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Long post Alert….4.5 billion B.C.Planet Earth formed.3 billion B.C.First signs of primeval life (bacteria and blue-green algae) appear in oceans.600 million B.C.Earliest date to which fossils can be traced.4.4 million B.C.Earliest known hominid fossils (Ardipithecus ramidus) found in Aramis, Ethiopia, 1994.4.2 million B.C.Australopithecus anamensis found in Lake Turkana, Kenya, 1995.3.2 million B.C.Australopithecus afarenis (nicknamed “Lucy”) found in Ethiopia, 1974.2.5 million B.C.Homo habilis (“Skillful Man”).First brain expansion; is believed to have used stone tools.1.8 million B.C.Homo erectus (“Upright Man”).Brain size twice that of Australopithecine species.1.7 million B.C.Homo erectus leaves Africa.100,000 B.C.First modern Homo sapiens in South Africa.70,000 B.C.Neanderthal man (use of fire and advanced tools).35,000 B.C.The neanderthal man replaced by later groups of Homo sapiens (i.e., Cro-Magnon man, etc.).18,000 B.C.Cro-Magnons replaced by later cultures.15,000 B.C.Migrations across Bering Straits into the Americas.10,000 B.C.Semi-permanent agricultural settlements in Old World.10,000–4,000 B.C.Development of settlements into cities and development of skills such as the wheel, pottery, and improved methods of cultivation in Mesopotamia and elsewhere.5500–3000 B.C.Predynastic Egyptian cultures develop (5500–3100 B.C.); begin using agriculture (c. 5000 B.C.).The earliest known civilization arises in Sumer (4500–4000 B.C.).Earliest recorded date in the Egyptian calendar (4241 B.C.).First-year of the Jewish calendar (3760 B.C.).First phonetic writing appears (c. 3500 B.C.).Sumerians develop a city-state civilization (c. 3000 B.C.).Copper used by Egyptians and Sumerians.Western Europe is neolithic, without metals or written records.3000–2000 B.C.Pharaonic rule begins in Egypt.King Khufu (Cheops), 4th dynasty (2700–2675 B.C.), completes construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza (c. 2680 B.C.).The Great Sphinx of Giza (c. 2540 B.C.) is built by King Khafre.Earliest Egyptian mummies. Papyrus.Phoenician settlements on the coast of what is now Syria and Lebanon.Semitic tribes settle in Assyria.Sargon, the first Akkadian king, builds the Mesopotamian empire.The Gilgamesh epic (c. 3000 B.C.). Systematic astronomy in Egypt, Babylon, India, China.3000–1500 B.C.The most ancient civilization on the Indian subcontinent, the sophisticated and extensive Indus Valley civilization, flourishes in what is today Pakistan.In Britain, Stonehenge erected according to some unknown astronomical rationale.Its three main phases of construction are thought to span c. 3000–1500 B.C.2000–1500 B.C.Hyksos invaders drive Egyptians from Lower Egypt (17th century B.C.).Amosis I frees Egypt from Hyksos (c. 1600 B.C.).Assyrians rise to power—cities of Ashur and Nineveh.Twenty-four-character alphabet in Egypt.Cuneiform inscriptions used by Hittites.The peak of Minoan culture on Isle of Crete—earliest form of written Greek.Hammurabi, king of Babylon, develops the oldest existing code of laws (18th century B.C.).1500–1000 B.C.Ikhnaton develops a monotheistic religion in Egypt (c. 1375 B.C.).His successor, Tutankhamen, returns to earlier gods.Greeks destroy Troy (c. 1193 B.C.).End of Greek civilization in Mycenae with an invasion of Dorians.Chinese civilization develops under the Shang Dynasty.Olmec civilization in Mexico—stone monuments; picture writing.1000–900 B.C.Solomon succeeds in King David, builds Jerusalem temple.After Solomon's death, the kingdom divided into Israel and Judah.Hebrew elders begin to write Old Testament books of the Bible.Phoenicians colonize Spain with the settlement at Cadiz.900–800 B.C.Phoenicians establish Carthage (c. 810 B.C.).The Iliad and the Odyssey, perhaps composed by Greek poet Homer.800–700 B.C.Prophets Amos, Hosea, Isaiah.First recorded Olympic games (776 B.C.).Legendary founding of Rome by Romulus (753 B.C.).Assyrian king Sargon II conquers Hittites, Chaldeans, Samaria (end of Kingdom of Israel).Earliest written music.Chariots introduced into Italy by Etruscans.700–600 B.C.End of Assyrian Empire (616 B.C.)—Nineveh destroyed by Chaldeans (Neo-Babylonians) and Medes (612 B.C.).The founding of Byzantium by Greeks (c. 660 B.C.).The building of the Acropolis in Athens. Solon, Greek lawgiver (640–560 B.C.).Sappho of Lesbos, Greek poet (fl. c. 610–580 B.C.).Lao-tse, Chinese philosopher and founder of Taoism (born c. 604 B.C.).600–500 B.C.Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar builds an empire, destroys Jerusalem (586 B.C.).Babylonian Captivity of the Jews (starting 587 B.C.).Hanging Gardens of Babylon.Cyrus the Great of Persia creates a great empire, conquers Babylon (539 B.C.), frees the Jews.Athenian democracy develops. Aeschylus, Greek dramatist (525–465 B.C.).Pythagoras, Greek philosopher, and mathematician (582?–507? B.C.).Confucius (551–479 B.C.) develops ethical and social philosophy in China.The Analects or Lun-yü (“collected sayings”) are compiled by the second generation of Confucian disciples.Buddha (563?–483? B.C.) founds Buddhism in India.500–400 B.C.Greeks defeat Persians: battles of Marathon (490 B.C.), Thermopylae (480 B.C.), Salamis (480 B.C.).Peloponnesian Wars between Athens and Sparta (431–404 B.C.)—Sparta victorious.Pericles comes to power in Athens (462 B.C.).The flowering of Greek culture during the Age of Pericles (450–400 B.C.).The Parthenon is built in Athens as a temple of the goddess Athena (447–432 B.C.).Ictinus and Callicrates are the architects and Phidias are responsible for the sculpture.Sophocles, Greek dramatist (496?–406 B.C.).Hippocrates, Greek “Father of Medicine” (born 460 B.C.).Xerxes I, king of Persia (rules 485–465 B.C.).400–300 B.C.Pentateuch—The first five books of the Old Testament evolve in the final form.Philip of Macedon, who believed himself to be a descendant of the Greek people, assassinated (336 B.C.) after subduing the Greek city-states; succeeded by son, Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.), who destroys Thebes (335 B.C.), conquers Tyre and Jerusalem (332 B.C.), occupies Babylon (330 B.C.), invades India, and dies in Babylon. His empire is divided among his generals; one of them, Seleucis I, establishes the Middle East empire with capitals at Antioch (Syria) and Seleucia (in Iraq).Trial and execution of Greek philosopher Socrates (399 B.C.).Dialogues recorded by his student, Plato (c. 427–348 or 347 B.C.).Euclid's work on geometry (323 B.C.).Aristotle, Greek philosopher (384–322 B.C.).Demosthenes, Greek orator (384–322 B.C.).Praxiteles, Greek sculptor (400–330 B.C.).300–251 B.C.First Punic War (264–241 B.C.): Rome defeats the Carthaginians and begins its domination of the Mediterranean.Temple of the Sun at Teotihuacán, Mexico (c. 300 B.C.).The invention of the Mayan calendar in Yucatán—more exact than older calendars.First Roman gladiatorial games (264 B.C.).Archimedes, Greek mathematician (287–212 B.C.).250–201 B.C.Second Punic War (219–201 B.C.): Hannibal, Carthaginian general (246–142 B.C.), crosses the Alps (218 B.C.), reaches gates of Rome (211 B.C.), retreats, and is defeated by Scipio Africanus at Zama (202 B.C.).Great Wall of China built (c. 215 B.C.).200–151 B.C.Romans defeat Seleucid King Antiochus III at Thermopylae (191 B.C.)—beginning of Roman world domination.Maccabean revolt against Seleucids (167 B.C.).150–101 B.C.Third Punic War (149–146 B.C.): Rome destroys Carthage, killing 450,000 and enslaving the remaining 50,000 inhabitants.Roman armies conquer Macedonia, Greece, Anatolia, Balearic Islands, and southern France.Venus de Milo (c. 140 B.C.).Cicero, Roman orator (106–43 B.C.).100–51 B.C.Julius Caesar (100–44 B.C.) invades Britain (55 B.C.) and conquers Gaul (France) (c. 50 B.C.).Spartacus leads a slave revolt against Rome (71 B.C.).Romans conquer Seleucid empire. Roman general Pompey conquers Jerusalem (63 B.C.).Cleopatra on Egyptian throne (51–31 B.C.).Chinese develop the use of paper (c. 100 B.C.).Virgil, Roman poet (70–19 B.C.).Horace, Roman poet (65–8 B.C.).50–1 B.C.Caesar crosses Rubicon to fight Pompey (50 B.C.).Herod made the Roman governor of Judea (37 B.C.).Caesar murdered (44 B.C.).Caesar's nephew, Octavian, defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Battle of Actium (31 B.C.), and establishes the Roman empire as Emperor Augustus; rules 27 B.C.–A.D. 14.Pantheon built for the first time under Agrippa, 27 B.C.Ovid, Roman poet (43 B.C.–A.D. 18).1–49Birth of Jesus Christ (variously given from 4 B.C. to A.D. 7).After Augustus, Tiberius becomes emperor (dies, A.D. 37), succeeded by Caligula (assassinated, A.D. 41), who is followed by Claudius.The crucifixion of Jesus (probably A.D. 30).Han dynasty in China founded by Emperor Kuang Wu Ti. Buddhism introduced to China.50–99Claudius poisoned (A.D. 54), succeeded by Nero (commits suicide, A.D. 68).Missionary journeys of Paul the Apostle (A.D. 34–60).Jews revolt against Rome; Jerusalem destroyed (A.D. 70).Roman persecutions of Christians begin (A.D. 64).Colosseum built in Rome (A.D. 71–80).Trajan (ruled A.D. 98–116); the Roman empire extends to Mesopotamia, Arabia, Balkans. First Gospels of St. Mark, St. John, St. Matthew.100–149Hadrian rules Rome (A.D. 117–138); codifies Roman law, rebuilds Pantheon, establishes a postal system, builds a wall between England and Scotland.Jews revolt under Bar Kokhba (A.D. 122–135); the final Diaspora (dispersion) of Jews begins.150–199Marcus Aurelius rules Rome (A.D. 161–180).Oldest Mayan temples in Central America (c. A.D. 200).200–249Goths invade Asia Minor (c. A.D. 220).Roman persecutions of Christians increase. Persian (Sassanid) empire re-established.End of Chinese Han dynasty.250–299Increasing invasions of the Roman empire by Franks and Goths.Buddhism spreads in China.The classic period of Mayan civilization (A.D. 250–900); develop hieroglyphic writing, advances in art, architecture, science.300–349Constantine the Great (rules A.D. 312–337) reunites eastern and western Roman empires, with new capital (Constantinople) on site of Byzantium (A.D. 330); issues Edict of Milan legalizing Christianity (A.D. 313); becomes a Christian on his deathbed (A.D. 337).Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325) defines orthodox Christian doctrine.First Gupta dynasty in India (c. A.D. 320).350–399Huns (Mongols) invade Europe (c. A.D. 360).Theodosius the Great (rules A.D. 392–395)—last emperor of a united Roman empire.Roman empire permanently divided in A.D. 395: western empire ruled from Rome; the eastern empire ruled from Constantinople.400–449Western Roman empire disintegrates under weak emperors. Alaric, king of the Visigoths, sacks Rome (A.D. 410).Attila, Hun chieftain, attacks Roman provinces (A.D. 433).St. Patrick returns to Ireland (A.D. 432) and brings Christianity to the island. St. Augustine's City of God (A.D. 411).450–499Vandals destroy Rome (A.D. 455).Western Roman empire ends as Odoacer, German chieftain, overthrows the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and becomes king of Italy (A.D. 476).Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy established by Theodoric the Great (A.D. 493).Clovis, the ruler of the Franks, is converted to Christianity (A.D. 496).The first schism between western and eastern churches (A.D. 484).500–549Eastern and western churches reconciled (519).Justinian I, the Great (483–565), becomes the Byzantine emperor (527), issues his first code of civil laws (529), conquers North Africa, Italy, and part of Spain.The plague spreads through Europe (542 et seq.).Arthur, semi-legendary king of the Britons (killed, c. 537).Boëthius, Roman scholar (executed, 524).550–599Beginnings of the European silk industry after Justinian's missionaries smuggle silkworms out of China (553).Mohammed, founder of Islam (570–632).Buddhism in Japan (c. 560).St. Augustine of Canterbury brings Christianity to Britain (597).After killing about half the population, plague in Europe subsides (594).600–649Mohammed flees from Mecca to Medina (the Hegira); the first year of the Muslim calendar (622).Muslim empire grows (634).Arabs conquer Jerusalem (637), conquer Persians (641).650–699Arabs attack North Africa (670), destroy Carthage (697).Venerable Bede, English monk (672–735).700–749The Arab empire extends from Lisbon to China (by 716).Charles Martel, Frankish leader, defeats Arabs at Tours/Poitiers, halting Arab advance in Europe (732).Charlemagne (742–814).Introduction of pagodas in Japan from China.750–799Charlemagne becomes king of the Franks (771).Caliph Harun al-Rashid rules the Arab empire (786–809): the “golden age” of Arab culture.Vikings begin attacks on Britain (790), land in Ireland (795).The city of Machu Picchu flourishes in Peru.800–849Charlemagne crowned the first Holy Roman Emperor in Rome (800).Charlemagne dies (814), succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious, who divides France among his sons (817).Arabs conquer Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia (826–827).850–899Norsemen attack as far south as the Mediterranean but are thwarted (859), discover Iceland (861).Alfred the Great becomes king of Britain (871), defeats Danish invaders (878).The Russian nation founded by Vikings under Prince Rurik, establishing capital at Novgorod (855–879).900–949Beginning of Mayan Post-Classical period (900–1519).Vikings discover Greenland (c. 900).Arab Spain under Abd ar-Rahman III becomes the center of learning (912–961).Otto I becomes King of Germany (936).950–999Mieczyslaw I becomes the first ruler of Poland (960).Eric the Red establishes the first Viking colony in Greenland (982).Hugh Capet elected King of France in 987; the Capetian dynasty to rule until 1328. Musical notation systematized (c. 990).Vikings and Danes attack Britain (988–999).Otto, I crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII (962).1000–1300Classic Pueblo period of Anasazi culture; cliff dwellings.1000Hungary and Scandinavia converted to Christianity.Viking raider Leif Eriksson discovers North America calls it Vinland.Beowulf, Old English epic.1008Murasaki Shikibu finishes The Tale of Genji, the world's first novel.1009Muslims destroy Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.1013Danes control England.Canute takes the throne (1016), conquers Norway (1028), dies (1035); kingdom divided among his sons: Harold Harefoot (England), Sweyn (Norway), Hardecanute (Denmark).1040Macbeth murders Duncan, king of Scotland.1053Robert Guiscard, Norman invader, establishes the kingdom in Italy, conquers Sicily (1072).1054The final separation between Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) churches.1055Seljuk Turks, Asian nomads, move west, capture Baghdad, Armenia (1064), Syria, and Palestine (1075).1066William of Normandy invades England, defeats last Saxon king, Harold II, at Battle of Hastings, crowned William I of England (“the Conqueror”).1068Construction on the cathedral in Pisa, Italy, begins.1073The emergence of the strong papacy when Gregory VII is elected.Conflict with English and French kings and German emperors will continue throughout the medieval period.1095At Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II calls for a holy war to wrest control of Jerusalem from Muslims, which launches the First Crusade (1096), one of at least 8 European military campaigns between 1095 and 1291 to regain the Holy Land.1100–1300Construction of Cathedral at Chartres, France.1144The second Crusade begins.1150Angkor Wat is completed.1150–1167Universities of Paris and Oxford founded in France and England.1162Thomas á Becket named Archbishop of Canterbury, murdered by Henry II's men (1170).Troubadours (wandering minstrels) glorify romantic concepts of feudalism.1169Ibn-Rushd begins translating Aristotle's works.1189Richard I (“the Lionhearted”) succeeds Henry II in England, killed in France (1199), succeeded by King John. Third Crusade.1200–1204Fourth Crusade.1211Genghis Khan invades China, captures Peking (1214), conquers Persia (1218), invades Russia (1223), dies (1227).1212Children's Crusade.1215King John forced by barons to sign Magna Carta at Runneymede, limiting royal power.1217Fifth Crusade.1228Sixth Crusade.1231The Inquisition begins as Pope Gregory IX assigns Dominicans responsibility for combating heresy.Torture used (1252).Ferdinand and Isabella establish Spanish Inquisition (1478).Torquemada, Grand Inquisitor, forces conversion or expulsion of Spanish Jews (1492). Forced conversion of Moors (1499).Inquisition in Portugal (1531).First Protestants burned at the stake in Spain (1543).Spanish Inquisition abolished (1834).1241Mongols defeat Germans in Silesia, invade Poland and Hungary, withdraw from Europe after Ughetai, Mongol leader, dies.1248Seventh Crusade.1251Kublai Khan governs China, becomes ruler of Mongols (1259), establishes the Yuan dynasty in China (1280), invades Burma (1287), dies (1294).1260Chartres cathedral consecrated.1270Eighth Crusade.1271Marco Polo of Venice travels to China, in the court of Kublai Khan (1275–1292), returns to Genoa (1295) and writes Travels.1273Thomas Aquinas stops work on Summa Theologica, the basis of all Catholic theological teaching; never completes it.1295English King Edward I summons the Model Parliament.1312–1337Mali Empire reaches its height in Africa under King Mansa Musa.1325The beginning of the Renaissance in Italy: writers Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio; painter Giotto.Development of Noh drama in Japan.Aztecs establish Tenochtitlán on site of modern Mexico City.The peak of Muslim culture in Spain.Small cannon in use.1337–1453Hundred Years' War—English and French kings fight for control of France.1347–1351At least 25 million people die in Europe's “Black Death” (bubonic plague).1368Ming Dynasty begins in China.1376–1382John Wycliffe, pre-Reformation religious reformer, and followers translate the Latin Bible into English.1378The Great Schism (to 1417)—rival popes in Rome and Avignon, France, fight for control of the Roman Catholic Church.1387Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.1398Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, begins last great conquest—Delhi.1407Casa di San Giorgio, one of the first public banks, founded in Genoa.1415Henry V defeats French at Agincourt.Jan Hus, Bohemian