Masters College 1098: Fill & Download for Free

Well, that would depend on the books and on the period they purportedly describe. I can only speak to common misconceptions about women in my period of expertise, the High Middle Ages, particularly in England, France and the Crusader States.Let me debunk just four of the most common myths about women in the Middle Ages.Myth 1: Women were ChattelsThe persistence of this notion is incomprehensible to me as it was very patently NOT true. Indeed, as the noted French historian Regine Pernoud makes exquisitely clear in her comprehensive book on the subject, Women in the Days of the Cathedrals (Ignatius, 1969) women in the Middle Ages enjoyed substantially more status and legal rights than women in the so-called Renaissance and Early Modern periods -- indeed until the 20th century.It is true that they did not enjoy the same rights and privileges as 21st-century women in advanced, post-industrial, Western societies, but they were not at any time in medieval Europe (500 – 1500 AD) “chattels.”Let me start by reminding you what the word chattel means. Webster’s Dictionary, Second College Edition, states that a chattel is: “a movable item of personal property, as a piece of furniture, an automobile, a head of livestock.” In short, a chattel is by definition property, an object without rights. It is something that can be disposed of, sold, or destroyed by the owner. Humans who are property are called slaves. Women in Medieval Europe were not slaves—of their husbands or anyone else. Period.These women -- sold at auction by ISIS -- are "chattels." This was unimaginable in the Christian Middle Ages!Myth 2: Women in the Middle Ages had no Political PowerNon-historians are inclined to assume that progress is linear. Since women did not obtain the right to vote in major democracies until the early 20th century, the assumption is that before the 20th century women had no rights. This is simply false.Women in the Middle Ages enjoyed higher status and power compared to antiquity and the renaissance and early modern periods because of two factors that formed the very basis of medieval society: 1) Christianity and 2) Feudalism.Christianity accorded women unprecedented status because it eliminated polygamy and divorce, while elevating women from sexual objects to spiritual beings. It also recognized women as souls — equal in the eyes of God.Women nowadays are far too quick to scream “misogyny” at the Catholic church without looking at the context. Obviously, medieval women did not instantly gain “equal rights,” but — as should be obvious today — it is a long, hard struggle for oppressed people to improve their status, and most improvements come incrementally.It is a fundamental fact that nothing degrades or devalues women more than polygamy. Fatima Mernisse (a Muslim Professor of Sociology) noted that: “Polygamy…enhances men’s perception of themselves as primarily sexual beings and emphasizes the sexual nature of the conjugal unit. Moreover, polygamy is a way for the man to humiliate the woman…. ‘Debase a woman by bringing in another one in [to the house].’” (Mernissi, p. 48) The Christian Church diligently opposed polygamy and succeeded in eliminating it from Christian society before the start of the Middle Ages.Likewise, divorce in pre-industrial societies disproportionately benefits men and harms women. It was (and still is) used overwhelmingly by men, almost never by women. Divorce in ancient societies enabled men (but not women) to discard partners who had grown old, fat, less attractive or simply failed to produce children. In the absence of polygamy, which allows men to add another wife to replace the one they’ve grown tired of, divorce was the best way for men to ensure their personal satisfaction with their sexual partner at little personal cost.The fate of most repudiated wives, on the other hand, was (and still is) dismal. The Church’s stand against divorce forced men to start looking at women not as disposable sexual objects but as life-long partners — for better and for worse, for richer and for poorer….Feudalism raised the status of women because power derived through hereditary titles to land. Simplified: in feudalism class was more important than gender.What this meant in practical terms was that although the society often gave precedence to the firstborn son over his brothers, and to sons before the daughters, it nevertheless gave the daughters precedence over cousins and illegitimate children of either sex, much less individuals without any blood relationship to the hereditary lord.Bonds of marriage, furthermore, were considered “blood-ties,” meaning that wives were given very powerful rights over property, which in turn gave them control over the vassals, tenants, servants and serfs that went with the land. In practice, the feudal focus on blood-ties and land meant that in the absence of a male, whether temporarily or permanently, females exercised the same authority as the absent male. In other words, in a hierarchical society such as feudalism, class trumped gender. Thus, while women were to a degree subject to men of their own class, they nevertheless had a higher standing and more power than men of any lower class.At the pinnacle of feudal society, queens were anointed and crowned because they were expected to exercise authority over the entire kingdom, and so the blessings of the Divine were deemed essential. This was not a nominal nor ceremonial power. When a king died leaving a minor child as his heir, it was normal for the child’s mother to act as regent.Even more significant, across most of Europe women could be barons in the sense that they could both give and receive feudal oaths. The importance of this cannot be over stated: feudal oaths were the very basis of feudal society, they were the mortar that held society together, the social contract that made feudalism function. The recognition of a woman as a vassal and a lord ― not in her capacity as a man’s wife or daughter but in her own right ― entailed recognizing her as a fully independent legal entity. This was unthinkable under Roman or Athenian law, and, sadly, was not the case in the France from the 16th to the 20th century!As noted above, women were lords in the absence of males capable of representing their particular barony/fiefdom, but the essential point is that they were recognized as being capable of holding a title and the lands that went with it. Eleanor of Aquitaine held the Duchy of Aquitaine in her own right, and her vassals (powerful and militant barons for the most part) paid homage to her ― not to either of her royal husbands. The same is true of countless other women in the Middle Ages from Countesses of Flanders and Burgundy in France to Joan, Countess of Kent, in England. There were many, many others. In depth studies of specific lordships in France such as Troyes in the Champagne, for example, show that women held 58 of a total of 160 fiefs held directly (as opposed to being property of a higher lord, administrated by an appointee). (Pernoud, p. 180.) This suggests that women inherited at a rate of slightly better than one out of three.Not only did women hold the titles, they controlled the lands and commanded the men and women that went with them. One of my favorite stories in that of the “Keeper of the King’s Forrest” and Constable of Lincoln in 1217 ― a certain Nicholaa, who Austin Hernon has brought wonderfully to life in his well-researched novel The Women Who Saved England. She defended the castle of Lincoln against forces attempting to put the King of France on England’s throne during the minority of Henry III. She withstood multiple assaults, commanding the men of the garrison in person. But there are literally countless cases of women holding and defending castles against siege and storm.Last but not least, no description of political power in the Middle Ages would be complete without noting that the emergence of nuns and convents in the 5th century AD opened completely new opportunities for women. Convents