that term to ASPD than psychopathy in that case. However, in Athena’s answer you spoke of disorder not being a proper term, and I’m not sure I can agree with that. It depends on how you contextualize it. A disorder seems to be defined as a “disruption of the systematic functioning or neat arrangement of” the brain, so when compared to a neurotypical I reckon psychopathy can be defined as a disorder, though that term may not be meaningful to the individual. On the other hand, I wonder if the psychopath’s feelings on this matter are relevant, as by definition they would not experience their pathology as a disorder. For me as an autistic individual it’s different, because I struggle where Athena would not. Not struggle in the same sense, in any case, my autism is likely inherited as well. Should autism then be considered a variant? I don’t quite follow this line of reasoning. I understand you want to prevent bias, but I fail to see how calling it a variant is making a difference, or describing it more accurately. Variant, disorder, dysfunction—it’s a deviation from neurotypical functioning, either way.Martin SilvertantAnswer: Athena Walker & Natalie EngelbrechtThe answer to Q&A #3 (located on Athena’s post, answers this question. It has been copied here for ease).The issue with conflation rests not here in the paper, but in the very dilemma that psychopathy faces currently as to what it is, and how it should be considered. So long as the argument can be made that the majority of the people with this variant should be defined by the minority that have antisocial traits as a core feature of their personality, the conflation cannot and will not disappear.The word at its root, psychopathy is not an informative word for the neurological condition, and yet it is the one that we are constrained by. The word originates from Greek psycho- , meaning and spirit, soul, mind; and -pathy again Greek, where it meant “suffering,” “feeling” ( antipathy; sympathy); in compound words of modern formation, often used with the meaning “morbid affection,” “disease”. So the very word means mind disease. The issue of course other than it’s very definition being related back to a disorder, it that there is no differentiation between those that are identified for their actions that are antisocial, and those that will never see the inside of a courtroom.What’s to be done about this? At the moment there is little that can be done without a consensus that the word is inadequate to describe something that is a neurological formation without the assumed standardized criminal features. I think it is appropriate that the word psychopathy stay along with the notion of the brain formation that includes the antisocial manifestations and another, more accurate term be found to address what is being called pro-social psychopathy presently. It cannot be ignored that the majority of the understanding directed at psychopathy is from the side that views it as a disorder, a malfunction, and something that at it’s core is a toxic entity. The newest voice is the smallest, and easily shouted down currently in terms of it being taken seriously. Anything other than disorder, disruption or variant, it’s a conflation, that at its inception is a beleaguered castle. New terminology stands against the ramparts of the old mentality, while the accepted understandings assault new information. Not for being wrong, but for the crime of disagreement.If we look throughout history, we see many people prosecuted for what the masses disagree with. For example Pope Paul V ordered Galileo,to abandon the opinion that heliocentrism (the planets revolve around the sun) was physically true. Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition. He remained under house arrest for the rest of his life.Helicobacter pylori, or H. Pylori is the cause of ulcers. This is known medical science that seems to go without question. This was not always the case. Back in the late seventies when this was a thought in two doctors’ minds, and they pressed forward to have it be accepted into general medical understanding when they hit an absolute stone wall. Their theory called preposterous and the paper that they wrote with their findings was rejected. It took many years, and one of the two doctors to do the unthinkable, make himself the human guinea pig ingesting a drink infested with the bacteria, and having an ulcer as the result. In time with dogged determination their theory was proven to the rest of the world. In 2005 Barry Marshall and Robin Warren won the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine delivering a permanent blow to the established assumptions regarding the human body.Operations without anesthetic:, Letter by an Dr. George Wilson , Edinburgh doctor in the 1850’s to the prominent advocate of anaesthesia, the famous obstetrician, Dr Simpson.Pain was not just an unavoidable side effect of surgery. Most surgeons operating in a pre-anaesthetic era believed it was a vital stimulant necessary for keeping the patient alive. This is why opiates and alcohol were used sparingly, and typically administered shortly before (not during) a procedure, as the loss of consciousness was considered to be extremely dangerous.George Wilson—a Professor of Chemistry at Edinburgh University—underwent a foot amputation in 1842. He remembered ‘the fingering of the sawed bone; the sponge pressed on the flap; the tying of the blood-vessels; the stitching of the skin; and the bloody dismembered limb lying on the floor’.