preacher and follower of Wycliffe, burned at stake in Constance as a heretic.1418–1460Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator sponsors exploration of Africa's coast.1420Brunelleschi begins work on the Duomo in Florence.1428Joan of Arc leads French against English, captured by Burgundians (1430) and turned over to the English, burned at the stake as a witch after ecclesiastical trial (1431).1438Incas rule in Peru.1450Florence becomes the center of Renaissance arts and learning under the Medicis.1453Turks conquer Constantinople, end of the Byzantine Empire, beginning of the Ottoman empire.1455The Wars of the Roses, civil wars between rival noble factions, begin in England (to 1485).Having invented printing with movable type at Mainz, Germany, Johann Gutenberg completes the first Bible.1462Ivan the Great rules Russia until 1505 as the first czar; ends payment of tribute to Mongols.1492Moors conquered in Spain by troops of Ferdinand and Isabella.Columbus becomes the first European to encounter the Caribbean islands, return to Spain (1493).Second voyage to Dominica, Jamaica, Puerto Rico (1493–1496).Third voyage to Orinoco (1498). Fourth voyage to Honduras and Panama (1502–1504).1497Vasco da Gama sails around Africa and discovers the sea route to India (1498).Establishes the Portuguese colony in India (1502).John Cabot, employed by England, reaches and explores the Canadian coast. Michelangelo's Bacchus sculpture.1501First black slaves in America brought to the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo.1503Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa.Michelangelo sculpts David (1504).1506St. Peter's Church started in Rome; designed and decorated by such artists and architects as Bramante, Michelangelo, da Vinci, Raphael, and Bernini before its completion in 1626.1509Henry VIII ascends the English throne.Michelangelo paints the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.1513Balboa becomes the first European to encounter the Pacific Ocean.Machiavelli writes The Prince.1517Turks conquer Egypt, control Arabia.Martin Luther posts his 95 theses denouncing church abuses on the church door in Wittenberg—the start of the Reformation in Germany.1519Ulrich Zwingli begins Reformation in Switzerland.Hernando Cortes conquers Mexico for Spain. Charles I of Spain is chosen Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sets out to circumnavigate the globe.1520Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X. Suleiman I (“the Magnificent”) becomes Sultan of Turkey, invades Hungary (1521), Rhodes (1522), attacks Austria (1529), annexes Hungary (1541), Tripoli (1551), makes peace with Persia (1553), destroys Spanish fleet (1560), dies (1566).Magellan reaches the Pacific, is killed by Philippine natives (1521).One of his ships under Juan Sebastián del Cano continues around the world, reaches Spain (1522).1524Verrazano, sailing under the French flag, explores the New England coast and New York Bay.1527Troops of the Holy Roman Empire attack Rome, imprison Pope Clement VII—the end of the Italian Renaissance.Castiglione writes The Courtier.The Medici family expelled from Florence.1532Pizarro marches from Panama to Peru, kills the Inca chieftain, Atahualpa, of Peru (1533).Machiavelli's The Prince published posthumously.1535Reformation begins as Henry VIII makes himself head of English Church after being excommunicated by Pope.Sir Thomas More executed as a traitor for refusal to acknowledge the king's religious authority.Jacques Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence River, the basis of French claims to Canada.1536Henry VIII executes second wife, Anne Boleyn.John Calvin establishes Reformed and Presbyterian form of Protestantism in Switzerland, writes Institutes of the Christian Religion.Danish and Norwegian Reformations.Michelangelo's Last Judgment.1541John Knox leads Reformation in Scotland, establishes Presbyterian church there (1560).1543Publication of On the Revolution of Heavenly Bodies by Polish scholar Nicolaus Copernicus—giving his theory that the earth revolves around the sun.1545Council of Trent to meet intermittently until 1563 to define Catholic dogma and doctrine, reiterate papal authority.1547Ivan IV (“the Terrible”) crowned as czar of Russia, begins the conquest of Astrakhan and Kazan (1552), battles nobles (boyars) for power (1564), kill his son (1580), dies, and is succeeded by his weak and feeble-minded son, Fyodor I.1553Roman Catholicism restored in England by Queen Mary I.1556Akbar the Great becomes the Mogul emperor of India, conquers Afghanistan (1581), continues wars of conquest (until 1605).1558Queen Elizabeth I ascends the throne (rules to 1603).Restores Protestantism, establishes the state Church of England (Anglicanism).Renaissance will reach a height in England—Shakespeare, Marlowe, Spenser.1561Persecution of Huguenots in France stopped by Edict of Orleans.French religious wars begin again with a massacre of Huguenots at Vassy. St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre—thousands of Huguenots murdered (1572).Amnesty granted (1573).Persecution continues periodically until the Edict of Nantes (1598) gives Huguenots religious freedom (until 1685).1568Protestant Netherlands revolts against Catholic Spain; independence will be acknowledged by Spain in 1648.1570Japan permits visits to foreign ships.Queen Elizabeth, I excommunicated by Pope.Turks attack Cyprus and war on Venice.Turkish fleet defeated at the Battle of Lepanto by Spanish and Italian fleets (1571).Peace of Constantinople (1572) ends Turkish attacks on Europe.1580Francis Drake returns to England after circumnavigating the globe; knighted by Queen Elizabeth I (1581).Montaigne's Essays published.1582Pope Gregory XIII implements the Gregorian calendar.1583William of Orange rules the Netherlands; assassinated on orders of Philip II of Spain (1584).1587Mary, Queen of Scots, executed for treason by order of Queen Elizabeth I.Monteverdi's First Book of Madrigals.1588The defeat of the Spanish Armada by English.Henry, King of Navarre and Protestant leader, recognized as Henry IV, first Bourbon king of France.Converts to Roman Catholicism in 1593 in an attempt to end religious wars.1590Henry IV enters Paris, wars on Spain (1595), marries Marie de Medici (1600), assassinated (1610).Spenser's The Faerie Queen. El Greco's St. Jerome.Galileo's experiments with falling objects.1598Boris Godunov becomes Russian czar.Tycho Brahe describes his astronomical experiments.1600Giordano Bruno burned as a heretic.English East India Company established.1603Ieyasu rules Japan, moves the capital to Edo (Tokyo).Shakespeare's Hamlet.1605Cervantes's Don Quixote de la Mancha, the first modern novel.1607Jamestown, Virginia, established—first permanent English colony on the American mainland.Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, saves the life of John Smith.1609Samuel de Champlain establishes the French colony of Quebec.The Relation, the first newspaper, debuts in Germany.1610Galileo sees the moons of Jupiter through his telescope.1611Gustavus Adolphus elected King of Sweden.King James Version of the Bible published in England.Rubens paints his Descent from the Cross.1614John Napier discovers logarithms.1618Start of the Thirty Years' War > Protestants revolt against Catholic oppression; Denmark, Sweden, and France will invade Germany in later phases of the war.Kepler proposes last of three laws of planetary motion.1619A Dutch ship brings the first African slaves to British North America.1620Pilgrims, after three-month voyage in Mayflower, land at Plymouth Rock. Francis Bacon's Novum Organum.1623New Netherland founded by Dutch West India Company.1630Massachusetts Bay Colony.1632Maryland founded by Lord Baltimore.1633Inquisition forces Galileo (astronomer) to recant his belief in the Copernican theory.1642English Civil War.Cavaliers, supporters of Charles I, against Roundheads, parliamentary forces.Oliver Cromwell defeats Royalists (1646).Parliament demands reforms.Charles I offers concessions, brought to trial (1648), beheaded (1649).Cromwell becomes Lord Protector (1653).Rembrandt paints his Night Watch.1643Taj Mahal completed.1644End of Ming Dynasty in China—Manchus come to power.Descartes's Principles of Philosophy.1648End of the Thirty Years' War.German population about half of what it was in 1618 because of war and pestilence.1658Cromwell dies; son Richard resigns and the Puritan government collapses.1660English Parliament calls for the restoration of the monarchy; invites Charles II to return from France.1661Charles II is crowned King of England.Louis XIV begins personal rule as an absolute monarch; starts to build Versailles.1664British take New Amsterdam from the Dutch.English limit “Nonconformity” with reestablished Anglican Church.Isaac Newton's experiments with gravity.1665Great Plague in London kills 75,000.1666Great Fire of London. Molière's Misanthrope.1667Milton's Paradise Lost, widely considered the greatest epic poem in English.1682Pennsylvania founded by William Penn.1683War of European powers against the Turks (to 1699).Vienna withstands three-month Turkish siege; the high point of Turkish advance in Europe.1684Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's calculus published.1685James II succeeds Charles II in England, calls for freedom of conscience (1687).Protestants fear the restoration of Catholicism and demand the “Glorious Revolution.” William of Orange invited to England and James II escapes to France (1688).William III and his wife, Mary, crowned.In France, Edict of Nantes of 1598, granting freedom of worship to Huguenots, is revoked by Louis XIV; thousands of Protestants flee.1689Peter the Great becomes Czar of Russia—attempts to westernize nation and build Russia as a military power.Defeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava (1709).Beginning of the French and Indian Wars (to 1763), campaigns in America linked to a series of wars between France and England for domination of Europe.1690William III of England defeats former king James II and Irish rebels at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland.John Locke's Human Understanding.1701War of the Spanish Succession begins—the last of Louis XIV's wars for domination of the continent.The Peace of Utrecht (1714) will end the conflict and mark the rise of the British Empire. Called Queen Anne's War in America, it ends with the British taking New Foundland, Acadia, and Hudson's Bay Territory from France, and Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain.1704Deerfield (Mass.) Massacre of English colonists by French and Indians.Bach's first cantata.Jonathan Swift's Tale of a Tub.Boston News-Letter—the first newspaper in America.1707United Kingdom of Great Britain formed—England, Wales, and Scotland joined by the parliamentary Act of Union.1729Bach's St. Matthew Passion.Isaac Newton's Principia translated from Latin into English.1732Benjamin Franklin begins publishing Poor Richard's Almanack.James Oglethorpe and others found Georgia.1735John Peter Zenger, New York editor, acquitted of libel in New York, establishing press freedom.1740Capt. Vitus Bering, Dane employed by Russia, discovers Alaska.Frederick II “the Great” crowned King of Prussia.1746British defeat Scots under Stuart Pretender Prince Charles at Culloden Moor.The last battle fought on British soil.1751Publication of the Encyclopédie begins in France, the “bible” of the Enlightenment.1755Samuel Johnson's Dictionary first published.The great earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal—over 60,000 die.U.S. postal service established.1756Seven Years' War (French and Indian Wars in America) (to 1763), in which Britain and Prussia defeat France, Spain, Austria, and Russia.France loses North American colonies; Spain cedes Florida to Britain in exchange for Cuba.In India, over 100 British prisoners die in “Black Hole of Calcutta.”1757The beginning of British Empire in India as Robert Clive, British commander, defeats Nawab of Bengal at Plassey.1759British capture Quebec from French.Voltaire's Candide.Haydn's Symphony No. 1.1762Catherine II (“the Great”) becomes czarina of Russia.Jean Jacques Rousseau's Social Contract.Mozart tours Europe as a six-year-old prodigy.1765James Watt invents the steam engine.Britain imposes the Stamp Act on the American colonists.1769Sir William Arkwright patents a spinning machine—an early step in the Industrial Revolution.1770The Boston Massacre.1772Joseph Priestley and Daniel Rutherford independently discover nitrogen.Partition of Poland—in 1772, 1793, and 1795, Austria, Prussia, and Russia divide land and people of Poland, end its independence.1773The Boston Tea Party.1774First Continental Congress drafts the “Declaration of Rights and Grievances.”1775The American Revolution begins with the battle of Lexington and Concord.Second Continental Congress.Priestley discovers hydrochloric and sulfuric acids.1776Declaration of Independence. Gen. George Washington crosses the Delaware Christmas night.Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.Thomas Paine's Common Sense.Fragonard's Washerwoman.Mozart's Haffner Serenade.1778Capt. James Cook discovers Hawaii.Franz Mesmer uses hypnotism.1781Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.Herschel discovers Uranus.1783Revolutionary War ends with the Treaty of Paris.William Blake's poems.Beethoven's first printed works.1784Crimea annexed by Russia.John Wesley's Deed of Declaration, the basic work of Methodism.1785Russians settle Aleutian Islands.1787The Constitution of the United States signed.Lavoisier's work on chemical nomenclature.Mozart's Don Giovanni.1788French Parlement presents grievances to Louis XVI who agrees to the convening of Estates-General in 1789—not called since 1613.Goethe's Egmont.Laplace's Laws of the Planetary System.1789French Revolution begins with the storming of the Bastille.In the U.S., Washington elected president with all 69 votes of the Electoral College, takes the oath of office in New York City.Vice President: John Adams. Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson. Secretary of Treasury: Alexander Hamilton.1790H.M.S. Bounty mutineers settle on Pitcairn Island.Aloisio Galvani experiments on electrical stimulation of the muscles.Philadelphia temporary capital of the U.S. as Congress votes to establish a new capital on Potomac.U.S. population about 3,929,000, including 698,000 slaves.Lavoisier formulates Table of 31 chemical elements.1791U.S. Bill of Rights ratified.Boswell's Life of Johnson.1792Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of Woman.1793Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed.Reign of Terror begins in France.Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin, spurring the growth of the cotton industry and helping to institutionalize slavery in the U.S. South.1794Kosciusko's uprising in Poland quelled by the Russians.In the U.S., the Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania as farmers object to liquor taxes.Reign of Terror ends with the execution of Robespierre.1796Napoléon Bonaparte, French general, defeats Austrians.In the U.S., Washington's Farewell Address (Sept. 17); John Adams elected president; Thomas Jefferson, vice president.Edward Jenner introduces smallpox vaccination.1798Napoleon extends French conquests to Rome and Egypt.U.S. Navy Department established.1799Rosetta Stone discovered in Egypt.Napoleon leads a coup that overthrows Directory, establishes the Consulate, becomes First Consul—one of three who rule France together.1800Napoleon conquers Italy, firmly establishes himself as First Consul in France.In the U.S., the federal government moves to Washington, D.C. Robert Owen's social reforms in England.William Herschel discovers infrared rays.Alessandro Volta produces electricity.1801Austria makes temporary peace with France.United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland established with one monarch and one parliament; Catholics excluded from voting.1803The U.S. negotiates Louisiana Purchase from France: for $15 million, U.S. doubles its domain, increasing its territory by 827,000 sq mi (2,144,500 sq km), from Mississippi River to the Rockies and from the Gulf of Mexico to British North America.1804Haiti declares independence from France; the first black nation to gain freedom from European colonial rule.Napoleon transforms the Consulate of France into an empire, proclaims himself emperor of France, systematizes French law under Code Napoleon.In the U.S., Alexander Hamilton is mortally wounded in duel with Aaron Burr. Lewis and Clark expedition begins exploration of what is now northwest U.S.1805Lord Nelson defeats the French-Spanish fleets in the Battle of Trafalgar.Napoleon victorious over Austrian and Russian forces at the Battle of Austerlitz.1807Robert Fulton makes the first successful steamboat trip on Clermont between New York City and Albany.1808French armies occupy Rome and Spain, extending Napoleon's empire.Britain begins aiding Spanish guerrillas against Napoleon in the Peninsular War.In the U.S., Congress bars the importation of slaves.Beethoven's Fifth and Sixth Symphonies performed.1812Napoleon's Grand Army invades Russia in June.Forced to retreat in winter, most of Napoleon's 600,000 men are lost.In the U.S., war with Britain declared over freedom of the seas for U.S. vessels (War of 1812).USS Constitution sinks British frigate.1814French defeated by allies (Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Portugal) in the War of Liberation.Napoleon exiled to Elba, off the Italian coast.Bourbon king Louis XVIII takes the French throne.George Stephenson builds the first practical steam locomotive.1815Napoleon returns: “Hundred Days” begin.Napoleon defeated by Wellington at Waterloo, banished again to St. Helena in South Atlantic.Congress of Vienna: victorious allies change the map of Europe.War of 1812 ends with Treaty of Ghent.1819Simón Bolívar liberates New Granada (now Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador) as Spain loses hold on South American countries; named president of Colombia.1820Missouri Compromise > Missouri admitted as a slave state but slavery barred in rest of Louisiana Purchase north of 36°30' N.1821Guatemala, Panama, and Santo Domingo proclaim independence from Spain.1822Greeks proclaim a republic and independence from Turkey.Turks invade Greece.Russia declares war on Turkey (1828).Greece also aided by France and Britain.War ends and Turks recognize Greek independence (1829). Brazil becomes independent of Portugal.Schubert's Eighth Symphony (“The Unfinished”).1823U.S. Monroe Doctrine warns European nations not to interfere in Western Hemisphere.1824Mexico becomes a republic, three years after declaring independence from Spain.Bolívar liberates Peru, becomes its president.Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.1825First passenger-carrying railroad in England.1826Joseph-Nicéphore Niepce takes the world's first photograph.1830French invade Algeria.Louis Philippe becomes “Citizen King” as revolution forces Charles X to abdicate.Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints formed in the U.S. by Joseph Smith.1831Polish revolt against Russia fails.Belgium separates from the Netherlands.In the U.S., Nat Turner leads an unsuccessful slave rebellion.1833Slavery abolished in the British Empire.1834Charles Babbage invents an “analytical engine,” precursor of the computer.McCormick patent reaper.1836Boer farmers start “Great Trek”—Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State founded in South Africa.Mexican army besieges Texans in Alamo.Entire garrison, including Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie, wiped out. Texans gain independence from Mexico after winning the Battle of San Jacinto.Dickens's Pickwick Papers.1837Victoria becomes queen of Great Britain.Mob kills Elijah P. Lovejoy, Illinois abolitionist publisher.1839First Opium War (to 1842) between Britain and China, over importation of drug into China.1840Lower and Upper Canada united.1841U.S. President Harrison dies (April 4) one month after inauguration; John Tyler becomes first vice president to succeed to presidency.1842Crawford Long uses first anesthetic (ether).1843Wagner's opera The Flying Dutchman.1844Democratic convention calls for annexation of Texas and acquisition of Oregon (“Fifty-four-forty-or-fight”).Five Chinese ports opened to U.S. ships.Samuel F. B. Morse patents telegraph.1845Congress adopts the joint resolution for the annexation of Texas.Edgar Allan Poe publishes The Raven and Other Poems.1846The U.S. declares war on Mexico.California and New Mexico annexed by U.S. Brigham Young leads Mormons to the Great Salt Lake.W. T. Morton uses ether as an anesthetic.Sewing machine patented by Elias Howe.Frederick Douglass launches the abolitionist newspaper The North Star.The failure of potato crops causes famine in Ireland.1848Revolt in Paris: Louis Philippe abdicates; Louis Napoleon elected President of the French Republic.Revolutions in Vienna, Venice, Berlin, Milan, Rome, and Warsaw.Put down by royal troops in 1848–1849. U.S.-Mexico War ends; Mexico cedes claims to Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada.U.S. treaty with Britain sets the Oregon Territory boundary at the 49th parallel.Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels's Communist Manifesto.Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery and joins the Underground Railroad.Women's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, N.Y.1849California gold rush begins.1850Henry Clay opens great debate on slavery, warns South against secession.1851Herman Melville's Moby-Dick.1852The South African Republic established.Louis Napoleon proclaims himself Napoleon III (“Second Empire”).Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin.1853Crimean War begins as Turkey declares war on Russia.Commodore Perry reaches Tokyo.1854Britain and France join Turkey in the war on Russia.In the U.S., the Kansas-Nebraska Act permits local options on slavery; rioting and bloodshed.Japanese allow American trade.Antislavery men in Michigan form the Republican Party.Tennyson's Charge of the Light Brigade.Thoreau's Walden.1855Armed clashes in Kansas between pro- and anti-slavery forces.Florence Nightingale nurses wounded in Crimea.Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass.1856Flaubert's Madame Bovary.1857Supreme Court, in Dred Scott decision, rules that a slave is not a citizen.The financial crisis in Europe and the U.S.Great Mutiny (Sepoy Rebellion) begins in India.India placed under the crown rule as a result.1858The pro-slavery constitution rejected in Kansas.Abraham Lincoln makes a strong antislavery speech in Springfield, Ill.: “This Government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.”Lincoln-Douglas debates.First trans-Atlantic telegraph cable completed by Cyrus W. Field.1859John Brown raids Harpers Ferry; he is captured and hanged.Work begins on the Suez Canal.Unification of Italy starts under the leadership of Count Cavour, Sardinian premier.Joined by France in the war against Austria.Jean-Joseph-Étienne Lenoir builds first practical internal-combustion engine.Edward Fitzgerald's translation of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam.Charles Darwin's Origin of Species.J. S. Mill's On Liberty.1860South Carolina secedes from the Union.1861U.S. Civil War begins as attempts at compromise fail.Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas secede; with South Carolina, they form the Confederate States of America, with Jefferson Davis as president.Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina secede and join Confederacy.First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas).Congress creates Colorado, Dakota, and Nevada territories; adopts income tax; Lincoln inaugurated.Serfs emancipated in Russia.Pasteur's theory of germs.Independent Kingdom of Italy proclaimed under Sardinian king Victor Emmanuel II.1862Several major Civil War battles: Battle of Shiloh, Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), Battle of Antietam.Salon des Refusés introduces impressionism.1863French capture Mexico City; proclaim Archduke Maximilian of Austria emperor.Battle of Gettysburg.1864Gen. Sherman's Atlanta campaign and “march to the sea.”1865Gen. Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox; the Civil War is over.Lincoln fatally shot at Ford's Theater by John Wilkes Booth.Vice President Johnson swore as successor.Booth caught and dies of gunshot wounds; four conspirators are hanged.Joseph Lister begins antiseptic surgery.Gregor Mendel's Law of Heredity.Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.1866Alfred Nobel invents dynamite (patented in Britain, 1867).Seven Weeks' War: Austria defeated by Prussia and Italy.1867Austria-Hungary Dual Monarchy established. French leave Mexico; Maximilian executed.Dominion of Canada established.The U.S. buys Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000.South African diamond field discovered.Japan ends 675–year shogun rule.Volume I of Marx's Das Kapital.Strauss's Blue Danube.1868Revolution in Spain; Queen Isabella deposed, flees to France.In the U.S., the Fourteenth Amendment giving civil rights to blacks is ratified.Georgia under military government after legislature expels blacks.1869The first U.S. transcontinental rail route completed.James Fisk and Jay Gould's attempt to control the gold market causes Black Friday panic.Suez Canal opens.Mendeleev's periodic table of elements.1870Franco-Prussian War (to 1871): Napoleon III capitulates at Sedan.Revolt in Paris; the Third Republic proclaimed.1871France surrenders Alsace-Lorraine to Germany; war ends.German Empire proclaimed with Prussian King as Kaiser Wilhelm I.Fighting with Apaches begins in American West.Boss Tweed corruption exposed in New York.The Chicago Fire, with 250 deaths and $196-million damage.Stanley meets Livingstone in Africa.1872Congress gives amnesty to most Confederates.Jules Verne's Around the World in 80 Days.1873The economic crisis in Europe.The U.S. establishes a gold standard.1875First Kentucky Derby.1876Sioux kill Gen. George A. Custer and 264 troopers at Little Big Horn River.Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone.1877After the presidential election of 1876, the electoral commission gives disputed electoral college votes to Rutherford B. Hayes despite Tilden's popular majority.Russo-Turkish war (ends in 1878 with the power of Turkey in Europe broken).Reconstruction ends in the American South.Thomas Edison patents phonograph.The Nez Perce leader Chief Joseph is forced to surrender.Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake.1878Congress of Berlin revises the Treaty of San Stefano, ending Russo-Turkish War; makes extensive division of southeast Europe.The first commercial telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Conn.1879Thomas A. Edison invents practical electric light.1880U.S.-China treaty allows the U.S. to restrict the immigration of Chinese labor.1881President Garfield fatally shot by an assassin; Vice President Arthur succeeds him.Charles J. Guiteau convicted and executed (1882).1882Terrorism in Ireland after land evictions.Britain invades and conquers Egypt.Germany, Austria, and Italy form the Triple Alliance.In the U.S., Congress adopts the Chinese Exclusion Act.Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust is the first industrial monopoly.In Berlin, Robert Koch announces the discovery of tuberculosis germ.1883Congress creates the Civil Service Commission.Brooklyn Bridge and Metropolitan Opera House completed.1884Berlin West Africa Conference held in Berlin (lasting until Feb. 1885), at which the major European nations discuss expansion in Africa.1885British general Charles G. “Chinese” Gordon killed at Khartoum in Egyptian Sudan.World's first skyscraper built in Chicago.1886Bombing at Haymarket Square, Chicago, kills seven policemen and injures many others.Eight alleged anarchists accused—three imprisoned, one commits suicide, four hanged. (In 1893, Illinois governor Altgeld, critical of trial, pardons three survivors.)Statue of Liberty dedicated.Geronimo, Apache Indian chief, surrenders.1887Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee.Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's first Sherlock Holmes story, A Study in Scarlet.1888Historic March blizzard in the northeast U.S.—many perish, property damage exceeds $25 million.George Eastman's box camera (the Kodak).J. B. Dunlop invents a pneumatic tire.Jack the Ripper murders in London.1889Second (Socialist) International founded in Paris.Indian Territory in Oklahoma opened to settlement.Thousands die in Johnstown, Pa. flood.Eiffel Tower built for the Paris exposition.Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.1890Congress votes to pass the Sherman Antitrust Act.Sioux chief Sitting Bull arrested and killed by police on Pine Ridge reservation; two weeks later, U.S. troops kill over 200 Sioux at Battle of Wounded Knee.1892The battle between steel strikers and Pinkerton guards at Homestead, Pa.; union defeated after militia intervenes.Silvermine strikers in Idaho fight non-union workers; U.S. troops dispatched.Diesel engine patented.1893New Zealand becomes the first country in the world to grant women the vote.1894Sino-Japanese War begins (ends in 1895 with China's defeat).In France, Capt. Alfred Dreyfus convicted on false treason charges (pardoned in 1906).In the U.S., Jacob S. Coxey of Ohio leads “Coxey's Army” of unemployed on Washington.Eugene V. Debs calls a general strike of rail workers to support Pullman Company strikers; strike broken, Debs jailed for six months.Edison's kinetoscope was given the first public showing in New York City.1895X-rays discovered by German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen.Auguste and Louis Lumière premiere motion pictures at a café in Paris.1896Supreme Court's Plessy v. Ferguson decision—“separate but equal” doctrine.Alfred Nobel's will establishes prizes for peace, science, and literature.Marconi receives the first wireless patent in Britain.William Jennings Bryan delivers the “Cross of Gold” speech at the Democratic Convention in Chicago.First modern Olympic games held in Athens, Greece.1897Theodor Herzl launches the Zionist movement.1898Chinese “Boxers,” anti-foreign organization, established.They stage uprisings against Europeans in 1900; the U.S. and other Western troops relieve Peking legations.U.S. Battleship Maine is sunk in Havana Harbor.Spanish-American War begins. The U.S. destroys the Spanish fleet near Santiago, Cuba.Pierre and Marie Curie discover radium and polonium.1899Boer War (or South African War): the conflict between British and Boers (descendants of Dutch settlers of South Africa).Causes rooted in longstanding territorial disputes and in friction over political rights for English and other “uitlanders” following 1886 discovery of vast gold deposits in Transvaal. (British victorious as the war ends in 1902.) Casualties: 5,774 British dead, about 4,000 Boers.Union of South Africa established in 1908 as a confederation of colonies; becomes British dominion in 1910.WE ARE JUST GETTING STARTED LOL1900Hurricane ravages Galveston, Tex.; 6,000–8,000 dead.Fauvist movement in painting begins, led by Henri Matisse.Sigmund Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams.Carrie Chapman Catt succeeds Susan B. Anthony as president of the National Woman Suffrage Association.1901Queen Victoria dies and is succeeded by her son, Edward VII.As President McKinley begins the second term, he is shot fatally by anarchist Leon Czolgosz.Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in as a successor.1902Enrico Caruso's first gramophone recording.Aswan Dam completed.1903Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, fly first powered, controlled, the heavier-than-air plane at Kitty Hawk,N.C. Henry Ford organizes Ford Motor Company.The Boston Red Sox win the first World Series against the Pittsburgh Pirates.W.E.B. Du Bois publishes The Souls of Black Folk.1904Russo-Japanese War begins—competition for Korea and Manchuria.Entente Cordiale: Britain and France settle their international differences.A general theory of radioactivity by Rutherford and Soddy.New York City subway opens.1905In the Russo-Japanese War, Port Arthur surrenders to Japanese; Russia suffers other defeats.President Roosevelt mediates the Treaty of Portsmouth, N.H., which recognizes Japan's control of Korea and restores southern Manchuria to China.The Russian Revolution of 1905 begins on “Bloody Sunday” when troops fire onto a defenseless group of demonstrators in St. Petersburg.Strikes and riots follow.Sailors on battleship Potemkin mutiny; reforms, including first Duma (parliament), established by Czar Nicholas II's “October Manifesto.”Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity and other key theories in physics.Franz Lehar's Merry Widow.1906San Francisco earthquake and three-day fire; more than 500 dead.Roald Amundsen, the Norwegian explorer, fixes the magnetic North Pole.1907Second Hague Peace Conference, of 46 nations, adopts 10 conventions on rules of war.The financial panic of 1907 in the U.S. Mahler begins work on “Song of the Earth.”Oklahoma becomes the 46th state.Picasso's Les Demoiselles d'Avignon introduces cubism.1908Earthquake kills 150,000 in southern Italy and Sicily.U.S. Supreme Court, in Danbury Hatters' case, outlaws secondary union boycotts.Model T produced by Ford Motor Company.1909The North Pole reportedly reached by American explorers Robert E. Peary and Matthew Henson.The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People is founded in New York by prominent black and white intellectuals and led by W.E.B. Du Bois.1911The first use of aircraft as an offensive weapon in the Turkish-Italian War.Italy defeats Turks and annexes Tripoli and Libya.The Chinese Republic proclaimed after a revolution overthrows the Manchu dynasty.Sun Yat-sen named the president.Mexican Revolution: Porfirio Diaz, president since 1877, replaced by Francisco Madero.Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire in New York; 146 killed.Amundsen reaches the South Pole.Ernest Rutherford discovers the structure of the atom.Richard Strauss's Der Rosenkavalier.Irving Berlin's Alexander's Ragtime Band.1912Balkan Wars (1912–1913) resulting from territorial disputes: Turkey defeated by an alliance of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro; London peace treaty (1913) partitions most of European Turkey among the victors.In the second war (1913), Bulgaria attacks Serbia and Greece and is defeated after Romania intervenes and Turks recapture Adrianople.Titanic sinks on the maiden voyage; over 1,500 drown.New Mexico and Arizona admitted as states.1913·Suffragists demonstrate in London.Garment workers strike in New York and Boston; win pay raise and shorter hours.Henry Ford develops the first moving assembly line. 16th Amendment (income tax) and 17th (popular election of U.S. senators) adopted.Bill creating U.S. Federal Reserve System becomes law.Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring.Woodrow Wilson becomes 28th U.S. president.Armory Show introduces modern art to the U.S.; Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase shocks public.1914World War I begins: Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and wife Sophie are assassinated; Austria declares war on Serbia, Germany on Russia and France, Britain on GermanPanama Canal officially opened.Congress sets up the Federal Trade Commission, passes the Clayton Antitrust Act.U.S. Marines occupy Veracruz, Mexico, intervening in a civil war to protect American interests.1915Lusitania sunk by a German submarine.Second Battle of Ypres.U.S. banks lend $500 million to France and Britain.Genocide of estimated 600,000 to 1 million Armenians by Turkish soldiers.D. W. Griffith's film Birth of a Nation.Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity.1916·Congress expands armed forces.Battle of Verdun.Battle of the Somme.Tom Mooney arrested for the San Francisco bombing (pardoned in 1939).Pershing fails in a raid into Mexico in quest of rebel Pancho Villa.The U.S. buys the Virgin Islands from Denmark for $25 million.President Wilson re-elected with “he kept us out of war” slogan.