were centers of learning, music, and illumination. The Order of the Hospital also offered women careers in social work and medical care ― not to mention an opportunity to travel to the Holy Land.Critical to understanding these institutions is to note that they were self-governing, so that women were not subject to any men inside the community, and ― often completely overlooked ― in many double foundations (monastery and convent side-by-side) the Abbess ruled over the men as well as the women. What this means is that monks entering the monastery took their vows to the abbess ― not the abbot. Finally, although such power is indirect, many abbesses enjoyed great influence outside the walls of the convent. As women of recognized learning and wisdom, some of the greater abbesses such as Agnes of Poitiers, Mathilda of Fontevrault, or Hildegard von Bingen, corresponded with popes, emperors and kings.Myth 3: Women had no control over wealth and could not have professions, businesses or careersNothing gives women more power and status than wealth. In societies where women cannot own property (e.g. ancient Athens) they are not only powerless to take their fate into their own hands in an emergency, they are also generally viewed by men as worthless. Where women can possess, pass-on, and control wealth, they enjoy independence, respect and are viewed (and coveted) not only as sexual objects but as contributors to a man’s status and fortune (e.g. ancient Sparta).Medieval women across Europe could inherit, own and dispose of property. The laws obviously varied from realm to realm and over time, but the fundamental right of women to inherit was widespread and reached from the top of society (women could in many but not all realms bequeath kingdoms) to the bottom, where peasant women could also inherit and transmit the hereditary rights to their father’s lands, mill or shop.Significantly, it was not only heiresses that enjoyed property and the benefits thereof. On the contrary, every noblewoman received land from her husband’s estate at marriage called a “dower.”A dower is not to be confused with the dowry. A dowry was not an inheritance. It was property that a maiden took with her into her marriage. Negotiated between families before a marriage, dowries were usually land. Royal brides brought entire lordships into their marriage (e.g. the Vexin), but the lesser lords might bestow a manor or two and the daughters of gentry might bring a mill or the like to their husbands. Even peasant girls might call a pasture or orchard their dowry. The key thing to remember about dowries, however, is that they were not the property of the bride. They passed from her guardian to her husband.Dowers, on the other hand, were women’s property. In the early Middle Ages, dowers were inalienable land bestowed on a wife at the time of her marriage. A woman owned and controlled her dower property, and she retained complete control of this property not only after her husband’s death, but even if her husband were to fall foul of the king, be attained for treason, and forfeit his own land and titles.Whatever the source of a woman's wealth, in Medieval France, England and Outremer, women did not need their husband’s permission or consent to dispose over their own property. There are thousands of medieval deeds that make this point. While it was common to include spouses and children on deeds, this was a courtesy that increased the value of the deed rather than a legal necessity ― and that principle applied to men as well as women. Thus many deeds issued by kings and lords included wives and children as witnesses as a means of demonstrating that the grant or sale was known to their co-owners/heirs.Middle-class women could inherit whole businesses, and as widows they ran these businesses, representing them in the respective guilds. Indeed, most wives were active in their husband's business while he was still alive. Manuscript illustrations show, for example, a women bankers (collecting loans, while the husband gives them out), and "alewives" -- including women in helmets bringing refreshment to archers engaged in a battle!More important, however, women could learn and engage in trades and business on their own. They could do this as widows, as single, unmarried women (femme sole) or as married women, running a separate business from that of their husbands. The skills acquired, even more than property, fostered economic independence and empowerment because property can be lost — in a fire, an invasion, from imprudence and debt — but skills are mobile and enduring, as long as one remains healthy enough to pursue one’s profession. Furthermore, once qualified in a trade, women took part in the administration of their respective profession, both as guild-members and on industrial tribunals that investigated allegations of fraud, malpractice and the like. In short, there was no discrimination against qualified women engaged in a specific trade.Furthermore, women in the Middle Ages could learn a variety of trades. Some trades were dominated by women, for example, in England brewing, in France baking, and almost everywhere silk-making. However, women were also very frequently shopkeepers, selling everything from fruit and vegetables (not very lucrative) to spices and books. In addition, women could be, among other things, confectioners, candle-makers, cobblers, and buckle-makers. Women could also be musicians, copiers, illuminators, and painters, though I have not come across references to women sculptors. More surprising to modern readers, medieval records (usually tax rolls) also list women coppersmiths, goldsmiths, locksmiths, and armorers. A survey of registered trades in Frankfurt for the period from 1320 to 1500 shows that of a total 154 trades, 35 were reserved for women, but the remainder were practiced by both men and women, although men dominated in 81 of these.Notably, in the early Middle Ages women could be medical practitioners. All midwives were women, of course, and sisters of the Hospital provided most of the care for women patients, but women could also be barbers (who performed many medical procedures such as blood-letting), apothecaries, surgeons, and physicians. A female doctor, for example, accompanied King Louis IX on crusade in the mid-13th century. Women learned these trades in the traditional way, by apprenticing with someone already practicing the profession, who was willing to take them on. It wasn't until the 14th century that universities imposed the exclusive right to certify physicians -- while excluding women from universities.Myth 4: Women in the Middle Ages were Illiterate or only Poorly EducatedAfter wealth, education is arguably the most powerful means of empowerment. As noted above, professional skills were mobile and endowed women with independence and self-respect. Turning to “book-learning” rather than practical, professional skills, it is still common to impute ignorance to people in the Middle Ages generally, and even more common to assume that women were not generally literate.Certainly, literacy was not as widespread or common in the Middle Ages as it is today. There was no requirement to attend school, and for the poor, the need to work from a very early age made schooling a luxury. It was possible to learn a trade by watching and listening to a master, rather than reading texts. Thus for a significant portion of society at the lower end of the social scale, reading and writing was neither a necessity nor particularly valuable.Yet, as with everything in feudal society, class more than gender determined whether a person was likely to be literate or not. Among the classes that valued and required higher levels of education, women were as likely to be educated as their brothers and husbands. In the early Middle Ages among the upper classes, some historians argue, women were more likely to read and write than their husbands and brothers, simply because their men were too busy fighting. Women, on the other hand, were expected to provide a