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The Battle of Al SarifWell this is not quite shameful per se, but a very ambitious move by an ambitious ruler of a small country gone wrong. This could have been a battle that changed not only Kuwaiti history, but Arabian and from that global history as well. A potential realistic conclusion had the Emir of Kuwait at the time Sheikh Mubarak bin Sabah Al Sabah been successful, would be that Saudi Arabia today; or at least a large chunk of it, or maybe a bigger territory than it, could have been called Sabahi Arabia. There is a reason in Kuwait we call him Mubarak Al Kabir or “Mubarak the Great” and he was known historically as well as Assad Al Jazeera “Lion of the Peninsula”. For indeed he was the one who instilled in Abdulaziz bin Abdulrahman Al Saud, the unifier of Saudi Arabia the ambition of uniting the Arabian Peninsula. But first we need to go into some background.Tensions between the Rashidi Emirate and KuwaitA map of the Rashidi Emirate that encompassed the whole of the Najd Plateau at the time after the Battle of Mulayda 1891. The capital Ha’il is boldened and encircled in red.In 1891, the Rashidi Emirate of Ha’il defeated the forces of the Saudi Emirate of Najd under Emir Abdulrahman bin Faisal Al Saud and conquered Riyadh; his capital. This would mark the end of the Second Saudi State and the expulsion of the ruling Al Saud family first to Bahrain briefly, and then to Kuwait as guests of the Emir, Sheikh Muhammad bin Sabah Al Sabah and later Sheikh Mubarak upon his assumption of the Emirate in 1896. This housing of the Al Saud in Kuwait, led to tensions between Ha’il and Kuwait. This was also exacerbated by the desire of Emir Muhammad bin Abdullah Al Rashid who ruled Ha’il for much of the 1890s until 1897 and after him Emir Abdulaziz bin Mut’ib Al Rashid, to annex Kuwait to his Emirate due to its strategic position on the Gulf coast, and as a port to import for themselves firearms directly. Mubarak would later cut off this source of arms from the Al Rashid, due to tensions between him and the Ottoman Empire that backed the Rashidis and the harassment of Kuwaiti caravans by Bedouins from the Shammar tribe of which the Al Rashid belong. As well as that Emir Abdulaziz bin Mut’ib Al Rashid also harbored Kuwaiti dissident against Mubarak’s rule, Yusuf Al Ibrahim who attempted to pressure both the Ottomans and Rashidis into attempting to invade Kuwait.The Ottomans, after Mubarak took power from his brother; saw his reign as harming the status quo of the region after 1870. The Ottomans began claiming Kuwait as being part of the Ottoman Empire and would pressure Mubarak into accepting Ottoman citizenship for himself and his people, which he would refuse. They would confiscate his private property in Basra as well as a bid to pressure him, yet he maintained his refusal. This Ottoman claim which would be later adopted by Iraq is debunked by me in this answer:Abdulaziz Al Meajel's answer to As an Arab, do you support the annex of Kuwait to Iraq by Saddam?However continuing on, the tensions between Mubarak and the Rashidis in Ha’il grew after the signing of the secret Anglo-Kuwaiti Friendship Treaty of 1899 which put Kuwait under British protection due to Mubarak’s fears of the Ottomans wanting to annex Kuwait. Thus, following the example of his friend the Emir of Mohammerah, Sheikh Khaz’al bin Jabir Al Ka’abi who had put his state under British protection a few years prior. Mubarak felt emboldened with his new found protectors; true he would play the Russians against the British, and the Turks against the British, and the British against the Turks in order to get what he desired; but he saw this new found protection as a safety measure and a means to finally cull the power of his enemies in Ha’il.Battle of Al RukhaimiyahMap of the movement of the forces of Sheikh Humoud Al Sabah, the brother of Sheikh Mubarak and Sheikh Salem Al Sabah, the son of Sheikh Mubarak towards Rukhaimiyah.In the year 1900, the Muntafiq confederation of tribes led by Saadoun Pasha, an ally of Mubarak, came into conflict with the Shammar tribe whose allegiance was to Ibn Rashid in Ha’il. Saadoun Pasha would lead raids against the Shammar. Ibn Rashid however, felt that the person truly behind these attacks and who instigated Saadoun Pasha, was none other than Sheikh Mubarak in Kuwait. In response to this, Ibn Rashid prepared an army intending to respond by raiding Bedouin tribes in the deserts of Kuwait whose allegiance lay with Mubarak Al Sabah.Ibn Rashid heading the army, gathered the bulk of it in the town of Samawa which is in Ottoman Iraq on the Euphrates river. Mubarak hearing of this and of the harassment of the