“Black Tom” explosion at munitions dock in Jersey City, N.J., $40,000,000 damages; traced to German saboteurs.Margaret Sanger opens the first birth control clinic.Easter Rebellion in Ireland put down by British troops.Jeannette Rankin becomes the first woman elected to Congress.1917·First U.S. combat troops in France as the U.S. declares war on Germany (April 6).Third Battle of Ypres.Russian Revolution of 1917—the climax of long unrest under czars.February Revolution—Nicholas II forced to abdicate, the liberal government created.Kerensky becomes prime minister and forms a provisional government (July).In October Revolution, Bolsheviks seize power in armed coup d'état led by Lenin and Trotsky.Kerensky flees.Balfour Declaration promises a Jewish homeland in Palestine.The U.S. declares war on Austria-Hungary (Dec. 7).Armistice between the new Russian Bolshevik government and Germans (Dec. 15).Sigmund Freud's Introduction to Psychoanalysis.1918·Russian revolutionaries executed the former czar and his family.·Russian Civil War between Reds (Bolsheviks) and Whites (anti-Bolsheviks); Reds win in 1920.·Allied troops (U.S., British, French) intervene (March); leave in 1919.·Second Battle of the Marne (July–Aug.)·German Kaiser abdicates (Nov.); hostilities cease on the Western Front.·Japanese hold Vladivostok until 1922.·Worldwide influenza epidemic strikes; by 1920, nearly 20 million are dead.·In the U.S. alone, 500,000 perish.1919·Third International (Comintern) establishes Soviet control over international Communist movements.·Paris peace conference.·Versailles Treaty, incorporating Woodrow Wilson's draft Covenant of League of Nations, signed by Allies and Germany; rejected by U.S. Senate.·Congress formally ends the war in 1921.·18th (Prohibition) Amendment adopted.·Alcock and Brown make a first trans-Atlantic nonstop flight.·Mahatma Gandhi initiates satyagraha (“truth force”) campaigns, beginning his nonviolent resistance movement against British rule in India.1920·League of Nations holds first meeting at Geneva, Switzerland.·U.S. Dept. of Justice “red hunt” nets thousands of radicals; aliens deported.·Women's suffrage (19th) amendment ratified.·Treaty of Sèvres dissolves Ottoman Empire.·First Agatha Christie mystery. Sinclair Lewis's Main Street.1921·Reparations Commission fixes German liability at 132 billion gold marks.·German inflation begins.·Major treaties signed at Washington Disarmament Conference limit naval tonnage and pledge to respect the territorial integrity of China.·In the U.S., Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, Italian-born anarchists, convicted of armed robbery-murder; case stirs worldwide protests; they are executed in 1927.1922·Mussolini marches on Rome; forms a Fascist government.·Irish Free State, a self-governing dominion of the British Empire, officially proclaimed.·Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, overthrows the last sultan.·James Joyce's Ulysses.1923·Adolf Hitler's “Beer Hall Putsch” in Munich fails; in 1924 he is sentenced to five years in prison where he writes Mein Kampf; released after eight months.·Occupation of Ruhr by French and Belgian troops to enforce reparations payments.·Widespread Ku Klux Klan violence in U.S. Earthquake destroys third of Tokyo.·George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue.·Bessie Smith, known as “the Empress of the Blues,” makes her first record.·Irish poet William Butler Yeats wins Nobel Prize in Literature.1924·Death of Lenin; Stalin wins the power struggle, rules as Soviet dictator until death in 1953.·Italian Fascists murder Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti.·Interior Secretary Albert B. Fall and oilmen Harry Sinclair and Edward L. Doheny are charged with conspiracy and bribery in the Teapot Dome scandal, involving fraudulent leases of naval oil reserves.·In 1931, Fall is sentenced to a year in prison; Doheny and Sinclair acquitted of bribery.·Nathan Leopold and Richard Loeb convicted in the “thrill killing” of Bobby Franks in Chicago; defended by Clarence Darrow; sentenced to life imprisonment. (Loeb killed by a fellow convict in 1936; Leopold paroled in 1958, dies in 1971.)·Robert Frost wins the first of four Pulitzers.1925·Nellie Tayloe Ross elected governor of Wyoming; first woman governor elected in U.S. Locarno conferences seek to secure European peace by mutual guarantees.·John T. Scopes convicted and fined for teaching evolution in a public school in Tennessee “Monkey Trial”; sentence set aside.·John Logie Baird, Scottish inventor, transmits human features by television.·Hitler publishes Volume I of Mein Kampf.1926·A general strike in Britain brings the nation's activities to a standstill.·U.S. marines dispatched to Nicaragua during revolt; they remain until 1933.·Gertrude Ederle of the U.S. is the first woman to swim the English Channel.·Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises.1927·German economy collapses.·Socialists riot in Vienna; general strike follows acquittal of Nazis for political murder.·Trotsky expelled from the Russian Communist Party.·Charles A. Lindbergh flies the first successful solo nonstop flight from New York to Paris.·Ruth Snyder and Judd Gray convicted of the murder of Albert Snyder; they are executed at Sing Sing prison in 1928.·Philo T. Farnsworth demonstrates the working television model.·Georges Lemaître proposes the Big Bang Theory.·Babe Ruth hits 60 home runs in the season; record stands for the next 34 years.·The Jazz Singer, with Al Jolson, first part-talking motion picture.1928·Kellogg-Briand Pact, outlawing war, signed in Paris by 65 nations.·Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin.·Richard E. Byrd starts an expedition to the Antarctic; returns in 1930.·Anthropologist Margaret Mead publishes Coming of Age in Samoa.·The final volume of the Oxford English Dictionary published after 44 years of research.1929·Trotsky expelled from USSR Lateran Treaty establishes independent Vatican City.·In the U.S., stock market prices collapse, with U.S. securities losing $26 billion—the first phase of Depression and the world economic crisis.·St. Valentine's Day gangland massacre in Chicago.·Edwin Powell Hubble proposes the theory of expanding the universe.1930·Britain, U.S., Japan, France, and Italy sign naval disarmament treaty.·Nazis gain in German elections. Cyclotron developed by Ernest O. Lawrence, U.S. physicist.·Pluto discovered1931·German industrialists finance 800,000-strong Nazi party.·British parliament enacts statute of Westminster, legalizing dominion equality with Britain.·Harold C. Urey discovers heavy hydrogen.·Gangster Al Capone sentenced to 11 years in prison for tax evasion (freed in 1939; dies in 1947).1932·Nazis lead in German elections with 230 Reichstag seats.·Famine in USSR.·In U.S., Congress sets up Reconstruction Finance Corporation to stimulate economy Amelia Earhart is first woman to fly Atlantic solo.1933·Hitler appointed German chancellor, gets dictatorial powers.·Reichstag fire in Berlin; Nazi terror begins.·Germany and Japan withdraw from League of Nations Roosevelt inaugurated (“the only thing we have to fear is fear itself”); launches New Deal.·Prohibition repealed.·USSR recognized by U.S.1934·Chancellor Dollfuss of Austria assassinated by Nazis·. Hitler becomes führer.·USSR admitted to League of Nations.·Mao Zedong begins the Long March north with 100,000 soldiers.1935·Saar incorporated into Germany after plebiscite.·Nazis repudiate Versailles Treaty, introduce compulsory military service.·Mussolini invades Ethiopia; League of Nations invokes sanctions.·Roosevelt opens second phase of New Deal in U.S., calling for social security, better housing, equitable taxation, and farm assistance.1936·Germans occupy Rhineland.·Italy annexes Ethiopia.·Rome-Berlin Axis proclaimed (Japan to join in 1940).·King George V dies; succeeded by son, Edward VIII, who soon abdicates to marry an American-born divorcée, and is succeeded by brother, George VI.·Spanish civil war begins.·War between China and Japan begins, to continue through World War II.1937·Hitler repudiates war guilt clause of Versailles Treaty; continues to build German power.·Italy withdraws from League of Nations.·Japan invades China, conquers most of coastal area.·Picasso's Guernica mural.1938·Hitler marches into Austria; political and geographical union of Germany and Austria proclaimed.·Fair Labor Standards Act establishes minimum wage.1939·Germany invades Poland; occupies Bohemia and Moravia; renounces pact with England and concludes 10-year non-aggression pact with USSR.·Russo-Finnish War begins; Finns to lose one-tenth of territory in 1940 peace treaty.·World War II begins.·In U.S., Roosevelt submits $1,319-million defense budget, proclaims U.S. neutrality, and declares limited emergency.·Einstein writes FDR about feasibility of atomic bomb.1940·Hitler invades Norway, Denmark (April 9), the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg (May 10), and France (May 12).·Churchill becomes Britain's prime minister.Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania annexed by USSR.·The first official network television broadcast is put out by NBC.1941·Germany attacks the Balkans and Russia.·Japanese surprise attack on U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor brings U.S. into World War II; U.S. and Britain declare war on Japan.·Manhattan Project (atomic bomb research) begins.1942·Declaration of United Nations signed in Washington (Jan. 1).·Enrico Fermi achieves nuclear chain reaction.·More than 120,000 Japanese and persons of Japanese ancestry living in western U.S. moved to “relocation centers,” some for the duration of the war (Executive Order 9066).·Coconut Grove nightclub fire in Boston kills 492 (Nov. 28).1943·Churchill and Roosevelt hold Casablanca Conference (Jan. 14–23).·President freezes prices, salaries, and wages to prevent inflation.·Income tax withholding introduced.1944·Allies invade Normandy on D-Day (June 6).·G.I. Bill of Rights enacted. Bretton Woods Conference creates International Monetary Fund and World Bank (July 1–22).·Dumbarton Oaks Conference—U.S., British Commonwealth, and USSR propose establishment of United Nations (Aug. 21–Oct. 7).·Battle of the Bulge (Dec. 16).·Woody Guthrie records “This Land is Your Land.” Gunnar Myrdal's An American Dilemma.1945·Yalta Conference (Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin) plans final defeat of Germany (Feb. 4–11).·FDR dies (April 12).·Hitler commits suicide (April 30); Germany surrenders (May 7); May 8 is declared V-E Day.·Potsdam Conference (Truman, Churchill, Stalin) establishes basis of German reconstruction (July–Aug.).·U.S. drops atomic bombs on Japanese cities of Hiroshima (Aug. 6) and Nagasaki (Aug. 9).·Japan signs official surrender on V-J Day (Sept. 2).·United Nations established (Oct. 24).·First electronic computer, ENIAC, built.1946·First meeting of UN General Assembly opens in London (Jan. 10).·Winston Churchill's “Iron Curtain” speech warns of Soviet expansion (March 5).·League of Nations dissolved (April·Italy abolishes monarchy (June).·Verdict in Nuremberg war trial: 12 Nazi leaders (including 1 tried in absentia) sentenced to hang; 7 imprisoned; 3 acquitted (Oct. 1).·Goering commits suicide a few hours before 10 other Nazis are executed (Oct. 15).·Juan Perón becomes president of Argentina.·Benjamin Spock's childcare classic published.1947·Britain nationalizes coal mines (Jan. 1).·Peace treaties for Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Finland signed in Paris (Feb. 10).·Soviet Union rejects U.S. plan for UN atomic-energy control (March 4).·India and Pakistan gain independence from Britain (Aug. 15).·U.S. Air Force pilot Chuck Yeager becomes first person to break the sound barrier (Oct. 14).·Anne Frank's The Diary of a Young Girl published.1948·Gandhi assassinated in New Delhi(Jan. 30).·Burma (Jan. 4) and Ceylon (Feb. 4) granted independence by Britain.·Communists seize power in Czechoslovakia (Feb. 23–25).·Nation of Israel proclaimed; British end mandate at midnight; Arab armies attack (May 14).·Berlin blockade begins (June 24), prompting Allied airlift (June 26).·Independent Republic of Korea is proclaimed, following election supervised by UN (Aug. 15).·United States of Indonesia established as Dutch and Indonesians settle conflict (Dec. 27).1949·Cease-fire in Palestine (Jan. 7).·Israel signs armistice with Egypt (Feb. 24).·Start of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)—treaty signed by 12 nations (April 4).·Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) established (May 23).·First successful Soviet atomic test (July 14).·Communist People's Republic of China formally proclaimed by Chairman Mao Zedong (Oct. 1).·German Democratic Republic (East Germany) established under Soviet rule (Oct. 7).1950·Truman orders development of hydrogen bomb (Jan. 31).·Korean War begins when North Korean Communist forces invade South Korea (June 25).1951·Julius and Ethel Rosenberg sentenced to death for passing atomic secrets to Russians (March).·Color television introduced in U.S.·Libya gains independence (Dec. 24).1952·George VI dies; his daughter becomes Elizabeth II (Feb. 6).1953·Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower inaugurated president of United States (Jan. 20).·Stalin dies (March 5).·James Watson and Francis Crick publish their discovery of the molecular model of DNA (April–May).·Edmund Hillary of New Zealand and Tenzing Norgay of Nepal reach top of Mt. Everest (May 29).·Egypt becomes republic ruled by military junta (June 18).·Korean armistice signed (July 27).·Moscow announces explosion of hydrogen bomb (Aug. 20).·Tito becomes president of Yugoslavia.·James Watson, Francis Crick, and Rosalind Franklin discover structure of DNA.1954·First atomic submarine Nautilus launched (Jan. 21).·Eight-nation Southeast Asia defense treaty (SEATO) signed at Manila (Sept. 8).·Dr. Jonas Salk starts inoculating children against polio.·Algerian War of Independence against France begins (Nov.); France struggles to maintain colonial rule until 1962 when it agrees to Algeria's independence.1955·Churchill resigns; Anthony Eden succeeds him (April 6).·Western European Union (WEU) comes into being (May 6).·Rosa Parks refuses to sit at the back of the bus.1956·First aerial H-bomb tested over Namu islet, Bikini Atoll > 10 million tons TNT equivalent (May 21).·Egypt takes control of Suez Canal (July 26).·Israel launches attack on Egypt's Sinai peninsula and drives toward Suez Canal (Oct. 29).·Cease-fire forced by U.S. pressure stops British, French, and Israeli advance (Nov. 6).·Morocco gains independence.1957·Russians launch Sputnik I, first Earth-orbiting satellite—the Space Age begins (Oct. 4).1958·Army's Jupiter-C rocket fires first U.S. Earth satellite, Explorer I, into orbit (Jan. 31).·Egypt and Syria merge into United Arab Republic (Feb. 1).1959·Tibet's Dalai Lama escapes to India (Mar. 31).1960·Senegal, Ghana, Nigeria, Madagascar, and Zaire (Belgian Congo) gain independence.1961·U.S. breaks diplomatic relations with Cuba (Jan. 3).·Moscow announces putting first man in orbit around Earth, Maj. Yuri A. Gagarin (April 12).·Virgil Grissom becomes second American astronaut, making 118-mile-high, 303-mile-long rocket flight over Atlantic (July 21).·Gherman Stepanovich Titov is launched in Soviet spaceship Vostok East Germans erect Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin to halt the flood of refugees (Aug. 13).·USSR fires a 50-megaton hydrogen bomb, the biggest explosion in history (Oct. 29).1962·Lt. Col. John H. Glenn, Jr., is first American to orbit Earth—three times in 4 hr 55 min (Feb. 20).·Burundi, Jamaica, Western Samoa, Uganda, and Trinidad and Tobago become independent.1963·Michael E. De Bakey implants an artificial heart in humans for the first time at Houston hospital; plastic device functions and patient lives for four days (April 21).·Martin Luther King delivers “I have a dream” speech (Aug. 28).·President Kennedy shot and killed by a sniper in Dallas, Tex.·Kenya achieves independence.1964·Nelson Mandela sentenced to life imprisonment (June 11).1967·Three Apollo astronauts—Col. Virgil I. Grissom, Col. Edward White II, and Lt. Cmdr. Roger B. Chaffee—killed in spacecraft fire during simulated launch (Jan. 27).·Israeli and Arab forces battle; six-day war ends with Israel occupying the Sinai Peninsula, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip, and the east bank of Suez Canal (June 5).·Red China announces the explosion of its first hydrogen bomb (June 17).1969·Richard M. Nixon is inaugurated 37th president of the U.S. (Jan. 20).·Apollo 11 astronauts—Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., and Michael Collins—take man's first walk on the moon (July 20).1970·Biafra surrenders after 32-month fight for independence from Nigeria (Jan. 15).·U.S. troops invade Cambodia (May 1).1971·UN seats Communist China and expels Nationalist China (Oct. 25).1972·Britain takes over direct rule of Northern Ireland in bid for peace (March 24).·Eleven Israeli athletes at Olympic Games in Munich are killed after eight members of an Arab terrorist group invade Olympic Village; five guerrillas and one policeman are also killed (Sept. 5).1973·Fourth and biggest Arab-Israeli conflict begins as Egyptian and Syrian forces attack Israel as Jews mark Yom Kippur, holiest day in their calendar (Oct. 6)·Egypt and Israel sign U.S.-sponsored cease-fire accord (Nov. 11).1975·Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft take off for U.S.-Soviet link-up in space (July 15).·President Ford escapes assassination attempt in Sacramento, Calif. (Sept. 5).·President Ford escapes the second assassination attempt in 17 days (Sept. 22).1976·Israeli airborne commandos attack Uganda's Entebbe Airport and free 103 hostages held by pro-Palestinian hijackers of Air France plane; one Israeli and several Ugandan soldiers killed in the raid (July 4).1977·Scientists report using bacteria in the lab to make insulin (May 23).·Deng Xiaoping, purged Chinese leader, restored to power as “Gang of Four” is expelled from Communist Party (July 22).·The nuclear-proliferation pact, curbing the spread of nuclear weapons, signed by 15 countries, including the U.S. and USSR (Sept. 21).1978·Rhodesia's prime minister Ian D. Smith and three black leaders agree on the transfer to black majority rule (Feb. 15).·Former Italian premier Aldo Moro kidnapped by left-wing terrorists, who kill five bodyguards (March 16); he is found slain (May 9).