basic education to children and maintain control of the estates by doing the book-keeping and correspondence.For merchants or skilled craftsmen running a business, the support of wives in keeping the books, conducting correspondence, collecting arrears, etc. was vital. Recognizing this, burghers ensured that their daughters were sufficiently literate and numerate to carry out these tasks ― or they risked having unmarriageable daughters.Noblewomen, likewise, needed to be literate and numerate in order to manage their own and their husband’s property. In fact, even in the later Middle Ages the everyday management of a household and estate generally fell to the lady of the house, since men were often engaged in warfare and politics, activities that took them away from their estates, sometimes for extended periods. The higher their status, the higher the level of education expected. Noblewomen could usually correspond in both their own language and Latin. They were frequent patrons of the arts, owners of books, and in some cases authors as well. It is no coincidence that Eleanor of Aquitaine’s tomb shows her reading a book, while her daughter Marie of Champagne was the patroness of Chrétien de Troyes and it was to her that he dedicated some of his greatest works such as Yvain, or The Knight with the Lion.Finally, women who chose a religious vocation chose a lifestyle that revolved around reading, writing, copying and illustrating Holy Scripture and more. The most highly educated women of the Middle Ages were, therefore, often found inside convents. Furthermore, by their work copying and illuminating manuscripts, nuns played a key role (along with monks) in preserving knowledge both sacred and secular, and in their role as educators, they were instrumental in spreading literacy to others.The latter point is particularly important because it was only the wealthy that could afford to retain tutors for the education of their young. (Household accounts, incidentally, sometimes list women as tutors.) Thus education often fell to parents, who might not have the necessary time, inclination or talent for the task. Yet, it is evident that starting at least by the 6th century AD convents and monasteries across Europe offered education to children. Interestingly, the sexes were not always segregated when very young; little boys were often entrusted to the care of nuns and only later sent to monasteries or given secular education as pages and squires. Alternatively, particularly bright girls might be sent to monasteries to learn more or be trained in particular skills such as singing or illumination. Also notable is anecdotal evidence of education in the convents being affordable as there are references to poor children attending them.The most dramatic evidence of female education in the Middle Ages, however, is provided by the large number of women who were authors of important works. A certain noblewoman, Dhuoda, for example, wrote an extensive and erudite treatise on education in or about 842; the book is full of biblical and other references that indicate this “ordinary” noblewoman was herself very well read (and incidentally very busy). In 965, a certain Hroswitha composed a long epic poem of Otto I. In the 12th century, there was Heloise, famous, unfortunately, more for her affair with Abelard than the fact that she was accounted a brilliant scholar in Latin, Greek and Hebrew before she even met him. In the 15th century, there was the poet Christine de Pisan who in the early 15th century took on the University of Paris, mocking their misogyny.Above Christine de Pisan with her SonMy personal favorite among the women of letters of the Middle Ages was Hildegard von Bingen. She was born in 1098 and died in 1179. She joined a convent at eight, took the veil at 15 and was abbess from 1136 onwards. She had visions, as she describes them:Through God’s goodness, my soul sometimes surges up to the heights of the heavens and the air and sometimes wanders among different peoples, although they live in far regions and unknown places…I see them only in my soul, and the eyes of my body remain open, for I have never fainted in ecstasy. I see them awake night and day…The light that I see is not local, but infinitely more brilliant than the light that surrounds the sun.” (Cited in Pernoud, p. 43)Yet for all her mystical visions, she remained a highly practical woman who wrote books on “simple” and “composite” medicine, books on linguistics, and also composed music (which can be found on the internet today.)Furthermore, returning to my thesis on women wielding political power (See above), she corresponded with all the important rulers of her day from Pope Eugene III to Friedrich Barbarossa and St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Hildegard, in short, was recognized as an intellectual and spiritual giant even by individuals themselves revered for their learning, power, and spirituality.The female characters in my novels set in the Middle Ages reflect the above realities. For more about my award-winning novels see: Helena P. Schrader, Historian and Novelist

The main Hub are Toronto, Vancouver, Montreal, Moncton & Fredericton New Brunswick, Halifax NS, St-John Newfound Land Manitoba, Saskatchewan, & Alberta ( Some Quebec & New Brunswick universities offer courses in french)https://www.hotcoursesabroad.com/study/canada/school-college-university/brandon-university/413944/international.html?fromSR=Y&crseCount=1&catDispName=Mechanical+Engineering&collegeId=413944&countryId=32&catCode=G6-3&nationCode=32&nationCntryCode=32&countryId=321-Brandon University MANITOBA is the Lowest cost University in Canada Brandon University-2-Memorial University New Found landNewfoundland and Labrador’s UniversityBrandon University’s tuition rates are among the most affordable in the country.Brandon University Tuition FeeBrandon University was established in 1889 and is one of the cheapest Canadian university with low tuition fees in arts, science, education, music, and nursing. There are 3,000 undergraduate students currently attend Brandon University, and you can become one too!Brandon University270-18th StreetBrandon, ManitobaR7A 6A9CANADAGeneral Phone NumbersVoice: (204) 728-9520Fax: (204) 726-4573E-Mail AddressesAdmissions: [email protected] Admissions if you want to apply to Brandon University, or if you’re looking for information on applying.Financial and Registration Services: [email protected] Financial & Registration Services to procure a transcript or for information about course fees or registration.Saint Paul University Ottawa / $5000 to $6000+161323661393Memorial University of NewfoundlandUndergraduate TuitionGraduate TuitionMemorial University of Newfoundland is a relatively easier Canadian university to be admitted because its admission rate of 66.8% admission rate. Also, this university is popular especially to international students because it is a cheap university in Canada. Its medicine, education, and geology departments are one of the best in Canada, so students interested in these fields should definitely apply.University of Prince Edward IslandTuition LinkUniversity of Prince Edward Island is one of the cheapest universities in Canada for international students. Its campus is beautiful and has around 130 acres of land. Students attending this university can study in various departments including veterinary medicine, chemistry, and physicsTuition LinkUniversity of Prince Edward Island is one of the cheapest universities in Canada for international students. Its campus is beautiful and has around 130 acres of land. Students attending this university can study in various departments including veterinary medicine, chemistry, and physicsLow Tuition Universities in Canada with Tuition Fees from $5000 to $16000Canada has a quite simple colony of international students.CANADA Popular among International Students?First, international students are attracted to the high rankings of Canadian universities and colleges. While the education system in Canada is excellent, it is cheaper compared to those in other developed countries such as USA and United Kingdom.Second, international students wish to study in Canada is the beautiful nature in Canada. This country is known for its beauty and has fascinating animals and plants. Since places like Vancouver, Quebec, and Nova Scotia are famous tourist attractions, many international students wish to study in Canada to sightsee and view the beautiful and magnificent nature.Third, Canadian universities and colleges offer undergraduate, Master’s, and PhD programs with an affordable tuition. Also, professional degrees such as MBA and Medical doctors can be obtained by paying affordable tuition fees. I need to state that these tuition figures change according to your major, so numbers are an average. I have included the tuition links to the official websites, so you can look up specific tuition fees for your major!ConclusionThis is a great list of all the cheap Canadian universities. However, this cheap tuition fees can be even lowered by scholarships! You definitely should check out the list at Canada Archives or Canada Scholarships Website if you want to have the possibility of studying in Canada for free.