Shammar towards tribes allied to him in the vicinity of Kuwait, sought to launch an attack against Ibn Rashid’s army mustered in Samawa. An army led by him would travel to Zubair in southern Iraq in order to defend Kuwait in case of attack, and he sent the offensive army under the command of his brother Sheikh Humoud and his son Sheikh Salem to Samawa. Upon arriving, they noticed that Ibn Rashid’s forces were many in number and chances of victory over them were slim, so they diverted their attention to Shammari forces gathered in the wells of Rukhaimiyah nearby Samawa. The Kuwaitis would be victorious and returned to Kuwait, with booty taken from the Shammar and when Ibn Rashid’s forces would arrive to support their fellow tribesmen, it was too late.This would be the beginning of the war between Kuwait and Ha’il.Campaign into NajdMap of Mubarak’s forces departing the town of Jahra, a part of Kuwait culminating in the end with the Battle of Al Sarif, and the splitting of the army with a group represented by the dotted line, led by Abdulaziz bin Abdulrahman Al Saud heading towards Riyadh.During this time, Abdulrahman bin Faisal Al Saud, the last Emir of the Second Saudi State and the father of Abdulaziz; had been pressuring Mubarak into supporting his cause into taking back his hometown of Riyadh from the Rashidis. At this time the Al Saud still enjoyed popular support in Najd, particularly in Riyadh. Abdulaziz bin Mit’ib Al Rashid however was known for his cruel treatment of the population, attested to according to my grandmother by my great grandmother and stories of how he would slaughter an entire group of people from his own tribe. This cruelty did not go without developing ire on part of the populace. Mubarak, being the ambition man he was saw this as an opportunity. He would launch an invasion of Najd himself.Mubarak used his influence and his good reputation with the Bedouin tribes to muster up an army to invade the lands of Ibn Rashid. The Muntafiq led by Saadoun Pasha joined him, as well as the Mutair tribe led by Sultan Al Deweesh, the Ajman led by Nayef bin Hithleen, the Bani Hajar led by Ibn Shafi, the Murrah led by Ibn Shureem, the Subai’ led by ‘Darman Abuthnayn, the Suhool led by Ibn Jal’oud, the Qahtan led by Hashr bin Warbak, the Awazem led by Mubarak bin Durai’, the Bani Rashid led by Muhammad bin Qurainees, the Dhafeer led by Ja’lan bin Suwait, and the Bani Khalid. As well as that Mubarak led his own army of 1,200 urban Kuwaitis, and the army was joined by bands of Saudi loyalists led by Abdulaziz Al Saud.The army set out and split up at Hafr Al Batin. Mubarak led the main army into Qassim with the intention of marching upon Ha’il and Ibn Saud would lead his army in the direction of Riyadh. The beginnings of the campaign were much a success. Abdulaziz had managed to capture Riyadh without a fight or any resistance, with the people there welcoming his army due to their staunch loyalty to the Al Saud. As for the main army, Mubarak first made it to the city of Al Majma’ah where its ruler asked for Mubarak to leave him in peace until the end of the conflict with Ibn Rashid, with the ruler pledging to remain neutral. Mubarak agreed to this and left him, taking the main army towards the town of Al Zulfi which surrendered through agreement between its rulers and Mubarak. Mubarak would march to the nearby Qassim cities of Buraidah (the capital of Qassim) and Unaizah both of which surrendered without a fight. Mubarak would appoint Nasser bin Hassan Abalkhail as governor of Buraidah, and Abdullah bin Zamel Al Saleem as governor of Unaizah respectfully.Things were going well for Mubarak. He was enjoying much support from the local people and encountered little to no resistance in his campaign. It was very much plausible that Mubarak could have taken the whole of Najd, becoming the most powerful man in Arabia. But first, he had to take Ha’il itself. He marched north of Buraidah towards Ha’il where he met the Shammari armies of Ibn Rashid at Al Sarif. Up to this point, Mubarak had not used his army composed of various Bedouin tribes primarily in any real battle throughout the campaign. This battle would make the war or break it.Map of the Battle of Al Sarif; Al Sarif is in red. Buraidah and Unaizah are bolded towards the bottom of the map and are medium sized compared to other smaller villages surrounding them. Ha’il is the town far in the top with the largest size words and a circle around the dot. The lighter brown, skinnier arrows are the armies of Mubarak’s coalition, and the darker arrows represent the armies of Ibn Rashid and his Shammari tribesmen.Mubarak’s army suffered from lack of organization, and the Bedouin tribes under his