·Pope Paul VI, dead at 80, mourned (Aug. 6); new Pope, John Paul I, 65, dies unexpectedly after 34 days in office (Sept. 28); succeeded by Karol Cardinal Wojtyla of Poland as John Paul II (Oct. 16).·“Framework for Peace” in the Middle East signed by Egypt's president Anwar Sadat and Israeli premier Menachem Begin after the 13-day conference at Camp David led by President Carter (Sept. 17).·Jim Jones's followers commit mass suicide in Jonestown, Guyana (Nov. 18).1979·Oil spills pollute ocean waters in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico (Jan. 1, June 8, July 21).·Shah leaves Iran after a year of turmoil (Jan. 16); revolutionary forces under Muslim leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, take over (Feb. 1 et seq.).·The nuclear power plant accident at Three Mile Island, Pa., releases radiation (March 28).·Nicaraguan president Gen. Anastasio Somoza Debayle resigns and flees to Miami (July 17); Sandinistas form a government (July 19).·Iranian militants seize the U.S. embassy in Tehran and hold hostages (Nov. 4).·Soviet invasion of Afghanistan stirs world protests (Dec. 27).1980·Six U.S. embassy aides escape from Iran with Canadian help (Jan. 29).·The U.S. breaks diplomatic ties with Iran (April 7).·Eight U.S. servicemen are killed and five are injured as helicopter and cargo plane collide in the abortive desert raid to rescue American hostages in Tehran (April 25).·Shah of Iran dies at 60 (July 27).·Iraq troops hold 90 square miles of Iran after the invasion; the 8-year Iran-Iraq war begins (Sept. 19).·Ronald Reagan elected president in Republican sweep (Nov. 4).·John Lennon of the Beatles shot dead in New York City (Dec. 8).·Smallpox eradicated.1981·U.S.-Iran agreement frees 52 hostages held in Tehran since 1979 (Jan. 20); hostages welcomed back in U.S. (Jan. 25).·Pope John Paul II wounded by gunman (May 14).·More than 110 die in collapse of aerial walkways in lobby of Hyatt Regency Hotel in Kansas City; 188 injured (July 18).·AIDS is first identified.1982·British overcome Argentina in Falklands war (April 2–June 15).·Israel invades Lebanon in attack on P.L.O. (June 4).·Princess Grace, 52, dies of injuries when car plunges off mountain road; daughter Stephanie, 17, suffers serious injuries (Sept. 14).·Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet leader, dies at 75 (Nov. 10). Yuri V. Andropov, 68, chosen as successor (Nov. 15).·Permanent artificial heart implanted in human for first time in Dr. Barney B. Clark, 61, at University of Utah Medical Center in Salt Lake City (Dec. 2).1983·Second space shuttle, Challenger, makes successful maiden voyage, which includes the first U.S. space walk in nine years (April 4).·Sally K. Ride, 32, first U.S. woman astronaut in space as a crew member aboard space shuttle Challenger (June 18) South Korean Boeing 747 jetliner bound for Seoul apparently strays into Soviet airspace and is shot down by a Soviet SU-15 fighter after it had tracked the airliner for two hours; all 269 aboard are killed, including 61 Americans (Aug. 30).·Terrorist explosion kills 237 U.S. Marines in Beirut (Oct. 23).·U.S. and Caribbean allies invade Grenada (Oct. 25).1984·Bell System was broken up (Jan. 1).·France gets the first deliveries of Soviet natural gas (Jan. 1).·Yuri V. Andropov dies at 69; Konstantin U. Chernenko, 72, named Soviet Union leader (Feb. 9).·Italy and Vatican agree to end Roman Catholicism as the state religion (Feb. 18).·Soviet Union withdraws from the summer Olympic games in the U.S., and other bloc nations follow (May 7 et seq.).·Three hundred slain as Indian Army occupies Sikh Golden Temple in Amritsar (June 6).·Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi assassinated by two Sikh bodyguards; 1,000 killed in anti-Sikh riots; son Rajiv succeeds her (Oct. 31).·President Reagan re-elected in a landslide with 59% of the vote (Nov. 6). Toxic gas leaks from Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, India, killing 2,000 and injuring 150,000 (Dec. 3).1985·Ronald Reagan, 73, takes oath for second term as 40th president (Jan. 20).·USSR leader Chernenko dies at 73 and is replaced by Mikhail Gorbachev, 54 (March 11).·Two Shi'ite Muslim gunmen capture TWA airliner with 133 aboard, 104 of them Americans (June 14); 39 remaining hostages freed in Beirut (June 30).·P.L.O. terrorists hijack Achille Lauro, Italian cruise ship, with 80 passengers, plus crew (Oct. 7).·Terrorists seize Egyptian Boeing 737 airliner after takeoff from Athens (Nov. 23); 59 dead as Egyptian forces storm plane on Malta (Nov. 24).1986·Voyager 2 spacecraft reports the secrets of Uranus (Jan. 26).·Space shuttle Challenger explodes after launch at Cape Canaveral, Fla., killing all seven aboard (Jan. 28).·Prime Minister Olof Palme of Sweden shot dead (Feb. 28).·Union Carbide agrees to settlement with victims of Bhopal gas leak in India (March 22).·Halley's comet yields information on a return visit (April 10).·U.S. planes attack Libyan “terrorist centers” (April 14).·The major nuclear accident at Soviet Union's Chernobyl power station alarms world (April 26 et seq.).1987·Iraqi missiles kill 37 in attack on U.S. frigate Stark in Persian Gulf (May 17); Iraqi president apologizes (May 18).·Severe earthquake strikes Los Angeles, leaving 100 injured and six dead (Oct. 1).1988·U.S. and Canada reach free trade agreement (Jan. 2).·U.S. Navy ship shoots down Iranian airliner in Persian Gulf, mistaking it for jet fighter; 290 killed (July 3).·Terrorists kill nine tourists on Aegean cruise (July 11).·Plane blast kills Pakistani president Mohammad Zia ul-Haq (Aug. 17).·Benazir Bhutto, first Islamic woman prime minister, chosen to lead Pakistan (Dec. 1).·Pan-Am 747 explodes from terrorist bomb and crashes in Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 aboard and 11 on ground (Dec. 21).1989·Emperor Hirohito of Japan dead at 87 (Jan. 7).·George Herbert Walker Bush inaugurated as 41st U.S. president (Jan. 20).·Ruptured tanker Exxon Valdez sends 11 million gallons of crude oil into Alaska's Prince William Sound (March 24).·Tens of thousands of Chinese students take over Beijing's Tiananmen Square in rally for democracy (April 19 et seq.)·More than one million in Beijing demonstrate for democracy; chaos spreads across nation (mid-May et seq.).·Mikhail S. Gorbachev named Soviet president (May 25).·Thousands killed in Tiananmen Square as Chinese leaders take hard line toward demonstrators (June 4 et seq.).·Voyager 2 spacecraft speeds by Neptune after making startling discoveries about the planet and its moons (Aug. 29).·After 28 years, Berlin Wall is open to West (Nov. 11).·Czech Parliament ends Communists' dominant role (Nov. 30).·Dalai Lama wins Nobel Peace Prize.1990·World Wide Web debuts, popularizes Internet.·South Africa frees Nelson Mandela, imprisoned 27 1/2 years (Feb. 11).·Hubble Space Telescope launched (April 25).·Iraqi troops invade Kuwait and seize petroleum reserves, setting off Persian Gulf War (Aug. 2 et seq.).·East and West Germany reunited (Oct. 3).·Leaders of 34 nations in Europe and North America proclaim a united Europe (Nov. 21).·Margaret Thatcher resigns as British prime minister (Nov. 22); John Major succeeds her (Nov. 28).1991·U.S. and Allies at war with Iraq (Jan. 15).·Europeans end sanctions on South Africa (April 15).·France agrees to sign 1968 treaty banning spread of atomic weapons (June 3).·Boris N. Yeltsin inaugurated as first freely elected president of Russian Republic (July 10).·China accepts nuclear nonproliferation treaty (Aug. 10).·Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia win independence (Aug. 25).·Israel and Soviet Union resume relations after 24 years (Oct. 18).·Soviet Union breaks up after President Gorbachev's resignation.1992·U.S. lifts trade sanctions against China (Feb. 21).·Prince and Princess of Wales agree to separate (Dec. 9).1993·Five arrested, sixth sought in bombing of World Trade Center in New York (March 29).·President of Sri Lanka assassinated (May 1).·Twenty-two UN troops killed in Somalia (June 5).·Toni Morrison wins Nobel prize for literature.1994·Olympic figure skater Nancy Kerrigan attacked (Jan. 6); three arrested in attack (Jan. 13).·Major earthquake jolts Los Angeles; 51 dead (Jan. 17 et seq.).·Four convicted in World Trade Center bombing (March 4).·Rwandan genocide of Tutsis by Hutus begins; estimated 800,000 slaughtered in c. 100 days (April 6).·South Africa holds first interracial national election (April 29); Nelson Mandela elected president.·Israel and Palestinians sign accord (May 4). Small plane crashes into White House (Sept. 12).·Baseball owners end season and cancel World Series (Sept. 14).·Powerful earthquake strikes Japan (Oct. 4).·Israel and Jordan sign peace treaty (Oct. 17).·Reagan, 83, reveals he has Alzheimer's disease (Nov. 6).1995·More than 5,000 dead in Japanese earthquake (Jan. 17 et seq.).·U.S. rescues Mexico's economy with $20-billion aid program (Feb. 21).·Nerve gas attack in Tokyo subway kills eight and injures thousands.·UN Council votes easier sanctions for Iraq (April 14)·Death toll 2,000 in Rwanda massacre (April 22).·U.S. shuttle docks with Russian space station (June 27).·France explodes nuclear device in Pacific; wide protests ensue (Sept. 5).·Israelis and Palestinians agree on transferring West Bank to Arabs (Sept. 24).1996·At least 73 dead in Sri Lankan suicide bombing (Feb. 1).·Suicide bombers kill 59 in Israel (March 4).·Britain alarmed by deadly cow disease (March 20 et seq.).·China agrees to world ban on atomic testing (June 6).·Truck bomb kills 19 at U.S. base in Saudi Arabia (June 25).·Prince Charles and Princess Diana agree on divorce (July 12).·747 airliner crashes in Atlantic off Long Island; all 230 aboard perish (July 17).·Bomb mars Summer Olympic games in Atlanta (July 25).·Taliban Muslim fundamentalists capture Afghan capital (Sept. 27).·Mid-air collision in India kills 342 (Nov. 12).·Texaco settles racial bias suit (Nov. 15).1997·U.S. shuttle joins Russian space station (Jan. 17).·Deng Xiaoping, Chinese leader, dead at 92 (Feb. 19).·Israeli government approves establishment of Jewish settlement in East Jerusalem, a setback in Middle East peace process (Feb. 26).·Tornadoes wreak havoc in Arkansas, Ohio, and Kentucky (March 3).·Hale-Bopp comet is the closest it will be to Earth until 4397 (March 22).·Heaven's Gate cult members commit mass suicide in California (March 27).·Tiger Woods breaks multiple records in Masters golf tournament (April 13).·Fire kills 300 pilgrims outside Mecca (April 15).·Hong Kong returns to Chinese rule (June 30).·U.S. spacecraft begins exploration of Mars (July 4).·U.S. spacecraft transmits thousands of pictures from Mars (Aug. 8).·Princess Diana, 36, killed with two others in Paris car crash (Aug. 31).·Three Islamic suicide bombers kill four persons in Jerusalem (Sept. 4).·Mother Teresa dead at 87 (Sept. 5).·Militant Taliban leaders seize Kabul (Sept. 27).·Pakistani convicted in 1993 CIA killings (Nov. 10).·Two convicted in New York World Trade Center bombing (Nov. 12).·Egyptian Islamic militants kill 62 at Luxor tourist site (Nov. 17).1998·Ramzi Ahmed Yousef sentenced to life for 1993 World Trade Center bombing (Jan. 9).·Thousands dead in Afghanistan quake (Feb. 4 et seq.).·Vajpayee becomes India's prime minister (March 19).·Europeans agree on single currency, the euro (May 3).·India conducts three atomic tests despite worldwide disapproval (May 11, 13).·Indonesian dictator Suharto steps down after 32 years in power (May 21).·Pakistan stages five nuclear tests in response to India's (May 29, 30).·Nigerian dictator Sani Abacha dies (June 8).·Congress votes to overhaul IRS (July 9).·North Korea fires missile across Japan (Aug. 31).·Swissair jet crashes; kills 229 (Sept. 2).·More than 10,000 die in Central American hurricane, Mitch (Nov. 1)·Clinton orders air strikes on Iraq (Dec. 16–19).1999·U.S. agrees to ease restrictions on Cuba (Jan. 4).·King Hussein of Jordan dies (Feb. 7).·Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo elected president of Nigeria (Feb. 28).·U.S. accuses China of stealing nuclear secrets (March 5).·Joe DiMaggio dies at age 84 (March 8).·Czech Republic, Poland, and Hungary join NATO (March 12).·NATO launches air strikes on Serbia to end attacks against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo (March 24).·“Melissa” computer virus spreads through the Internet (March 27).·NATO bombs mistakenly hit Chinese embassy in Belgrade (May 7).·Citadel graduates its first woman (May 8).·Nelson Mandela retires as president of South Africa; succeeded by Thabo Mbeki (June 16).·Britain's Prince Edward marries Sophie Rhys-Jones (June 19).·Col. Eileen Collins becomes first female to head a space shuttle mission (July 16).·Yeltsin replaces Prime Minister Stepashin with Vladimir Putin in fourth government shakeup in 17 months (Aug. 9).·Islamic militants declare independence for Dagestan and announce holy war against Russia (Aug. 10).·More than 17,000 people die in 7.4 earthquake in Turkey (Aug. 17).·People of East Timor vote for independence from Indonesia (Aug. 31).·NASA accidentally loses $125 million spacecraft as it orbits Mars (Sept. 23).·Dozens of people exposed to radiation in Japan's worst nuclear accident (Sept. 30).·World population reaches six billion milestone (Oct. 11).·Military coup led by Gen. Pervez Musharraf overthrows Pakistani government (Oct. 12).·Tobacco companies admit to harm caused by cigarette smoking (Oct. 13).·Indonesia elects Muslim leader Abdurrahman Wahid president (Oct. 20).·Pro golfer Payne Stewart and five others killed in plane crash (Oct. 25).·EgyptAir flight crashes over Atlantic, killing all 217 on board (Oct. 31).·Judge finds Microsoft to be a monopoly (Nov. 5).·China launches first spacecraft (Nov. 21).·Muslim terrorists hijack Indian Airlines jet with 189 on board (Dec. 24).2000·Hijackers seize Afghan plane; release hostages in Stansted, England (Feb. 6–12).·Britain ends self-rule in Northern Ireland after Irish Republican Army misses disarmament deadline (Feb. 11).·NEAR spacecraft becomes first to orbit an asteroid (Feb. 14). Acting Russian president Vladimir V. Putin formally chosen for post (March 25).·Microsoft loses antitrust suit; appeal expected (April 3).·Controversial Osprey plane crash kills 19 marines (April 8).·“I love you” virus disrupts computers worldwide (May 4).·Israeli troops withdraw from Lebanese security zone after 22 years of occupation (May 24).·Britain restores parliamentary powers to Northern Ireland after Sinn Fein agrees to disarm (June 4).·Presidents of North and South Korea sign peace accord, ending half-century of antagonism (June 15).·Human genome deciphered; expected to revolutionize the practice of medicine (June 26).·Iraq believed to resume missile program (June 30). Bashar al-Assad succeeds late father, Hafez al-Assad, as Syrian president (July 10).·Concorde crash kills 113 near Paris (July 25).·Olympic Games open in Australia (Sept. 15).·Danish voters reject euro (Sept. 26).·Abortion pill, RU-486, wins U.S. approval (Sept. 28).·Palestinians and Israelis clash, spurred by visit of right-wing Israeli leader Ariel Sharon to a joint Jewish/Muslim holy site; “Al Aksa intifada” continues unabated (Sept. 30 et seq.).·Global warming talks collapse at Hague conference (Nov. 25).·Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak resigns (Dec. 9).·Supreme Court seals Bush victory by 5–4; rules there can be no further recounting (Dec. 12).2001·Congo president Laurent Kabila assassinated by bodyguard (Jan. 16).·George W. Bush is sworn in as 43rd president (Jan. 20).·Earthquake kills thousands in India (Jan. 26 et seq.).·U.S. submarine Greeneville sinks Japanese fishing boat, killing 9 (Feb. 9).·Bush abandons global-warming treaty (Kyoto Protocol), angering European leaders (March 30).·U.S. millionaire Dennis Tito becomes first space tourist, visiting the International Space Station aboard a Russian booster (April 28).·After a Palestinian suicide bomber kills 5 and wounds more than 100 in a Netanya shopping mall, Israeli warplanes retaliate by bombing West Bank and Gaza strip (May 18).·Mohammad Khatami, Iran's moderate president, is reelected in a landslide (June 9).·Without U.S., 178 nations reach agreement on climate accord, which rescues, though dilutes, 1997 Kyoto Protocol (July 23).·Terrorists attack United States. Hijackers ram jetliners into twin towers of New York City's World Trade Center and the Pentagon. A fourth hijacked plane crashes 80 mi outside of Pittsburgh. Toll of dead is more than 3,000. Within days, Islamic militant Osama bin Laden and the al-Qaeda terrorist network are identified as the parties behind the attacks (Sept. 11).·In response to Sept. 11 terrorist attacks, U.S. and British forces launch bombing campaign against Taliban government and al-Qaeda terrorist camps in Afghanistan. Plane crash kills 260 in Queens, N.Y. (Nov. 12).·Enron Corp., one of world's largest energy companies, files for bankruptcy (Dec. 2).·Taliban regime in Afghanistan collapses after two months of bombing by American warplanes and fighting by Northern Alliance ground troops (Dec. 9).·Hamid Karzai, new interim Afghan leader, is sworn in (Dec. 22).2002·The euro currency debuts in 12 European countries (Jan. 2).·Queen Elizabeth II of England marks 50 years as monarch (Feb 6).·Tamil Tigers and Sri Lankan government sign a cease-fire agreement (Feb. 22).·Hundreds in India die in Hindu-Muslim clashes (March 2).·U.S. and Afghan troops launch Operation Anaconda against remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters in Afghanistan (March 2).·Saudi peace proposal—offering Israel normal relations with all Arab nations in return for withdrawal from occupied territories—approved at Arab League summit (March 28).·Israeli prime minister Sharon calls for exile of Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat (April 2).·U.S. and Russia reach landmark arms agreement to cut both countries' nuclear arsenals by up to two-thirds over the next ten years (May 13).·East Timor becomes a new nation (May 20).·Pennsylvania miners rescued after spending 77 hours in a dark, flooded mine shaft (July 28).·Terrorist bomb in Bali kills hundreds (Oct. 12).·North Korea admits to developing nuclear arms in defiance of treaty (Oct. 16).