[ If you cannot afford to study in places like USA, Australia and UK where the tuition fees are high, you can study in Canadian low tuition universities. It might interest you to know that some universities in Canada charge very low tuition fees for international students. These tuition fees fall in the range of $5,000 to $10,000 per year for undergraduate, master and doctorate degree programs.Today, I will like to provide an updated list of these low tuition universities with their current tuition fees and contact information. ]Cost of living refers the amount of money an individual needs to take care of his/her expenses like feeding, accommodation, transportation etc in a particular period of time. In Canada, a student needs approximately $600 to $800 a month for his/her living expenses. This amount will take care of expenses such as feeding, buying of books, transportation etc. Please find below a breakdown of the cost of living in Canada for students:Accommodation (bedroom apartment) – $400 approximately per month. Shared can be less ;Bus Metro pass $50 monthCellular $ 50Internet high speed $65.Average restaurant meal – $10 – $25 per personMovies – $8.50 – $13Books and supplies – $1000 per yearGroceries – $250 – $400 per monthMedical Insurance $ 550. ( depending on the Province )So you can see from this breakdown that a student needs approximately $600 to $800 a month to live in Canada. Please note that these figures are estimated, a student can live on less or more depending on his/her spending habit.The main Hub are Toronto, Vancouver, Montreal, Moncton & Fredericton New Brunswick, Halifax NS, St-John Newfound Land Manitoba, Saskatchewan, & Alberta ( Some Quebec & New Brunswick universities offer courses in french)Most are based in the Old Canada constitution; as per University Magasine[ It’s a confusing post-secondary landscape out there, with universities that are home to colleges and colleges becoming universities. Then there are the polytechnics. A true polytechnic offers four-year bachelor’s degrees, but isn’t a university. It offers apprenticeship programs and on-the-job learning, but isn’t a community college. The wrong thing to do would be to go by the name. ]Mc Gill University Montreal CWUR World University Rankings 2018-2019[ Some go with “institute,” while one, Sakatchewan Polytechnic, tells it like it is. Ontario’s Sheridan College and Humber College tack on “Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning” on their names, while Seneca is a college of applied arts and technology. What it boils down to is that polytechnic schools don’t try to teach everything to everyone, unlike, say, a college, which has to serve the community and accommodate everyone, including students who want to do two years at college, then transfer to university to continue their education.][ “You don’t go here to study psychology or sociology or ancient history, as vital as those may be,” explains Nobina Robinson, CEO of Polytechnics Canada, a member-funded association that conducts research, development and analysis. “You go to Sheridan because they’re world leaders in animation arts. You attend Seneca to do their bachelor’s in open-source-software technical development, because they’re working with Mozilla and Firefox.”][ Polytechnics teach theory, but “in a way that’s more sticky,” says Glenn Feltham, president of the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology. He calls it competency-based education, and points to engineering programs at universities as an example of how far removed some disciplines have gone from their practical roots. ]HEC Polytechnique Montreal ( FRENCH )[ Polytechnics also have a very close relationship with businesses, and their research is all about solving problems that businesses bring to them. At the Humber Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning in Toronto, they offer “the practical education that’s going to make students job-ready,” says president Chris Whitaker. “Meeting the needs of industry and employers, that’s something that we’re very focused on.”][ Polytechnics engage in research, just like universities, but with a different approach. At Humber, it’s all about “helping small- and medium-sized businesses find solutions to challenges in their business, and it’s really an extension of the learning environment,” says Whitaker.]Dalhousie New Brunswick medical hospital[ According to Robinson, having the curricula designed with employers and industry sectors in mind, combined with a strong focus on graduate employment outcomes, makes polytechnic schools a solution for the massive social and economic challenge of youth underemployment, at 33 per cent, and youth unemployment, now at roughly 15 per cent.She says they play a crucial role in education right now, as Canada’s workforce ages and employers complain that entry-level workers don’t have the skills for the jobs. At the same time, these employers are not investing in entry-level training and have “been using a bachelor’s degree as an HR filter.”][ For that reason, Thomas Carey, a Vancouver-based supporter of undergrad education, sees polytechnic education only growing. “Ultimately, it’s the outcomes that matter: what our students are able to do [in the workplace].”Whitaker thinks the polytechnic is the education model of the future. “It’s one that students want; it’s one that industry wants, and I think it’s a great example of where learning is going.” he says. “So, like all good things, they just catch on and take a life of their own.” ]GRADUATE EMPLOYMENT RATE (within six months of graduation)https://universitymagazine.ca/affordable-cities-canada-students-2018/#1- Windsor Ontario Expand Your Mind#2- Quebec City Quebec French / Universite Laval :https://www.ulaval.ca/#3- Moncton New Brunswick / Université de Moncton#4- Gatineau Quebec French / UQO | Université du Québec en Outaouais english#5-London Ontario / WESTERN UNIVERSITY : Western University#6- Abbotsford BC /University Frazer Valley :/ University of the Fraser Valley (UFV.ca)#7-Tunderbay Ontario /Lakehead University#8-Kitchener Ontario Conestoga College /Your Ontario Community College for Full and Part-time studies#9-Fredericton New Brunswick / University of New Brunswick#10-St-Catherine Ontario /Welcome to Brock University¸#11-Montreal Quebec Concordia University / Concordia International#12-Peterborough Ontario / Trent University /Future Students - Trent University /International Undergraduate#13-Montreal Quebec Mc Gill University /INTERNATIONAL /Graduate fees (Summer 2018)#14-Halifax Nova Scotia /Dalhousie University ‑ Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada#15- Westman Manitoba / Brandon Universty /Brandon University improves in 2018 Maclean’s magazine rankings#16- Memorial University New Found land /Newfoundland and Labrador’s University#17- Ottawa Ontario / ST-Paul University /Tuition fees and scholarships18- Waterloo Ontario University of WaterlooGRADUATE EMPLOYMENT RATE (within six months of graduation)INSTITUTION ENROLMENT ( Quebec Universities not included)GRADUATE EMPLOYMENT RATE (%)Algonquin College, Ottawa /23,386/ 85%British Columbia Institute of Technology, Burnaby, B.C. / 45,097 /82 %Conestoga College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning, Kitchener, Ont. / 17,806 / 87 %George Brown College, Toronto / 33,358 /82 %Humber Institute of Technology & Advanced Learning, Toronto / 41,883 / 83%Northern Alberta Institute of Technology, Edmonton / 29,439 / 92 %Red River College, Winnipeg / 13,766 / 96 %SAIT Polytechnic, Calgary / 24,976 / 94 %Saskatchewan Polytechnic, Saskatoon / 14,465/ 93 %Seneca College, Toronto / 35,991 / 76 %Sheridan College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning, Oakville, Ont / 30,827 / 82 %Polytechnics Canada: Data from 2013-2014 Academic yearCanada Universities list, ( Complete) 100 Universities with linkRanking ,Presence, Impact, Openness, Excellence rankWorld Rank / University / Presence Rank* / Impact Rank* / Openness Rank*/ Excellence Rank#1 / 21 /University of Toronto /177/ 31/ 56 /9#2 /30 / University of British Columbia / 191 /39 / 51 /28#3 / 56/ McGill University / 242 /64 / 41 / 58#4 /64 University of Alberta / 372 / 70 / 34 /74#5 / 97 / University of Waterloo 343/ 76 /183 /166#6 / 102 / University of Calgary / 380/ 102/ 227 /136#7 /127 /Simon Fraser University/ 298/ 67 /109 /303#8 / 133 / McMaster University / 588 / 168 / 17 /158 / 161#9 / Université de Montréal French / 333 / 175 / 101 /205 /10 /169#10 / University of Western Ontario / Western University578 / 180 / 157 / 200 / 11 /184#11 / Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa 571 / 208 / 221 / 212 /12/ 191#12 / University of Victoria British Columbia 534 / 108 / 320/ /364 / 13 /199#13 / Queen's University Kingston 783 / 132 / 167 / 346 / 14 / 218#14 / York University / 370 / 119 /243 / 408 / 15 / 236#15 / Dalhousie University / 849 / 214 / 267 / 299 /16 /246#16 / Université Laval FRENCH / 399 / 263 / 240 /304/ 7 /268#17 / University of Manitoba / 748 / 257 / 356 /318 / 18 / 296#18 / University of Saskatchewan / 725 / 228 / 293 / 407 / 19 /332#19 / University of Guelph / 607 / 249 / 427 / 443 / 20 / 338#20 / Carleton University / 849 / 241 / 315 / 476 / 21 / 390#21 / Concordia University Montréal / 872 / 315 / 447 / 538 / 22 / 416#22 / Université du Québec Montréal FRENCH / 433 / 319 / 507 / 618 / 23 /432#23 / Memorial University of Newfoundland / 948 / 331 / 516 / 632 / 24 / 475#24 / Ryerson University /1313 /369 / 750 / 631 / 25 /522#25 / Université de Sherbrooke FRENCH / 668 / 593 / 536 / 633 / 26 /622#26 / University of Windsor / 1056 / 444 / 636 / 938 / 27 /629#27 / University of New Brunswick / 1402 / 488 / 455 /947 /28 /664#28 / École Polytechnique de Montréal FRENCH / 1701 / 959 / 464 / 691 /29 / 683#29 / University of Regina 1817 / 664 / 634 / 880 / 30 /747#30 / Brock University / 1351 / 628 /978 / 1037 /31 / 882#31 / Wilfrid Laurier University / 2445 / 833 / 859 / 1229 / 32 / 955#32 / University of Lethbridge / 1848 / 963 / 481 / 1431 /33 / 965#33 / Lakehead University / 2207 /1255 / 741 / 1180 / 34 /980#34 / Université du Québec FRENCH / 2570 / 1066 / 9321 / 435 / 35 / 1098#35 / Trent University /2879 / 1140 / 1137 / 1396 / 36 /1106#36 / HEC Montréal École de Gestion FRENCH / 2632 / 1594 / 393 / 1357 / 37 /1127#37 / Université INRS Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique FRENCH3359 / 3304 / 608 / 799 / 38 / 1127#38 / University of Ontario Institute of Technology4208 / 1952 /1021 / 1037 /39 /1139#39 /École de Technologie Supérieure FRENCH / 2666 /1859 / 895 / 1153 / 40 /1165#40 /University of Winnipeg / 3021 / 814 /1478/ 1751 / 41 / 1277#41 /Université du Québec Chicoutimi FRENCH /1486 /1203 /1312 / 1760 / 42 /1367#42 / Saint Francis Xavier University / 3397 / 1267 /1263 / 1841 / 43 / 1383#43 / University of Prince Edward Island / 2970 / 1265 / 1432 / 1875 /44 / 1392#44 /Athabasca University / 2361 / 1069 / 1459 / 2052 / 45 / 1396#45 / Saint Mary's University /3404 / 1463 / 1143 / 1796 / 46 /1430#46 /Acadia University / 3998 / 1054 / 1761 /2044 /47 / 1455#47/ (1) Université Laurentienne / Laurentian University3077 / 1836 / 1344 / 1702 / 48 /1491#48 /University of Northern British Columbia/ 2306 /1513 / 1379 / 1953 / 49 /1578#49 /Université du Québec Trois-Rivieres FRENCH/2947 /2633 /1499 /1586 /50 /1707#50 /Mount Allison University / 5019 / 1506 / 1528 / 2319 / 51 / /1848#51 / Université de Moncton / 2637 / 1914 / 2685 /2271 /52 /2048#52 / Université du Québec Outaouais FRENCH 3781 / 3595 /1465 /2150 /53 /2091#53 /Mount Royal University / 3571 /1804 /2289 /2834 /54 / 2103#54 /Université du Québec Rimouski FRENCH /4743 / 4772 / 1318 / 1869 / 55 /2217#55 /Nipissing University / 3557/ 2205 / 2016 /2897 56//2249#56 /Thompson Rivers University / 3404 / 1633 / 1935 / 3303 /57 / 2435#57 /Mount Saint Vincent University/ 5149 /2257 / 2184 /3226 / 58 /2450#58 /Bishop's University / 5356 / 2289 / 2974 / 3100 / 2559#59 / Royal Roads University 4400 / 2143 /2192 /3414 / 60 /2654#60 / Brandon University / 5040 / 2302 / 2521 / 3593 / 61 / 2657#61 / Université du Québec Abitibi-Temiscamingue FRENCH/ 5460 / 5197 / 1643 / 2669 / 62 / 2663#62 / Cape Breton University / 7030 / 3594 / 2079 / 3100 / 63 / 3073#63 / Royal Military College of Canada / 14090 / 4199 / 8/ 10776 / 1743 / 64 / 3116#64 / Northern Ontario School of Medicine (Laurentian University Lakehead University) / 20889 / 9198 /­ 1985 / 2288 / 65 / 3399#65 / Trinity Western University / 4450 / 2185 / 3213 / 4723 / 66 /3516#66 / Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College /15767 / 7105 / 4795 / 3173 / 67 /3548#67 / British Columbia Institute of Technology /3540 / 1090 / 3007 /5529 /68/4043#68 / Vancouver Island University (Malaspina)2894 / 1291 / 3077 /5974 /69 /4185#69 / University of the Fraser Valley / 3679 / 1580 / 2974 / 5974 / 70 /4267#70 / Algonquin College / 2669 / 1259 / 5601 / 5974 / 71 / 4322#71 / OCAD University (Ontario College of Art & Design)4293 / 1730 / 3576 / 5974 / 72 / 4331#72 / Humber College / 3298 / 1401 / 5284 / 5974 / 73 /4511#73 / Saint Thomas University /6694 / 4650 / 4082 / 5243 /é74 /4556#74 / George Brown College / 5198 / 1884 / 5007 / 5974 / 75 / 4563#75 / MacEwan University (Grant MacEwan College)4358 / 2682 / 2721 / 5974 / 76 / 4641#76 / Sheridan College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning4887 / 2040 / 5231 / 5974 / 77 / 4663#77- / Kwantlen Polytechnic University (Kwantlen University College)3375 / 2420 / 4477 / 5974 /78 / 4821#78 / Seneca College / 3354 / 2099 / 6812 / 5974 / 79 / 4834#79 / Nothern Alberta Institute of Technology /5674 / 2538 / 5277 / 5974 /80 4838#80 / Centennial College Toronto / 4682 / 1847 / 7504 / 5974 / 81 /4857#81 / Okanagan College / 4358 / 762 /5149 / 5974 / 82 / 5166#82 / Conestoga College -6363 -2730 - 7181 - 5974 - 83 - 5177#83 / Tele-Université TÉLUQ FRENCH / 5559 / 4439 / 3256 / 5974 / 84 /5180#84 / Capilano University / 4083 / 3165 / 6521 / 5974 / 85 / 5209#85 / Redeemer University 10170 /6952 / 5617 / 5243 / 86 / 5247#86 / Niagara College / 4947 / 3107 / 6852 / 5974 / 87 / 5331#87 / Langara College / 5586/4258 / 8523 / 5529 / 88 /5421#88 / Douglas College / 5234 / 4210 / 5354 /5974 / 89 / 5440#89 / Dawson College Westmount Montreal/ 5736 / 3661 /6626 / 5974 /90 /5502#90 / Georgian College /5001 /3472 /7403 /5974 /91 / 5532#91 / Algoma University / 5093 / 5828 / 2919 / 5974 / 92 / 5669#92 / Emily Carr University of Art + Design / 4163 / 5082 / 5202 / 5974 /93 /5724#93 / École Nationale d'Administration Publique FRENCH/ 6136 /5861 / 3848 / 5974 /9 /5753#94 / Mohawk College / 5149 / 2552 / 9853 / 5974 / 95 /5756#95 / Nova Scotia Community College 9271/ 4706 / 5779 / 5974 /96 /5829#96 / Concordia University of Edmonton / 9153 / 5361 / 5089 / 5974 / 97 /5840#97 / John Abbott College / 9697 / 5239 / 5286 / 5974 / 98 / 5915#98 / Red Deer College / 5040 / 5005 / 6546 /5974 / 99 / 6050#99 / Yukon College / 10784 / 4144 / 8110 / 5974 / 100 / 6122#100- / Fanshawe College / https://www.fanshawec.