command were present for the spoils of war and as such were not as determined as Ibn Rashid’s army. Initially, the battle was in Mubarak’s favor with his forces making it to Ibn Rashid’s camp. However, foul weather, sand storms, and the like caused much disturbance in the battle field causing many of Mubarak’s Bedouin allies to rout. At this point Mubarak’s army was doomed. Many of the urban town dwellers from Kuwait fighting for Mubarak were killed, and seeing that the battle was lost, Mubarak’s army fell into retreat. Many Kuwaitis, including Mubarak fell back to Buraidah and Unaizah and were led back to Kuwait by locals who received them. Ibn Rashid vowed to kill anyone who would aid the Kuwaitis, as he saw them as valuable prisoners of war. Regardless, the rains that came after the sandstorm cleared the path for the Kuwaitis who were not killed in battle to successfully flee, and indeed Mubarak would make it back with only one of his servants himself.Abdulaziz Al Saud would also return back to Kuwait, with the Rashidis mounting a full campaign to take back their land lost to Mubarak. Thus, Mubarak’s campaign into Najd was routed. However, Mubarak still had a bone to pick with Ibn Rashid. He saw that a friendly state in Najd was necessary to protect Kuwait from further attack especially after the British commitment to Kuwait’s defense was questioned. In 1902, Mubarak allowed Abdulaziz Al Saud return to Riyadh to reclaim his ancestral home. He provided him with sixty armed men and on the way he was accompanied with Saudi loyalists and Riyadh would soon be captured by him. Thus the third Saudi State was born, and Mubarak’s dreams of of being undisputed leader of Arabia was crushed.Sheikh Mubarak Al Sabah, Emir of Kuwait “center”, with Emir Abdulaziz Al Saud of Riyadh to his right.

At one point it was just two emirates with two different ruling families, It could have been six ruling families and eight emirates at another point. This was primarily a result of the decline and disintegration of the Qasimi Emirate with internal feuds and political rivalry sowing discord. The Al Qasimi family today rule both the Emirate of Sharjah and the Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah and in the past both these emirates as well as the rest of the northern emirates, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, and Fujairah were a single polity under a Qasimi ruler. How the current status quo came to be is a result of complicated familial and tribal politics that will be explained through the history of the Qawasim and their realm as well as that of Abu Dhabi and the Bani Yas tribal alliance.The first from among the Qawasim to come to prominence is Rahama bin Mutar Al Qasimi who came to rule Julfar or Ras Al Khaimah in 1720s, during the period of the Omani Civil War which began in 1718. It would last over thirty years until 1749 and would see the collapse of the Ya’ruba dynasty and the establishment of Al Bu Sa’id dynasty that rules Oman to this day. The war would see the tribes of Oman, including Sahil Oman (the Coast of Oman, today the United Arab Emirates) split into two distinct factions, the Hinawi faction consisting mainly of tribes of Qahtanite origin and the majority belonging to the Ibadhi sect which the Al Bu Sa’id belonged to and the Ghafiri faction consisting mainly of tribes of Adnanite origin and the majority belonging to the Sunni sect. This identification would become so prominent and the war so divisive that until the 20th century, most tribes in Oman and the United Arab Emirates still used the faction as a form of identity. It would change the face of the region, and would prominently result in the split of what is today the United Arab Emirates from Oman with the Qawasim opposing the ascendancy of Ahmed bin Sa’id Al Bu Sa’idi as ruler of Oman beginning a rivalry that would secure Qasimi independence. The civil war and its details including two Persian invasions; can be seen here:Abdulaziz Al Meajel's answer to Who are the Al Said family? What is their history?What is important to note however was that Rahama bin Muttar and most the Ghafiri faction supported the last Ya’rubi claimant to the Imamate of Oman Bil’arab bin Himyar in his wars with the new Bu Sa’idi claimant. When Bil’arab was killed in 1749 in battle against Ahmed bin Sa’id and his advancing forces in Jebel Akhdar; most of the tribes of Oman tired, weary, and demoralized by war united under Ahmed’s banner as Imam of Oman. The Qawasim on the fringes of the Omani realm and separated from Oman proper by the Hajar mountains did not; instead favoring independence. This led to war and an inconclusive battle nearby Sohar. In the late 1750s, Ahmed bin Sa’id