“I have recently read, with mingled sadness and surprise, the declarations of some surgeons that anesthetics are needless luxuries, and that unendurable agony is the best of tonics. Those surgeons I think can scarcely have been patients of Those surgeons, I think, can scarcely have been patients of their brother surgeons, and jest at scars only because they have never felt a wound; but if they remain enemies of anesthetics after what you have written, I despair of convincing them of their utility.” (p 210)“Of the agony it occasioned, I will say nothing. Suffering so great as I underwent cannot be expressed in words, and thus fortunately cannot be recalled. The particular pangs are now forgotten; but the black whirlwind of emotion the horror of the black whirlwind of emotion, the horror of great darkness, and the sense of desertion by God and man, bordering close upon despair, which swept through my mind and overwhelmed my heart, I can never forget, however gladly I would do so I would do so.” (p 211)“For a long time they haunted me, and even now For a long time they haunted me, and even now they are easily resuscitated they are easily resuscitated; and though they ; and though they cannot bring back the suffering attending the cannot bring back the suffering attending the events which gave them a place in my memory, they can occasion a suffering of their own, and be the cause of a disquiet which favours neither the cause of a disquiet which favours neither mental or bodily health mental or bodily health... (p 214) ... (p 214)The static mindset of many in the medical and psychological communities can be the largest barrier in the advancement of knowledge. How this status quo is allowed to go on is something difficult to grasp. Like a great Orobus consuming itself, it is a chain that needs breaking so new ground can be broken. For the moment however we have a stalemate that has been reached.Standing in their concrete shoes, many on the psychological side refuse to give an inch. Redefining, reeducating, and rebranding the brain formation as a variant, instead of either a disorder or a disruption would make a good deal of headway in the more moderate community that is unaware that there is even a war happening. Those that are steadfast and stubborn will be cleared away in time, and hopefully more level headed and logical replacements, with cross field interests take their place to provide a clearer ground for understanding. First however, the bloated corpse of ASPD needs to be cleared off the battlefield before a step towards a truce can be made.Athena Walker & Natalie EngelbrechtQuestion 6. from: Martin Silvertant“Associated with autistic psychopathy”My goodness. Why would you use such a long-depreciated term that risks being conflated with psychopathy? Is there a reason why you’re not calling it Asperger’s syndrome or high-functioning autism?Martin SilvertantAnswer: Athena Walker & Natalie EngelbrechtThe term autistic psychopathy was formerly used to mean Asperger’s, however in the literature it now literally means ASPD + Autism. We will likely remove that gene from the final paper as it is referring to ASPD, not psychopathy.Question 8. from: Martin Silvertant“Even Kevin Dutton who dared to find positive aspects of psychopathy and lectures on it is called a maverick. He is a tenured psychology research professor at Oxford University, one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Despite this he is not only ignored, but often attempts to dismiss his work over understanding is the norm.”So when you say “the preferred method of assessment is no longer the PCL-R”, you mean according to Dutton and Blair, right? If so, I would say you are probably mischaracterizing the field. I understand this is where the assessment criteria should be headed, but to my knowledge it’s not (yet) the preferred method of assessment.Martin SilvertantAnswer: Athena Walker & Natalie EngelbrechtThe preferred method for diagnosing what is known as Psychopathy. The PCL-R works well for Psychopathy with ASPD. The PCL-R is never used outside prison walls. It is an assessment meant for use only on the criminal population and is far-leaning to antisocial traits over psychopathic traits. It has garnered a great deal of criticism for this, and its sister test, the PCL-SV is not honed much better for a non-criminal population.