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/fees/international18.pdfLow Tuition Universities in Canada with Tuition Fees from $5000 to $16000A- University or college? Polytechnics fall somewhere in between.B-http://www.webometrics.info/en/North_america/CanadaC-https://www.isnpo.org/blog/2017/08/17/list-of-low-tuition-universities-in-canada-for-international-students-with-fees-ranging-from-5000-to-10000/D-Tuition and incidental fees 2018-2019E-22 Cheap Universities in Canada - Scholarships for International Students 2018-2019F-International Student-Deposits, Payments & RefundsG-Tuition and Course related feesH-International Tuition and FeesI-University of Manitoba - -J-Graduate Tuition: Fall/Winter 2018 – 2019K-Tuition and Fees for Graduate StudentsL-Fee CalculatorM-Graduate Studies Tuition and FeesN-https://students.usask.ca/documents/tuition-factsheet.pdfO-Concordia InternationalP-22 Cheap Universities in Canada - Scholarships for International Students 2018-2019Q-Faculty of Graduate Studies and ResearchR-University FeesS-University fees | University of OttawaT-McMaster University - Future StudentsU-Faculty of Graduate Studies and ResearchV-University Rankings 2018: Canada’s top Comprehensive schoolsW-Visa offices outside Canadax-Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada website.Y-Internationalization Office website.Z-Study in Canada: Guide for International Students

§0.1 Preliminary postscript:Decipherment, attribution/completion and English translation of the Latin text fragment have been solved thanks to two other early answers°°, closely followed by mine, see respectively §2.3, 2.1 & 2.4 below.°° A groundbreaking first answer by Christopher Nowak and a near-perfect translation by User-10655465126230970230 which -typically!- got almost no upvotes… Most upvotes have been racked up by a slightly later answer that —without giving any due credits— adroitly merged and summarized the three earlier answers & comments into a bite-sized, fast-snack Wiki-like answer.§0.2 Warning :As my answer refuses to be intellectual fast-food, but is a purposefully drawn-out, very Quora-unlike attempt at “marginal” writing, I structured it into paragraphs, so as to allow my more hasty readers to easily skip the more technical parts :the Drawing : the “trumpet in butt” as a “droll” marginal illustration rather than a real illumination ;the Text : gives the English translation of part of the Latin “Elucidanus” (ca 1098) , attributed to Honorius of Autun. A theological Question& Answer digest of Augustinian predestination theology ;APPENDIX 1 : a “trumpet butt” line from St. Augustine’s City of God (Book 14.24), an unintendedly “droll” text fragment that illustrates (here in English translation) the very dark heart of … puritanism ;APPENDIX 2 : etymological cycle from “farce” to “droll” to “farce”The Drawings§1.1 The “trumpet in butt” drawing in the margin of the Rothschild Canticles (Beinecke MS 404, fol. 134r, see below) probably bears no relation whatsoever to the surrounding Latin text and could be —as most other answers here like to imagine— a bored scribe’s scatological joke …An irreverent joke that has unintentionally turned into an internet ‘clickbait’, thus saving the manuscript and its now unfashionable theological text from utter oblivion, else doomed to be stacked away in a dusty(?) Yale library.Such bizarre and vulgar drawings in the margins (not real ‘illuminations’ but ‘marginalia’ or ‘grotesques’) must have been very common in medieval manuscripts (but … no statistics found).See anthology of : Bizarre and vulgar illustrations from illuminated medieval manuscripts … ‘with lots of butts’.See also florilegium of : Enluminures étranges au Moyen Age … with still more stuff going in or out of arses. (My 5 year-old grandson simply couldn’t get enough of this!)1.2 I myself would venture that the drawings in the margins could be the work of a second ‘scribe’ (or rather of a specialist ‘illuminator’) as they seem a bit too elaborate (and abundant, see §1.3 below) to be just the careless doodle of the same scribe that too hastily (see PRAEFATIO under §2.2) copied the text.Especially as the manuscript MS 404 is allegedly (can someone else substantiate?) from 14th century Flanders where MOST manuscripts …… were no longer made by monks in their ‘cubicle cells’ within monasteries (notwithstanding Umberto Eco’s 1327 illuminator monk Adelmo in ‘The Name of the Rose’, very few monasteries had a dedicated ‘scriptorium’!). Instead, manuscripts were manufactured in two kinds of specialized workshops (each with 1 artisan master, a few journeymen and some apprentices), one of which produced the written portion or Manuscript, while the other produced the images or Illuminations for the Illuminated Manuscript. Moreover, the ‘oil painting on wood technique’ typical for 14th c. Flanders bore enough similarities to the ‘illumination technique’ so that you could easily find painters there doing illumination and vice versa.Above : Rothschild Canticles. Flanders, 14th century. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, MS 404, folio 134r , Yale University.8° ff. 133v-140v: Quid est predestinatio (...). Two excerpts from the Elucidanus attributed to Honorius of Autun, Book II, folio 28-45 (above from folio 35!) & BookIII.27-30; PL 172.1109-76.From : Full text of "Catalogue of medieval and renaissance manuscripts in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University".1.3 At last, I also found the Yale site where you can scroll through all the droll successive pages of the MS 404, and the text-linked illuminations turn out to be far in the minority, as all the margins are brimming with grotesque gargoyle miniatures of monks, monkeys, mongrels, mongoose (ay me!) & other monsters : https://brbl-dl.library.yale.edu/vufind/Record/3432521As an example see the full context of the pages 133-verso and 134-recto, where there is only one rare, real illumination in the body of the text and directly illustrating it : a drawing of a beardless Disciple questioning his bearded Magister over a book.1.4 As the OP (Original Poster) for this question, I had hoped that it could be an illumination of my pet famous farcical line from St. Augustine’s City of God (Book 14.24) :“ …Nonnulli ab imo, sine paedore, ullo ita numerosos pro arbitrio sonitus edunt, ut ex illa etiam parte cantare videantur. …”“Some people from their bottom, without stench, produce at will such musical sounds that they seem to be singing from that region.”1.4 bis, Marginal note : The above-quoted, droll°°, farcical line by St. AugustineI extracted from one of the most interesting texts that ever flowed from the murky heart of puritanism, unintendedly revealing the deep (mostly ‘virile’) fear of loss of control that is always lurking behind it. See the APPENDIX_1 added at the end of my post.°° “drol(l)” : meaning “turd” in my native Dutch (see appendix 2)2. the Text2.1 Thanks to a groundbreaking first answer by Christopher Nowak and a near-perfect translation by User-10655465126230970230 , I could easily google up other text sources and found that our fragment is a copy from Book II folio 35 of the Elucidarium by Honorius of Autun (1098) :ELUCIDARIUM SIVE DIALOGUS DE SUMMA TOTIUS CHRISTIANAE THEOLOGIAE is an encyclopedic work or summa about medieval Christian theology and folk belief, originally written in the late 11th century by Honorius Augustodunensis (i.e. of Autun), influenced by Anselm of Canterbury and John Scotus Eriugena. It was probably complete by 1098. (…)The work is set in the form of a Socratic dialogue between a student, the Disciple (abbrev. D.) and his teacher (abbrev. M.