planned campaigns against the Qawasim however despite initial victories revolts elsewhere forced him to withdraw until 1762. In 1760, Rahama bin Muttar would pass away and would be succeeded by his brother Rashed. In 1762, Ahmed bin Sa’id would launch a naval siege of the Qassimi realm, managing to besiege several ports and forcing the inhabitants to recognize the authority of the Al Bu Sa’idi Imam. However by 1763; the Qawasim had managed to repel the Al Bu Sa’idi siege of their ports including their capital in Julfar. As well as advancing well into Oman in a campaign led by Saqer bin Rashed Al Qasimi son of the second ruler of the Qasimi Emirate Rashed bin Muttar Al Qasimi. Saqer who would succeed his father in 1779, would manage to threaten the Omani capital at the time, Rustaq; forcing Ahmed bin Sa’id to accept a Qasimi delegation which would see the independence of the Qasimi realm stretching from Khor Fakkan to Musandam on the East Coast and from Sharjah to Musandam on the West Coast, roughly the borders of the northern emirates today. Though relations would remain mostly turbulent between Ahmed bin Sa’id’s successors and the Qawasim.It is vital before continuing on to define what Oman was. Oman as we know it today is the Sultanate of Oman, the realm of the Al Bu Sa’idi Sultans. However historically Oman was not purely a state, but a region and not all of modern Oman was part of that region. The eastern part of Oman and most of what is today the United Arab Emirates was part of that region, but for instance Dhofar in the far-west of Oman today bordering Yemen, was not part of that historical region though was a territory possessed by the Ya’rubi and Al Bu Sa’id rulers. While the Imams and Sultans in Rustaq and Muscat claimed dominion over all of Oman, the fact of the matter is Oman became separated into independent entities. The Qawasim after independence still identified as Omanis and saw their state as part of Oman (the region). However their independence would cause a start in the shift of the geographical boundaries of what Oman constituted, which today is the realm of the Bu Sa’id, east of the Hajar mountains; and what was considered Oman proper rather than the Sahil Oman that at the core became the northern emirates of the UAE, while more generous map makers may include the whole of the UAE and even more generous map makers may include Qatar. Be that as it may, the Dhafra desert and most of the territory of Abu Dhabi was the transitional zone between the historical region of Bahrain (later known as Al Hasa) and the region of Oman. Once one gets to Al Ain/Buraimi and Deira beyond the Dubai creek to the north, they would definitely be considered within the boundaries of historical Oman.1855 American made map of the historical regions of Arabia and Greater Iran, historical Oman is shown in the south-east of the Arabian Peninsula. Interesting to note, the map-maker places the Bani Yas emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai within the boundaries of the region of Al Hasa, which in reality would be more of a transitional zone.Around the same time period as the Qasimi-Bu Sa’idi wars; in 1761, fresh water would be discovered on Abu Dhabi island by a band of Bani Yas tribesmen who were out hunting. Abu Dhabi (Father of Dhabi (a certain type of gazelle)) was named after the presence of the animals on the island. The island also contained a sheltered harbor known as Al Bateen. Within two years, a village of around four hundred houses was founded on the island, the first permanent coastal settlement controlled by the tribe that dominated the Dhafra desert west of the Buraimi Oasis and south-east of Al Hasa and whose Emirs of the Al Bu Falah, at the time the Emir being Sheikh Dhiyab bin ‘Essa bin Nahayan Al Falahi; were based in the Liwa Oasis to the south. In 1793, Sheikh Shakhbut bin Dhiyab would succeed his father as ruler of the Bani Yas and would permanently base his capital in Abu Dhabi after defeating a band of rebels led by Hazza’ bin Zayed bin Muhammad who had challenged (and some say killed) his father for control over the tribe. Thus the Emirate of Abu Dhabi was founded.The Bani Yas was a tribal confederation founded in the early 1600s consisting of the various nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes based partly in the Liwa Oasis and partly in the Dhafra desert. The Al Bu Falah from whom the Al Nahayan family that rule Abu Dhabi descend and the Al Bu Falasah that the Al Maktoum family that rule Dubai descend, are the direct descendants of Yas (believed to be a shortened form of Iyas), which the confederation is named after. They migrated into the Dhafra desert from southern Nejd in central Arabia. While