·Chechen rebels take 763 hostages in Moscow theater; Russian authorities release a gas into theater, killing 116 hostages and freeing remaining survivors (Oct. 23–26).·Snipers prey upon DC suburbs, killing ten and wounding others (Oct. 2–24).·EPA relaxes Clean Air Act (Nov. 22).2003·North Korea withdraws from treaty on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons (Jan. 10).·Ariel Sharon elected Israeli prime minister (Jan. 29).·Space shuttle Columbia explodes, killing all seven astronauts (Feb. 1).·Massive peace demonstrations take place around the world, protesting potential invasion of Iraq (Feb. 15).·UN Security Council members France, Germany, and Russia insist that “the military option should only be a last resort” concerning Iraq (Feb. 24).·Serbian prime minister Zoran Djindjic assassinated (March 12).·Hu Jintao succeeds Chinese president Jiang Zemin (March 15).·The United States and Britain launch war against Iraq (March 19).·Baghdad falls to U.S. troops (April 9).·European Union expands by ten nations (April 16).·First Palestinian prime minister, Mahmoud Abbas, sworn in (April 29).·The United States declares official end to combat operations in Iraq (May 1).·Terrorists strike in Saudi Arabia, killing 34 at Western compound; al-Qaeda suspected (May 12).·Burmese opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi again placed under house arrest by military regime (May 30).·International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) discovers Iran's concealed nuclear activities and calls for intensified inspections (June 18).·Saddam Hussein's sons killed in firefight (July 22).·Terrorist bombing at Indonesian hotel kills ten (Aug. 6).·Suicide bombing destroys UN headquarters in Baghdad, killing 24. Palestinian suicide bombing in Jerusalem kills 20 Israelis, including 6 children (Aug. 19).·UN votes in favor of a resolution ordering Israel to end construction of security barrier dividing Israeli and Palestinian areas (Oct. 24).·New Palestinian prime minister Ahmed Qurei takes office (Nov. 12).·Suicide bombers attack two synagogues in Istanbul, Turkey, killing 25 (Nov. 15).·Another terrorist attack in Istanbul kills 26; al-Qaeda suspected in both (Nov. 20).·Georgian president Eduard Shevardnadze resigns after weeks of protests (Nov. 23).·Paul Martin succeeds Jean Chretien as Canadian prime minister (Dec. 12).·Saddam Hussein is captured by American troops (Dec. 13).2004·Bush proposes ambitious space program that includes flights to the Moon, Mars, and beyond (Jan. 14).·A.Q. Khan, founder of Pakistan's nuclear program, admits he sold nuclear-weapons designs to other countries, including North Korea, Iran, and Libya (Feb. 4).·Spain is rocked by terrorist attacks, killing more than 200. Al-Qaeda takes responsibility (March 11).·North Atlantic Treaty Organization formally admits seven new countries: Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia (March 29).·Israeli prime minister Sharon announces a plan to unilaterally withdraw from Gaza Strip (April 12).·Gay marriages begin in Massachusetts, the first state in the country to legalize such unions (May 17).·Summer Olympics take place in Athens, Greece (Aug. 13–29).·Chechen terrorists take about 1,200 schoolchildren and others hostage in Beslan, Russia; 340 people die when militants detonate explosives (Sept. 1–3).·UN Atomic Energy Agency tells Iran to stop enriching uranium; a nascent nuclear weapons program suspected (Sept. 18).·380 tons of explosives reported missing in Iraq (Oct. 25).·Bush reelected president (Nov. 2).·Yasir Arafat dies in Paris (Nov. 11).·Ukraine presidential election declared fraudulent (Nov. 21).·Hamid Karzai inaugurated as Afghanistan's first popularly elected president (Dec. 7).·Enormous tsunami devastates Asia; at least 225,000 killed (Dec. 26).2005·Worldwide aid pours in to help the 11 Asian countries devastated by the Dec. 26, 2004, tsunami (Jan.).·Mahmoud Abbas wins the presidency of the Palestinian Authority in a landslide (Jan. 9).·George W. Bush is officially sworn in for his second term as president (Jan. 20).·Saudis (men only) are allowed to vote for the first time in municipal elections (Feb. 10).·Pope John Paul II dies (April 2).·Benedict XVI becomes the next pope (April 24).·Former Tehran mayor Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, a hard-line conservative, wins Iran's presidential election with 62% of the vote.·NASA's Deep Impact spacecraft hits comet Tempel 1 in an effort to research primordial remnants of our solar system (July 4).·London hit by Islamic terrorist bombings, killing 52 and wounding about 700. It is Britain's worst attack since World War II (July 7).·Hurricane Katrina wreaks catastrophic damage on the Gulf Coast; more than 1,000 die and millions are left homeless. (Aug. 25–30).·A 7.6 earthquake centered in the Pakistani-controlled part of the Kashmir region kills more than 80,000 and leaves an estimated 4 million homeless (Oct. 2).2006After a year of silence, Osama bin Laden says al-Qaeda is planning to attack the United States. (Jan. 19).The Olympic winter games open in Turin, Italy (Feb. 10).Saddam Hussein is charged with genocide by an Iraqi court for a campaign against Iraq's Kurdish population in 1988 (Apr. 4).Nepal's King Gyanendra reinstates Parliament after more than two weeks of demonstrations involving over 100,000 people. It meets for the first time in four years (Apr. 28).The International Atomic Energy Agency confirms that Iran has enriched uranium (Apr. 28).Warren Buffett announces that he will donate 85% of his $44 billion fortune to five philanthropic organizations, with about $31 billion going to the Gates Foundation (June 24).India test-launches a missile with a range of 1,800 miles (July 9).More than 200 people die and hundreds more are wounded when a series of bombs exploded on commuter trains in Mumbai, India during the evening rush hour (July 11).The International Astronomical Union classifies Pluto as a dwarf planet (Aug. 24).International outrage and condemnation follow the test of a nuclear missile in the mountains of North Korea (Oct. 9).Pakistan military fires missiles at an Islamic school on the Afghanistan border, killing about 80 people who government officials say were militants. Officials also claim the school harbored members of al-Qaeda (Oct. 30).An Iraqi court convicts Saddam Hussein of crimes against humanity and sentences him to death by hanging (Nov. 5).South African parliament votes to legalize same-sex marriage (Nov. 14).Four days after an appeals court upholds his death sentence, Saddam Hussein is hanged in Baghdad (Dec. 30).2007Apple Inc CEO Steve Jobs announces the iPhone.(Jan 9)President Roh Moo-hyun of South Korea walks across the Military Demarcation Line into North Korea on his way to the second Inter-Korean Summit with North Korean leader Kim Jong-il (Oct 2).One of the largest and deadliest fires in US history rages in Southern California fanned by the Santa Ana winds destroying 400,000 acres and 2,000 homes.The New Wembley Stadium in England Is completed.NASA Launches Phoenix Mars LanderNew Horizons Visits JupiterThe Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf clings to power by suspending the Constitution and imposing martial lawCyclone Sidr with winds reaching 160 MPH strikes coastal areas of Bangladesh claiming the lives of between 4,000 and 5,000An earthquake measuring 8.0 strikes the central coastal area of Peru leaving 500 deadGordon Brown becomes the new British Prime MinisterThe terrorist attack on Glasgow Airport by terrorists working as doctors in the British Health ServiceAl-Qaeda terrorists explode massive bombs in Algiers including at the United Nations building killing 502008Cyprus and Malta adopt the Euro joining 13 other European countries using the single currency.The Tata Group introduces the Nano at the New Delhi car show its ultra-cheap car in India costing 100,000 rupees the equivalent of $2,500Internet access is disrupted in large parts of the Middle East and India which suffered up to 60% disruption due to breaks in submarine cable systems in the Mediterranean.UK experiences largest earthquake ( 5.2 ) in 25 yearsSuicide Bomber Kills 40 during a gathering of tribal elders and local officials in north-west PakistanGovernments around the world face the continuing problems of increased oil prices causing inflation and unemployment increasing. Oil hits an all-time high of $147 a barrelShuttle Endeavour goes for a 16-day mission to the International Space Station.A tropical cyclone devastates parts of the Irrawaddy region of Burma / Myanmar leaving over 50,000 dead.An Earthquake measuring 7.8 strikes near Chengdu, Sichuan's provincial capital leaving an estimated 60,000 dead and up to 5 million homeless.Sony’s Blu-ray HD format now has about 70 percent of the new high-definition market and is expected to win over the rival format, HD DVD.Microsoft attempts to buy Yahoo for $44.6bn2009Hubble Telescope RepairOngoing financial crisis and recession which began in late 2007 continue with many calling it the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s causing house prices to decline, and unemployment to increase.The World Health Organization declares H1N1 influenza strain, commonly referred to as "swine flu", as a global pandemicPirates Attempt Hijack of MV Maersk Cargo Ship 280 miles southeast of Eyl, Somalia, Hijack Fails but they take Captain Richard Phillips as a hostageBarack Obama is inaugurated as the 44th President of the United StatesMichael Jackson dies in strange circumstances and brings a worldwide outpouring of griefThe deadliest bushfires in Australian history ( Black Saturday bushfires ) in the Australian state of Victoria leave 173 people dead and more than 2000 homes destroyed.Slovakia adopted the Euro joining 15 other European countries using the single currency6.3 magnitude earthquake strikes near L'Aquila, Italy, killing nearly 300.Gunmen, near the Gaddafi Stadium in Lahore, Pakistan fire on a bus carrying the Sri Lankan cricket team.The country of Paraguay is left with no power for a few hours and 60 million in Brazil also suffer power outage for up to 6 hours.Albania and Croatia join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).North Korea launches the Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 satellite, Later in the year announces it had conducted a second successful nuclear test in the province of North Hamgyong.A 7.6-magnitude earthquake strikes 28 miles west-northwest of Padang, Sumatra killing over 1,000 in IndonesiaNASA launches the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter/LCROSS probes to the Moon to search for water ice near the Moon's south pole. In November NASA announces they found 'significant' amounts of water on the moon.The longest total solar eclipse of the 21st century, lasting up to 6 minutes and 38.8 seconds, occurs over parts of Asia and the Pacific Ocean2010The Winter Olympics are held in Vancouver.China launches its second moon probe, Chang'e 2.Burj Khalifa OpensSpaceX successfully launched Dragon capsule and it returns from low-Earth orbit.Floods in Pakistan caused by higher than normal monsoon rains cause flooding on a scale unseen before with 20% of the country flooded, this leaves millions homeless, starving and causes major disruption to the country.The 2010 FIFA World Cup takes place in South Africa, Spain wins the World CupSuicide bombers carry out bomb attacks on trains at the central Lubyanka station and the Park Kultury station on the Moscow Metro leaving 40 dead and 60 injured.A magnitude 7 earthquake hits Haiti and devastates the countryEarthquake measuring 8.8 magnitudes occurred off the coast of central Chile ( the 6th largest recorded earthquake in history ) the resulting Tsunami combined the earthquake resulted in the death of over 500 plus immense damage.Justin Bieber who was discovered through a video placed on YouTube in 2008 continues to dominate the charts around the world attracting millions of fans showing the power of social networking.Apple releases the new iPhone 4 but problems with antenna design cause consumer problems2011On March 11th an underwater earthquake with a magnitude of 9.0 hits off the coast of Japan, causing a tsunami that hit the Iwate prefecture with waves over 130 feet high. Estimated figures related to the earthquake include nearly 16,000 deaths, over 6,000 injuries, and almost 3,000 people missing. About 4.4 million households went without power and about 1.5 million went without water. Hundreds of thousands of buildings were damaged and destroyed.On May 2nd, it was announced by US President Obama that Osama Bin Laden had been found and killed by US Navy Seals in Abbottabad, Pakistan. This marked the end of the search for the man who was thought to be responsible for the attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11th of 2001.NASA launches the Juno spacecraft during August of 2011. Juno’s mission was to conduct a long, scientific study of JupiterRussia officially became a part of the World Trade Organization after taking part in a ceremony in Switzerland.Apple releases the iPhone 4S on October 14th, only nine days after the death of co-founder Steve Jobs.Google releases Android Version 4.0, nicknamed Ice Cream Sandwich on October 19th.India makes the Aakash tablet computer that would sell for only $35.00.2012The Mars Science Laboratory or "Curiosity Rover" successfully lands on Mars.The Summer Olympics are held in London, England from July 27th to August 12th. The top three medal-winning countries during the games were the United States, China, and Great Britain. US Swimmer Michael Phelps became the most decorated Olympian of all time after bringing his medal count to twenty-two at these games.Austrian Felix Baumgartner becomes the first person to break the sound barrier without mechanical assistance when he jumps over New Mexico on October 14thThe film "Marvel's The Avengers" is released and becomes one of the highest-grossing films.US President Barack Obama is re-elected for his second term after running against Republican opponent Mitt Romney.The end of the Mayan calendar, or the end of the world as some believed, is observed with little to no consequence.China launched its latest space mission that would include the country's first woman astronaut. Liu Yang, a 33-year-old military pilot, was a part of the crew aboard the Shenzhou-9 capsule that would spend a week at the Tiangong space lab to test systems and conduct experiments.Earth observes the Transit of Venus, a rare astronomical event.Windows releases the Windows 8 operating system meant for tablets and touch screensFacebook goes public and its initial stock offering was at thirty-eight dollars per share2013The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), also known as the Mangalyaan satellite launched in November. The mission was launched by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)President Obama is inaugurated for his second term on January 21st.A powerful meteor explodes near Chelyabinsk in Russia and injures nearly 1,500 people while causing damage to several thousand buildings on February 15th.Two bombs are exploded at the Boston Marathon on April 15, killing 3 and injuring 264 people.North Korea continues missile and nuclear tests despite international pressureA garment factory in Bangladesh collapses, killing 1,127 people and injuring another 2,500 people, workers had been ordered to report there despite warnings of building safety from the previous day.An elected government completed a full term for the first time in the country's history.Sony releases the Playstation 4 gaming system while Microsoft releases the Xbox One.Twitter goes public on September 12th and shares were initially sold for $26.00,Apple releases two new iPhones, the 5C and 5S2014Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Disappears.Scotland Votes to Remain Part of the United Kingdom.Narendra Modi Wins in India.Ebola Strikes West Africa.ISIS Declares an Islamic CaliphateFacebook buys WhatsAppLaunch of the communication satellite GSAT-14 aboard the GSLV Mk. II D5 marks the first successful flight of an Indian cryogenic rocket engine.The Pakistani Taliban carry out a mass shooting at an army school in Peshawar, Pakistan, killing at least 145 people, mostly schoolchildren.2015Queen Elizabeth II becomes Great Britain's longest-reigning monarch at 63 years and seven months, beating the previous record set by her great-great-grandmother, Queen VictoriaUS scientists from the University of California find evidence life on earth may have begun 4.1 billion years ago, 300 million earlier than previously thoughtCOP21 climate change summit in Paris reaches a deal between 195 countries to limit the rise in the global average temperature to less than 2°C above pre-industrial levelsOver 2,000 people are killed in north-east Nigeria after Boko Haram militants raze the town of Baga72 people are killed & 169 hospitalized after a mass poisoning of beer with crocodile bile at a funeral in MozambiqueAB de Villiers makes the fastest century in ODI cricket history from 31 balls against the West IndiesSergio Mattarella is elected President of ItalyAustralia defeats South Korea in football to win the 2015 AFC Asian CupIvory Coast wins the 2015 Africa Cup of Nations football championshipNASA's Dawn space probe enters orbit around the dwarf planet CeresCricket World Cup, Melbourne (MCG): Australia defeats fellow host New Zealand by 7 wickets to win their 5th title; Player of Series: Mitchel StarcScientists announce the discovery of the oldest & most distant galaxy known to man, EGS-zs8-1Heatwave in India centered in Telengana and Andhra Pradesh states is reported to have killed 1800 people in a week2016The highest ever recorded individual cricket score, 1,009 not out, is made by Pranav Dhanawade.The World Health Organization announces an outbreak of the Zika virusNorth Korea launches a reconnaissance satellite named Kwangmyŏngsŏng-4 into space, condemned as a long-range ballistic missile testThe ESA and Roscosmos launch the joint ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter on a mission to MarsEgyptAir Flight 804 crashes into the Mediterranean Sea en route from Paris to Cairo, killing all 66 people on board.France hosts the UEFA