=Magister), divided in three books. (…)The work was very popular from the time of his composition and remained so until the end of the medieval period. The work survives in more than 300 manuscripts of the Latin text. The theological topic is embellished with many loans from the native folklore of England, and was embellished further in later editions and vernacular translations.2.2 Original text in print : the Giles edition 1844The editio princeps (principal edition) of the Elucidarium is that of the Patrologia Latina, vol. 172 (Paris 1895), edited by J.A. Giles 1844, published by Jacques-Paul Migne between 1841 and 1855, with indices published between 1862 and 1865.I found a full printed version on the following sites…The Elucidarium and other tracts in Welsh from Llyvyr agkyr Llandewivrevi A.D. 1346 (Jesus college ms. 119) : Jones, John Morris, Sir, 1864-1929 : Free Download & Streaming : Internet ArchiveOr in searchable text form : Full text of "The Elucidarium and other tracts in Welsh from Llyvyr agkyr Llandewivrevi A.D. 1346 (Jesus college ms. 119)"Skip the translation in medieval Welsh and go to page 198 of the APPENDIX, from the 1844 Giles edition, which corresponds to the editio princeps with additional various readings from Laud MS. 237 in the Bodleian.ELUCIDARIUM SIVE DIALOGUS DE SUMMA TOTIUS CHRISTIANAE THEOLOGIAE (Opp. B. Lanfranci, edit. J. A. Giles, LL.D., F.cclesiae Anglicanae presbyteri, Oxonii 1844, 8", t. II, p. 280.— Exstat quoque in appendice ad Opera S. Anselmi Cantuar., edit. Paris. 1721, curante D. Gerberonio.)i.e. also available in the appendix to the works of Anselm of Canterbury, successor of Lanfranc to the archbishopric of Canterbury.A preface was written by the editor J.A. Gilles in 1844 :PRAEFATIO (PREFACE) : Elucidarium or Dialogues, etc., text which is among the works of Anselmus, with a codex manuscript. Bibl.Reg. Paris. 5134.I compiled accurately. This codex is from the 13th century, ill written and showing signs of a too hasty a scribe. There were however many things that were useful to me for the correction of the text. A. edit. Anselmi Paris. P. cod. MS. Paris. designat . GILES.LIBER PRIMUSD. (=Discipilus) : “Gloriose Magister, rogo ut ad quaesita mihi ne pigriteris respondere.”M.=Magister: “Equidem faciam, quantum mihi vires ipse dabit…”BOOK the FIRSTD. (=Student): “Glorious Master, I beg you to not to delay to respond to my questions …”M. (=Master) : “For my part, I will do as much as I have the strength,…”2.3 Latin text EXTENDED :Here follows an extract from the 1844 Giles edition, page 198 (= folios 34 & 35 of the Welsh Elucidarium).The part overlapping with the photo fragment of our Rothschild Canticles (Beinecke MS 404, fol. 134r) is rendered in bold and the deviations of the Beinecke MS 404 from the 1844 Giles edition are <between angle brackets > : < >.Two words omitted in the Beinecke MS 404 are ((between round brackets)) : ((in eis)) .LIBER SECUNDUS (Second BOOK )(…)(end of folio 34 of the Welsh Elucidarium:)D. (=Discipilus = pupil) : Si nullus potest salvari, nisi praedestinati, ad quid alii creati sunt, vel in quo sunt rei, quod pereant ?— M. (= Magister = Master) : Quidquid praedestinati faciant, perire nequeunt, quia omnia cooperantur illis in bonum, etiam ipsa peccata. Nam post graviora peccata humiliores erunt, et de sua salvatione laudes Deo referent. Reprobi autem propter electos sunt creati, ut per eos in virtutibus exerceantur, et a vitiis corrigantur, et eorum collatione gloriosiores appareant ; et cum eos in tormentis viderint, de sua evasione amplius gaudeant. Qui etiam propter seipsos juste …(start folio 35 : ) … pereunt cum malum sponte sua eligunt, diligunt et volunt <eligant, diligunt et vellent> sine fine vivere, ut possint <possent> sine fine peccare.D. : Quare permittit Deus electos <sine fine°°°> peccare?— M : <Rx> Ut patefaciat ((in eis)) divitias misericordiae suae.D. : <quo> salvantur praedestinati, si non laborant?— M. : <Rx> Praedestinatio taliter instituta est ut precibus vel laboribus obtineatur, ut dicitur : Per multas tribulationes oportet nos intrare in regnum Dei {Act. xiv. 24). Parvulis itaque per mortis acerbitatem, provectis autem aetate datur praedestinatio per laborum exercitationem. Quia vero scriptum est : In domo Patris mei mansiones multae sunt (Joan. xiv. 2), unusquisque obtinebit mansionem secundum proprium laborem : ita prout ^uis plus ' A., eaedem. ^ A., ae/ernas.°°<Rx> or R-crossed : abbreviation of a word beginning with “R” , here probably “Respondit” = ‘he answers’ ; a distant relative to our contemporary pharmaceutical abbreviation for “Recipe”?2.4 TRANSLATION of the Latin EXTENDED text(end of folio 34 of the Elucidarium:)—D.: If none can be saved, except the predestined ones, what are the others (the reprobate) created for, if not (??) only to be damned?—M.: Whatever the predestined do, they cannot be damned, because all things work together to their advantage, even their own sins. Because after their more serious sins, they will feel humbled and will offer praises to God for their salvation. The reprobate, on the other hand, are created for the sake of the elect, so that through them the latter may exercise virtue and may be amended from vice, and may appear the more glorious in comparison and rejoice the more seeing the torments that they have escaped from and which are inflicted on the reprobate. These then justly of their own accord …(folio 35) …are damned, as of their own free will they have chosen evil, cherishing it and wanting to go on living with no end, in order to keep sinning with no end.D.: Why does god allow the chosen to sin <with no end> ?— I\I. : - . To show ((through them)) the riches of His mercy.D.: (How?) are the predestined saved, if they do not work <for their salvation> ?<the continuation was graciously translated by Michael Wright, former Lecturer at University of Auckland, whose witty answer merits much more upvotes … : >Predestination is set up in such a way that it may be gained by prayers or works, as it is said: “We ought to enter the kingdom of God through many tribulations” [Acts 14: 22]. Predestination (sc. to salvation) is given to infants through the bitterness of death, but to those of advanced age through the practice of works. Because in truth it is written: “in my Father’s house are many mansions/lodgings (John 14:2), and each person will obtain their lodging according to their own work.”3. APPENDIX 13.1 Introduction : (being an extract of note 25i (ex-24L) of …The Devil’s NOTES on “The Butcher and the Devil’s Ass” .…. The puritan temptation (Protestant Puritan or more generally Christian or Islamic or Platonic or Communist or whatever) is one of the most insidious, “pure” and clean, innocent-looking perversions of the soul as it tries to sever the link to our own deep animality, denaturing our primeval (but sublimable) sexual urge into the brutal parody of bestiality and leading to easy demonization and dehumanization of “impure” others.At its very heart, its very dark heart, puritanism is motivated by a self-hidden yearning for unlimited power over others & complete control and mastery over the self, coupled with a deep fear ) of “loss of control” by that same (mostly ‘virile’) self, as characteristically happens during orgasm.That’s why, Saint Augustine has this ‘dry dream’-phantasm in his City of God (Book 14. chapters 24 & 26) , of how Adam and Eve before their original Sin and before the Fall, could have had (ideal, unsinful) sex without involuntary arousal: (…)From : The Devil’s NOTES on “The Butcher and the Devil’s Ass” , note 25i.3.2 English TEXT ofSt. Augustine’s The City of God, Book XIV, chapters 24 & 26 :http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120114.htmChapter 24.