Euro 2016 football tournament, which is won by Portugal.The United Kingdom votes in a referendum to leave the European Union.NASA's Juno spacecraft enters orbit around Jupiter and begins a 20-month survey of the planetThe augmented reality mobile game Pokémon Go is released, breaking numerous records in terms of sales and revenue.The 2016 Summer Olympics are held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the first time in a South American nationThe government of North Korea conducts its fifth and reportedly biggest nuclear test.Donald Trump is elected the 45th President of the United States as a Republican after running a campaign widely characterized as populistLaMia Flight 2933 crashes into a mountain near Medellín, Colombia, killing 71 of the 77 people on board, including members of the Brazilian Chapecoense football squad.20172017 Istanbul nightclub shooting: A gunman dressed as Santa Claus opens fire at the Reina nightclub in Istanbul, Turkey, killing 39 people and injuring 79 othersMorocco rejoins the African Union.North Korea prompts international condemnation by test-firing a ballistic missile across the Sea of JapanAn Islamic terror attack outside the Palace of Westminster in London, England, kills five people and injures more than fifty othersSpaceX conducts the world's first flight of an orbital class rocket.WannaCry ransomware attack: Computers around the world are hit by a large-scale ransomware cyberattack, which goes on to affect at least 150 countries.An Islamic terrorist bombing attack at an Ariana Grande concert in Manchester, England, kills 22 people and injures more than 500 othersA fire at Grenfell Tower in London, England, kills 72 people and injures more than 70 othersNorth Korea conducts its sixth and most powerful nuclear testCassini–Huygens ends its 13-year mission by plunging into Saturn, becoming the first spacecraft to enter the planet's atmosphereA massive blast caused by a truck bombing in Mogadishu, Somalia kills at least 512 people and injures 316 others.A magnitude 7.3 earthquake strikes the border region between Iraq and Iran leaving at least 530 dead and over 70,000 homelessA Leonardo da Vinci painting, Salvator Mundi, sells for US$450 million at Christie's in New York, a new record price for any work of art.A mosque attack in Sinai, Egypt kills 305 worshippers and leaves hundreds more wounded2018SpaceX successfully conducts the maiden flight of its most powerful rocket to date, the Falcon Heavy, from LC39A at John F. Kennedy Space Center in FloridaThe 2018 Winter Olympics are held in Pyeongchang, South KoreaFlight BS211 crashes and bursts into flames at Tribhuvan International Airport, Nepal, killing 51 of the 71 people aboard. The 20 surviving passengers were seriously injured from the impact and the fireIn the Russian presidential election, Vladimir Putin is elected for a fourth term.The 2018 Commonwealth Games are held in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia.Cinemas open in Saudi Arabia for the first time since 1983 with the American film Black Panther chosen as the first to be screenedNASA's unmanned space probe InSight is launched.FIFA awards hosting rights for the 2026 World Cup to a joint bid from Canada, Mexico, and the United States.The 2018 FIFA World Cup is held in Russia and is won by France.Saudi Arabia allows women to drive.Apple Inc. becomes the world's first public company to achieve a market capitalization of $1 trillionHeavy rainfall causes severe floods in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the worst flood to hit the state in a century.The Supreme Court of India decriminalizes homosexualityNASA's InSight probe successfully lands on the surface of Mars2019Prajyot Kumbharjuvekar wrote one of the longest answers ever on Quora.If you are still reading this, Take a BREAKWhat Happened in 2013 inc. Pop Culture, Prices and Events2007 World HistoryTen Most Significant World Events in 2014Historical Events in 2015

Eisenhower was the last great Republican. He was not perfect, BUT he probably did as much for the advancement of the country since the Democrat Roosevelt. His Interstate Highway System made the country grow rapidly in the 50’s.He was an accomplished General during the second world war. He was a five-star general in the United States Army and served as supreme commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43 and the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944–45 from the Western Front. He was an excellent military leader.President at Columbia University and NATO Supreme CommanderThe Supreme Commanders of the Four Powers on June 5, 1945, in Berlin: Bernard Montgomery, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Georgy Zhukov and Jean de Lattre de TassignyIn 1948, Eisenhower became President of Columbia University, an Ivy League university in New York City, where he was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa.The assignment was described as not being a good fit in either direction.During that year Eisenhower's memoir, Crusade in Europe, was published.Critics regarded it as one of the finest U.S. military memoirs, and it was a major financial success as well. Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by an unprecedented ruling by the U.S. Department of the Treasury that Eisenhower was not a professional writer, but rather, marketing the lifetime asset of his experiences, and thus he had to pay only capital gains tax on his $635,000 advance instead of the much higher personal tax rate. This ruling saved Eisenhower about $400,000.Eisenhower's stint as the president of Columbia University was punctuated by his activity within the Council on Foreign Relations, a study group he led as president concerning the political and military implications of the Marshall Plan, and The American Assembly, Eisenhower's "vision of a great cultural center where business, professional and governmental leaders could meet from time to time to discuss and reach conclusions concerning problems of a social and political nature". His biographer Blanche Wiesen Cook suggested that this period served as "the political education of General Eisenhower", since he had to prioritize wide-ranging educational, administrative, and financial demands for the university. Through his involvement in the Council on Foreign Relations, he also gained exposure to economic analysis, which would become the bedrock of his understanding in economic policy. "Whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings," one Aid to Europe member claimed.Eisenhower accepted the presidency of the university to expand his ability to promote "the American form of democracy" through education. He was clear on this point to the trustees involved in the search committee. He informed them that his main purpose was "to promote the basic concepts of education in a democracy". As a result, he was "almost incessantly" devoted to the idea of the American Assembly, a concept he developed into an institution by the end of 1950.Within months of beginning his tenure as the president of the university, Eisenhower was requested to advise U.S. Secretary of Defense James Forrestal on the unification of the armed services. About six months after his appointment, he became the informal Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington. Two months later he fell ill, and he spent over a month in recovery at the Augusta National Golf Club. He returned to his post in New York in mid-May, and in July 1949 took a two-month vacation out-of-state. Because the American Assembly had begun to take shape, he traveled around the country during mid-to-late 1950, building financial support from Columbia Associates, an alumni association.Eisenhower was unknowingly building resentment and a reputation among the Columbia University faculty and staff as an absentee president who was using the university for his own interests. As a career military man, he naturally had little in common with the academics.The contacts gained through university and American Assembly fund-raising activities would later become important supporters in Eisenhower's bid for the Republican party nomination and the presidency. Meanwhile, Columbia University's liberal faculty members became disenchanted with the university president's ties to oilmen and businessmen, including Leonard McCollum, the president of Continental Oil; Frank Abrams, the chairman of Standard Oil of New Jersey; Bob Kleberg, the president of the King Ranch; H. J. Porter, a Texas oil executive; Bob Woodruff, the president of the Coca-Cola Corporation; and Clarence Francis, the chairman of General Foods.As the president of Columbia, Eisenhower gave voice and form to his opinions about the supremacy and difficulties of American democracy. His tenure marked his transformation from military to civilian leadership. His biographer Travis Beal Jacobs also suggested that the alienation of the Columbia faculty contributed to sharp intellectual criticism of him for many years.The trustees of Columbia University refused to accept Eisenhower's resignation in December 1950, when he took an extended leave from the university to become the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and he was given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service as an army general on May 31, 1952, and he resumed his presidency of Columbia. He held this position until January 20, 1953, when he became the President of the United States.NATO did not have strong bipartisan support in Congress at the time that Eisenhower assumed its military command. Eisenhower advised the participating European nations that it would be incumbent upon them to demonstrate their own commitment of troops and equipment to the NATO force before such would come from the war-weary United States.At home, Eisenhower was more effective in making the case for NATO in Congress than the Truman administration had been. By the middle of 1951, with American and European support, NATO was a genuine military power. Nevertheless, Eisenhower thought that NATO would become a truly European alliance, with the American and Canadian commitments ending after about ten years.Presidential campaign of 1952Main article: United States presidential election, 1952Button from the 1952 campaignPresident Truman, symbolizing a broad-based desire for an Eisenhower candidacy for president, again in 1951 pressed him to run for the office as a Democrat. It was at this time that Eisenhower voiced his disagreements with the Democratic Party and declared himself and his family to be Republicans.A "Draft Eisenhower" movement in the Republican Party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of non-interventionist Senator Robert A. Taft. The effort was a long struggle; Eisenhower had to be convinced that political circumstances had created a genuine duty for him to offer himself as a candidate, and that there was a mandate from the populace for him to be their President. Henry Cabot Lodge, who served as his campaign manager, and others succeeded in convincing him, and in June 1952 he resigned his command at NATO to campaign full-time.Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination, having won critical delegate votes from Texas. Eisenhower's campaign was noted for the simple but effective slogan, "I Like Ike". It was essential to his success that Eisenhower express opposition to Roosevelt's policy at Yalta and against Truman's policies in Korea and China—matters in which he had once participated.In defeating Taft for the nomination, it became necessary for Eisenhower to appease the right wing Old Guard of the Republican Party; his selection of Richard M. Nixon as the Vice-President on the ticket was designed in part for that purpose. Nixon also provided a strong anti-communist presence as well as some youth to counter Ike's more advanced age.1952 electoral vote resultsIn the general election, against the advice of his advisers, Eisenhower insisted on campaigning in the South, refusing to surrender the region to the Democratic Party. The campaign strategy, dubbed "K", was to focus on attacking the Truman and Roosevelt administrations on three issues: Korea, Communism and corruption. In an effort to accommodate the right, he stressed that the liberation of Eastern Europe should be by peaceful means only; he also distanced himself from his former boss President Truman.Two controversies during the campaign tested him and his staff, but did not affect the campaign. One involved a report that Nixon had improperly received funds from a secret trust. Nixon spoke out adroitly to avoid potential damage, but the matter permanently alienated the two candidates. The second issue centered on Eisenhower's relented decision to confront the controversial methods of Joseph McCarthy on his home turf in a Wisconsin appearance.Just two weeks prior to the election, Eisenhower vowed to go to Korea and end the war there. He promised to maintain a strong commitment against Communism while avoiding the topic of NATO; finally, he stressed a corruption-free, frugal administration at home.He defeated Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson II in a landslide, with an electoral margin of 442 to 89, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years.In the election he also brought with him a Republican majority in the House (by eight votes) and in the Senate (evenly divided, with Vice President Nixon providing Republicans the majority).Eisenhower was the last president born in the 19th century, and at age 62, was the oldest president-elect since James Buchanan in 1856.He was the third general to serve as president (after Zachary Taylor and Ulysses S. Grant), and the last to have never held political office prior to being president until Donald Trump entered office in January 2017.Election of 1956Main article: United States presidential election, 19561956 electoral vote resultsThe United States presidential election of 1956 was held on November 6, 1956. Eisenhower, the popular incumbent, successfully ran for re-election. The election was a re-match of 1952, as his opponent in 1956 was Stevenson, a former Illinois governor, whom Eisenhower had defeated four years earlier. Compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia from Stevenson, while losing Missouri. His voters were less likely to bring up his leadership record. Instead what stood out this time, "was the response to personal qualities— to his sincerity, his integrity and sense of duty, his virtue as a family man, his religious devotion, and his sheer likeableness."Presidency (1953–1961)Main article: Presidency of Dwight D. EisenhowerDue to a complete estrangement between the two as a result of campaigning, Truman and Eisenhower had minimal discussions about the transition of administrations.After selecting his budget director, Joseph M. Dodge, Eisenhower asked Herbert Brownell Jr. and Lucius D. Clay to make recommendations for his cabinet appointments. He accepted their recommendations without exception; they included John Foster Dulles and George M. Humphrey with whom he developed his closest relationships, and one woman, Oveta Culp Hobby. Eisenhower's cabinet, consisting of several corporate executives and one labor leader, was dubbed by one journalist, "Eight millionaires and a plumber."The cabinet was known for its lack of personal friends, office seekers, or experienced government administrators. He also upgraded the role of the National Security Council in planning all phases of the Cold War.Prior to his inauguration, Eisenhower led a meeting of advisors at Pearl Harbor addressing foremost issues; agreed objectives were to balance the budget during his term, to bring the Korean War to an end, to defend vital interests at lower cost through nuclear deterrent, and to end price and wage controls.Eisenhower also conducted the first pre-inaugural cabinet meeting in history in late 1952; he used this meeting to articulate his anti-communist Russia policy. His inaugural address was also exclusively devoted to foreign policy and included this same philosophy as well as a commitment to foreign trade and the United Nations.February 1959 White House PortraitEisenhower made greater use of press conferences than any previous president, holding almost 200 over his two terms. While he saw the benefit of maintaining a good relationship with the press, he saw more value in them as a means of direct communication with the American people.Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower adhered to a political philosophy of dynamic conservatism.A self-described "progressive conservative"who used terms like "progressive moderate" and "dynamic conservatism" to describe his approach,he continued all the major New Deal programs still in operation, especially Social Security. He expanded its programs and rolled them into a new cabinet-level agency, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. He implemented integration in the Armed Services in two years, which had not been completed under Truman.When the 1954 Congressional elections approached, it became evident that the Republicans were in danger of losing their thin majority in both houses. Eisenhower was among those who blamed the Old Guard for the losses, and he took up the charge to stop suspected efforts by the right wing to take control of the GOP. Eisenhower then articulated his position as a moderate, progressive Republican: "I have just one purpose ... and that is to build up a strong progressive Republican Party in this country. If the right wing wants a fight, they are going to get it ... before I end up, either this Republican Party will reflect progressivism or I won't be with them anymore."Eisenhower initially planned on serving only one term, but as with other decisions, he maintained a position of maximum flexibility in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again. During his recovery from a heart attack late in 1955 (September 25), he huddled with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group, in addition to his doctor, concluded a second term was well advised, and he announced in February 1956 he would run again.Eisenhower was publicly noncommittal about Nixon's repeating as the Vice President on his ticket; the question was an especially important one in light of his heart condition. He personally favored Robert B. Anderson, a Democrat, who rejected his offer; Eisenhower then resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party.In 1956, Eisenhower faced Adlai Stevenson again and won by an even larger landslide, with 457 of 531 electoral votes and 57.6% of the popular vote. The level of campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations.Eisenhower valued the brief respites and the amenities of an office which he endowed with an arduous daily schedule. He made full use of his valet, chauffeur, and secretarial support—he rarely drove or dialed a phone number. He was an avid fisherman, golfer, painter, and bridge player, and preferred active rather than passive forms of entertainment.On August 26, 1959, Eisenhower was aboard the maiden flight of Air Force One, which replaced the previous Presidential aircraft, the Columbine.Interstate Highway SystemMain article: Interstate Highway SystemRemarks in Cadillac Square, DetroitPresident Eisenhower delivered remarks about the need for a new highway program at Cadillac Square in Detroit on October 29, 1954Text of speech excerptProblems playing this file? See media help.Eisenhower was assured of an enduring achievement when he championed and signed the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956.He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible war, hence the highways were designed to facilitate their evacuation and ease military maneuvers.Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by difficulties encountered during his involvement in the U.S. Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of U.S. Army vehicles coast to coast.His subsequent experience with encountering German autobahn limited-access road systems during the concluding stages of World War II convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. The Interstate Highway System could also be used as a runway for airplanes, which would be beneficial to war efforts. This system was put into place by Franklin D. Roosevelt, in 1944, under the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944. Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.S. would not only be beneficial for military operations, but provide a measure of continued economic growth.The legislation initially stalled in the Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and the law was signed by Eisenhower in June 1956.Foreign policyEisenhower with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal NehruU.S. President Eisenhower visits the Republic of China and its President Chiang Kai-shek in Taipei.Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev during his 11-day U.S. visit as guest of President Eisenhower, September 1959In 1953, the Republican Party's Old Guard presented Eisenhower with a dilemma by insisting he disavow the Yalta Agreements as beyond the constitutional authority of the Executive Branch; however, the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953 made the matter a moot point.At this time Eisenhower gave his Chance for Peace speech in which he attempted, unsuccessfully, to forestall the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union by suggesting multiple opportunities presented by peaceful uses of nuclear materials. Biographer Stephen Ambrose opined that this was the best speech of Eisenhower's presidency.Nevertheless, the Cold War escalated during his presidency. When the Soviet Union successfully tested a hydrogen bomb in late November 1955, Eisenhower, against the advice of Dulles, decided to initiate a disarmament proposal to the Soviets. In an attempt to make their refusal more difficult, he proposed that both sides agree to dedicate fissionable material away from weapons toward peaceful uses, such as power generation. This approach was labeled "Atoms for Peace".The U.N. speech was well received but the Soviets never acted upon it, due to an overarching concern for the greater stockpiles of nuclear weapons in the U.S. arsenal. Indeed, Eisenhower embarked upon a greater reliance on the use of nuclear weapons, while reducing conventional forces, and with them the overall defense budget, a policy formulated as a result of Project Solarium and expressed in NSC 162/2. This approach became known as the "New Look", and was initiated with defense cuts in late 1953.In 1955 American nuclear arms policy became one aimed primarily at arms control as opposed to disarmament. The failure of negotiations over arms until 1955 was due mainly to the refusal of the Russians to permit any sort of inspections. In talks located in London that year, they expressed a willingness to discuss inspections; the tables were then turned on Eisenhower, when he responded with an unwillingness on the part of the U.S. to permit inspections. In May of that year the Russians agreed to sign a treaty giving independence to Austria, and paved the way for a Geneva summit with the U.S., U.K. and France.At the Geneva Conference Eisenhower presented a proposal called "Open Skies" to facilitate disarmament, which included plans for Russia and the U.S. to provide mutual access to each other's skies for open surveillance of military infrastructure. Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev dismissed the proposal out of hand.In 1954, Eisenhower articulated the domino theory in his outlook towards communism in Southeast Asia and also in Central America. He believed that if the communists were allowed to prevail in Vietnam, this would cause a succession of countries to fall to communism, from Laos through Malaysia and Indonesia ultimately to India. Likewise, the fall of Guatemala would end with the fall of neighboring Mexico.That year the loss of North Vietnam to the communists and the rejection of his proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were serious defeats, but he remained optimistic in his opposition to the spread of communism, saying "Long faces don't win wars".As he had threatened the French in their rejection of EDC, he afterwards moved to restore West Germany, as a full NATO partner.With Eisenhower's leadership and Dulles' direction, CIA activities increased under the pretense of resisting the spread of communism in poorer countries; the CIA in part deposed the leaders of Iran in Operation Ajax, of Guatemala through Operation Pbsuccess, and possibly the newly independent Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)In 1954 Eisenhower wanted to increase surveillance inside the Soviet Union. With Dulles' recommendation, he authorized the deployment of thirty Lockheed U-2's at a cost of $35 million (equivalent to $326.54 million in 2018).The Eisenhower administration also planned the Bay of Pigs Invasion to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba, which John F. Kennedy was left to carry out.Space RaceFurther information: Space RacePresident Eisenhower with Wernher von Braun, 1960Eisenhower and the CIA had known since at least January 1957, nine months before Sputnik, that Russia had the capability to launch a small payload into orbit and was likely to do so within a year.He may also privately have welcomed the Russian satellite for its legal implications: By launching a satellite, Russia had in effect acknowledged that space was open to anyone who could access it, without needing permission from other nations.On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was officially modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. The Eisenhower administration determined to adopt a non-aggressive policy that would allow "space-crafts of any state to overfly all states, a region free of military posturing and launch Earth satellites to explore space".His Open Skies Policy attempted to legitimize illegal Lockheed U-2 flyovers and Project Genetrix while paving the way for spy satellite technology to orbit over sovereign territory, however Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev declined Eisenhower's proposal at the Geneva conference in July 1955.In response to Sputnik being launched in October 1957, Eisenhower created NASA as a civilian space agency in October 1958, signed a landmark science education law, and improved relations with American scientists.Fear spread through the United States that the Soviet Union would invade and spread communism, so Eisenhower wanted to not only create a surveillance satellite to detect any threats but ballistic missiles that would protect the United States. In strategic terms, it was Eisenhower who devised the American basic strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of B-52 bombers, land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).NASA planners projected that human spaceflight would pull the United States ahead in the Space Race as well as accomplishing their long time goal; however, in 1960, an Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space concluded that "man-in-space can not be justified" and was too costly.Eisenhower later resented the space program and its gargantuan price tag—he was quoted as saying, "Anyone who would spend $40 billion in a race to the moon for national prestige is nuts."Korean War, Free China and Red ChinaIn late 1952 Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate. Once in office, when the Chinese communists began a buildup in the Kaesong sanctuary, he threatened to use nuclear force if an armistice was not concluded. His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese communists.The National Security Council, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) devised detailed plans for nuclear war against Red China.With the death of Stalin in early March 1953, Russian support for a Chinese communists hard-line weakened and Red China decided to compromise on the prisoner issue.Eisenhower in Korea with General Chung Il-kwon, and Baik Seon-yup, 1952In July 1953, an armistice took effect with Korea divided along approximately the same boundary as in 1950. The armistice and boundary remain in effect today. The armistice, concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President Syngman Rhee, and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer Ambrose as the greatest achievement of the administration. Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable.A point of emphasis in Ike's campaign had been his endorsement of a policy of liberation from communism as opposed to a policy of containment. This remained his preference despite the armistice with Korea.Throughout his terms Eisenhower took a hard-line attitude toward Red China, as demanded by conservative Republicans, with the goal of driving a wedge between Red China and the Soviet Union.Eisenhower continued Truman's policy of recognizing the Republic of China (Free China) as the legitimate government of China, not the Beijing regime. There were localized flare-ups when the People's Liberation Army began shelling the islands of Quemoy and Matsu in September 1954. Eisenhower received recommendations embracing every variation of response to the aggression of the Chinese communists. He thought it essential to have every possible option available to him as the crisis unfolded.The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China was signed in December 1954. He requested and secured from Congress their "Free China Resolution" in January 1955, which gave Eisenhower unprecedented power in advance to use military force at any level of his choosing in defense of Free China and the Pescadores. The Resolution bolstered the morale of the Chinese nationalists, and signaled to Beijing that the U.S. was committed to holding the line.Eisenhower openly threatened the Chinese communists with use of nuclear weapons, authorizing a series of bomb tests labeled Operation Teapot. Nevertheless, he left the Chinese communists guessing as to the exact nature of his nuclear response. This allowed Eisenhower to accomplish all of his objectives—the end of this communist encroachment, the retention of the Islands by the Chinese nationalists and continued peace.Defense of the Republic of China from an invasion remains a core American policy.By the end of 1954 Eisenhower's military and foreign policy experts—the NSC, JCS and State Dept.—had unanimously urged him, on no less than five occasions, to launch an atomic attack against Red China; yet he consistently refused to do so and felt a distinct sense of accomplishment in having sufficiently confronted communism while keeping world peace.The Middle East and Eisenhower doctrineEisenhower with the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1959)Even before he was inaugurated Eisenhower accepted a request from the British government to restore the Shah of Iran (Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) to power. He therefore authorized the Central Intelligence Agency to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh.This resulted in an increased strategic control over Iranian oil by U.S. and British companies.In November 1956, Eisenhower forced an end to the combined British, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt in response to the Suez Crisis, receiving praise from Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of Hungary in response to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. He publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations, and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt.Eisenhower explicitly defended his strong position against Britain and France in his memoirs, which were published in 1965.After the Suez Crisis the United States became the protector of unstable friendly governments in the Middle East via the "Eisenhower Doctrine". Designed by Secretary of State Dulles, it held the U.S. would be "prepared to use armed force ... [to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism". Further, the United States would provide economic and military aid and, if necessary, use military force to stop the spread of communism in the Middle East.Eisenhower and Vice President Richard Nixon with their host, King Saud of Saudi Arabia, at the Mayflower Hotel (1957)Eisenhower applied the doctrine in 1957–58 by dispensing economic aid to shore up the Kingdom of Jordan, and by encouraging Syria's neighbors to consider military operations against it. More dramatically, in July 1958, he sent 15,000 Marines and soldiers to Lebanon as part of Operation Blue Bat, a non-combat peace-keeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government and to prevent a radical revolution from sweeping over that country.The mission proved a success and the Marines departed three months later. The deployment came in response to the urgent request of Lebanese president Camille Chamoun after sectarian violence had erupted in the country. Washington considered the military intervention successful since it brought about regional stability, weakened Soviet influence, and intimidated the Egyptian and Syrian governments, whose anti-West political position had hardened after the Suez Crisis.Most Arab countries were skeptical about the "Eisenhower doctrine" because they considered "Zionist imperialism" the real danger. However, they did take the opportunity to obtain free money and weapons. Egypt and Syria, supported by the Soviet Union, openly opposed the initiative. However, Egypt received American aid until the Six-Day War in 1967.As the Cold War deepened, Dulles sought to isolate the Soviet Union by building regional alliances of nations against it. Critics sometimes called it "pacto-mania".Southeast AsiaEarly in 1953, the French asked Eisenhower for help in French Indochina against the Communists, supplied from China, who were fighting the First Indochina War. Eisenhower sent Lt. General John W. "Iron Mike" O'Daniel to Vietnam to study and assess the French forces there.Chief of staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions."Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel. After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop napalm for clearing purposes. Further requests for assistance from the French were agreed to but only on conditions Eisenhower knew were impossible to meet – allied participation and congressional approval.When the French fortress of Dien Bien Phu fell to the Vietnamese Communists in May 1954, Eisenhower refused to intervene despite urgings from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the Vice President and the head of NCS.Eisenhower responded to the French defeat with the formation of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Alliance with the U.K., France, New Zealand and Australia in defense of Vietnam against communism. At that time the French and Chinese reconvened Geneva peace talks; Eisenhower agreed the U.S. would participate only as an observer. After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam.Ambrose argues that Eisenhower, by not participating in the Geneva agreement, had kept the U.S. out of Vietnam; nevertheless, with the formation of SEATO, he had in the end put the U.S. back into the conflict.In late 1954, Gen. J. Lawton Collins was made ambassador to "Free Vietnam" (the term South Vietnam came into use in 1955), effectively elevating the country to sovereign status. Collins' instructions were to support the leader Ngo Dinh Diem in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign.In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, commonly known as South Vietnam) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance.In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of U.S. military advisors in South Vietnam to 900 men.This was due to North Vietnam's support of "uprisings" in the south and concern the nation would fall.In May 1957 Diem, then President of South Vietnam, made a state visit to the United States for ten days. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City. Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives.After the election of November 1960, Eisenhower in briefing with John F. Kennedy pointed out the communist threat in Southeast Asia as requiring prioritization in the next administration. Eisenhower told Kennedy he considered Laos "the cork in the bottle" with regard to the regional threat.Just saying……….