— That If Men Had Remained Innocent and Obedient in Paradise, the Generative Organs Should Have Been in Subjection to the Will as the Other Members are.The man, then, would have sown the seed, and the woman received it, as need required, the generative organs being moved by the will, not excited by lust. (…)I will not press the fact that some animals have a natural power to move a single spot of the skin with which their whole body is covered, if they have felt on it anything they wish to drive off,—a power so great, that by this shivering tremor of the skin they can not only shake off flies that have settled on them, but even spears that have fixed in their flesh.Man, it is true, has not this power; but is this any reason for supposing that God could not give it to such creatures as He wished to possess it? And therefore man himself also might very well have enjoyed absolute power over his members had he not forfeited it by his disobedience; for it was not difficult for God to form him so that what is now moved in his body only by lust should have been moved only at will.We know, too, that some men are differently constituted from others, and have some rare and remarkable faculty of doing with their body what other men can by no effort do, and, indeed, scarcely believe when they hear of others doing. There are persons who can move their ears, either one at a time, or both together. (…) Some so accurately mimic the voices of birds and beasts and other men, that, unless they are seen, the difference cannot be told.♫♫♫ Some have such command of their bowels, that they can BREAK WIND continuously at pleasure, so as to produce the effect of singing ♫♫♫.I myself have known a man who was accustomed to sweat whenever he wished. It is well known that some weep when they please, and shed a flood of tears.(…)Seeing, then, that even in this mortal and miserable life the body serves some men by many remarkable movements and moods beyond the ordinary course of nature, what reason is there for doubting that, before man was involved by his sin in this weak and corruptible condition, his members might have served his will for the propagation of offspring without lust? Man has been given over to himself because he abandoned God, while he sought to be self-satisfying; and disobeying God, he could not obey even himself. (…)Chapter 25.— Of True Blessedness, Which This Present Life Cannot Enjoy.(…)Chapter 26.— That We are to Believe that in Paradise Our First Parents Begot Offspring Without Blushing.In Paradise, then, man lived as he desired so long as he desired what God had commanded. He lived in the enjoyment of God, and was good by God's goodness; he lived without any want, and had it in his power so to live eternally. He had food that he might not hunger, drink that he might not thirst, the tree of life that old age might not waste him. There was in his body no corruption, nor seed of corruption, which could produce in him any unpleasant sensation. He feared no inward disease, no outward accident. Soundest health blessed his body, absolute tranquillity his soul. (..)The honest love of husband and wife made a sure harmony between them. Body and spirit worked harmoniously together, and the commandment was kept without labor. No languor made their leisure wearisome; no sleepiness interrupted their desire to labor.<WARNING : Now follows the first of 3 consecutive paragraphs for which all English internet texts - even in this our so-called “Enlightened Age”- puritanically decline to offer a translation from Latin, so I translated them myself, though my Latin is very rusty … : >In tanta facilitate rerum et felicitate hominum, absit ut suspicemur, non potuisse prolem seri sine libidinis morbo: sed eo voluntatis nutu moverentur illa membra qua caetera, et sine ARDORIS illecebroso stimulo cum tranquillitate animi et corporis nulla corruptione integritatis infunderetur gremio maritus uxoris.God keep us from believing that with such facility in all things and so great bliss, Man would have been incapable of engendering without the help of concupiscence. But the parts intended for generation (copulation) would have been moved, like the other members, by the command of the will alone. And , without feeling in his flesh any sting of VOLUPTUOUSNESS, and without the virginity of his wife suffering any injury, in complete tranquility of mind, the husband would have let the seed flow quietly into the wife’s womb.Neque enim quia experientia probari non potest, ideo credendum non est; quando illas corporis partes non ageret turbidus calor, sed spontanea POTESTAS <Roman legal term: “coercion by a magistrate”!> , sicut opus, adhibebret; ita tunc potuisse utero conjugis salva integritate feminei genitalis virile semen immitti, sicut nunc potest cadem integritate salva ex utero virginis fluxus menstrui cruoris emitti.If it be objected that we can not invoke here the testimony of experience, I reply that this is no reason to be incredulous; for it is sufficient to know that it is free-flowing WILLPOWER and not a turbulent ardor that would have presided over the copulation. Besides, why should the marital seed necessarily have injured the integrity of the woman, when we know that the passing of the months does not affect the integrity of the girl?Eadem quippe via posset illud injici, qua hoc potest ejici. Ut enim ad pariendum non doloris gemitus, sed maturitatis impulsus feminea viscera relaxaret: sic ad foetandum et concipiendum non libidinis appetitus, sed voluntarius usus naturam utramque conjungeret.Injection, emission, both operations are inverse, but the road is the same. The copulation would thus have been accomplished with the same facility as childbirth; for the woman would have given birth without pain, and the child would have emerged from the womb without any effort, like a fruit falling when it is ripe.We speak of things which are now shameful, and although we try, as well as we are able, to conceive them as they were before they became shameful, yet necessity compels us rather to limit our discussion to the bounds set by modesty than to extend it as our moderate faculty of discourse might suggest. For since that which I have been speaking of was not experienced even by those who might have experienced it, —I mean our first parents (for sin and its merited banishment from Paradise anticipated this passionless generation on their part), —when sexual intercourse is spoken of now, it suggests to men’s thoughts not such a placid obedience to the will as is conceivable in our first parents, but such violent acting of lust as they themselves have experienced. And therefore modesty shuts my mouth, although my mind conceives the matter clearly.(…)4. APPENDIX 2English “droll” = 1° <noun> jester, buffoon, clown ; 2° <adjective> farcical ***Dutch “drol” = <noun> anything compact and coiled, twirled out1° short, thick mannikin —> jester, buffoon, clown ;(=15th c. French ‘drolle’→ modern French adjective ‘drôle’ : funny)2° a turd, cow PIE → pastry : a cow TART ;expression “~een drol draaien” literally : to turn out a turd .Dutch “drollig” = <adjective > farcical.Above : a yummy cow TART squirted out of a cream spuit nozzle,metaphorically derived from a yucky cow PIE,but iconically closer to a ‘dog TURD’…Above : ‘ farcir une saucisse’ = French for ‘to stuff a sausage’From ‘farce’ to ‘droll’ to ‘farce’, thus I must needs end this my modern attempt at rambling Quora ‘marginal writing’, by closing the circle : recycling and refilling the bowels that had been emptied before.*** farce <noun> in The Online Etymology Dictionary :late 14c., "force-meat, stuffing;" 1520s, in the dramatic sense "ludicrous satire; low comedy," from Middle French farce = "comic interlude in a mystery play" (16c.), literally "stuffing," from Old French farcir "to stuff," (13c.), from Latin farcire "to stuff, cram," which is of uncertain origin, perhaps from PIE (Proto-Indo-European language) *bhrekw- "to cram together," and thus related to frequens "crowded."... for a farce is that in poetry which grotesque(!) is in a picture. The persons and action of a farce are all unnatural, and the manners false, that is, inconsistent with the characters of mankind. [Dryden, "A Parallel of Poetry and Painting"]According to OED and other sources, the pseudo-Latin farsia was applied 13c. in France and England to praise phrases inserted into liturgical formulae (for example between kyrie and eleison) at the principal festivals, then in Old French farce was extended to the impromptu buffoonery among actors that was a feature of religious stage plays. Generalized sense of "a ridiculous sham" is from 1690s in English.-©©NeD