different sources give different origins to the Bani Yas, some saying they descend from ‘Aamir bin Sa’sa’ah of the Hawazin (which is questionable as he has no son called Yas or Iyas) which is an Adnanite tribe, others point to them descending from Qahtanite tribes such as Tayy’ and Qudha’a; to which I personally lean to the Qudha’a view with the Bani Yas being a confederation of tribes mainly descending from Qudha’a as the earlier claims are based on those by Omani genealogists with weak or no evidence produced to support the previous claims. During the Omani Civil War they aligned with the Hinawi faction, and owing to their presence in the desert fringes of what was considered the region of Oman they enjoyed considerable independence from central authority and a break in allegiance to the Imams of Oman was not immediate or could be pointed out to a specific event like the Qawasim, but a gradual break.By the early 1800s, the realm of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi stretched from the creek of Dubai to the north which separated them from the Qawasim, to the deserts west of the Buraimi Oasis to the east which separated them from the Bu Sa’idi state, their original homeland the Liwa Oasis to the south, and the Khor Al Udaid to the west bordering Qatar. The Al Ali tribe led by Sheikh Rashed bin Majed Al Mualla, had migrated from Sinniyah island after water sources were depleted, to the mainland in the late 1760s where they built the fort of Umm Al Quwain. Though the Al Ali still paid allegiance to the Qawasim, despite becoming more and more independent. Thus there were two independent emirates at this point, with two distinct ruling families.In 1794, the Emir of Al Hasa Barrack bin Abdulmohsen as well as a party from among the people of Al Hasa attacked a group of Najdi preachers after the battle between Emir Barrack and Saud bin Abdulaziz the son of the Saudi Imam Abdulaziz bin Muhammad bin Saud who reigned from 1765 until 1803 when Saud would succeed him; this prompted an angry response from Saud bin Abdulaziz who was victorious in the previous battle in a war that had been boiling since 1789. A Wahhabi campaign ensued and by 1795 all of the Khalidi dominions aside from Qatif and the nearby Island of Tarut were taken over. Even Zaid bin Uray'ir Al Humaid the former ally of the Wahhabis participated in the war against them putting familial feuds aside in order to protect his dynasty. As for the Emir Barrack bin Abdulmohsen he fled to asylum in Kuwait. The Khalidi commander Abdullah bin Suleiman Al Humaid held a final stand against the Diriyans in Qatif and Tarut. After several skirmishes with Ibn Ufaisan, a devastating defeat took place outside of Qatif's walls. Eventually Qatif and Tarut fell likely due to treachery from within Qatif's walls by one of the Hasawi military commanders by the name of Ahmad bin Ghanim Al Qatifi. Abdullah bin Suleiman however avoided being taken captive by the Wahhabis managing to escape and went seeking asylum and protection from the Al Muntafiq tribe in Southern Iraq. The Khalidi Emirate of Al Hasa ceased to exist, conquered by their enemies to the west after a time of bloodshed, internal and familial feuds, and civil war. The remnants of the Al Humaid ruling family migrated to the nearby neighbouring Utubi states in Bahrain and Zubarah, and Kuwait. This would lead to consequences in both the emirates of Sahil Oman and Oman itself.In 1795, the first Saudi campaign into territories controlled by the Bani Yas and their allies the Manasir, led by Mutlaq Al Mutairi would fail. However, another led by Ibrahim bin Ufaisan who was among the prominent commanders that participated in the conquest of Al Hasa, besieged Kuwait, and conquered the Qatari peninsula including its capital Zubarah under the control of the Al Khalifa; would meet with success. The Bani Yas in the person of the Emir of Abu Dhabi would pledge allegiance to the Saudi Imam, followed by the Nuaim and Bani Qeteb (Keteb) tribes of the Buraimi oasis which the Saudis would use as a base of operations to project power in the region. The Qawasim under Saqer bin Rashed Al Qasimi in Ras Al Khaimah would initially resist swearing fealty to the Saudi ruler, however eventually did owing to the power of opposing forces, the Tunaij tribe of Rams and the Zaab tribe of Jazirat Al Hamra did not initially pledge alleigance but did in later campaigns launched in 1800 and 1803 in Oman. In Oman proper, the Juboor tribe nearby Muscat and the Ja’lan tribe supported the Saudis even before their campaigns into Oman proper, with Sheikh Salem bin Ali Al Humoud of the Ja’lan after traveling to Diriyah being convinced by the teachings of Muhammad bin Abdulwahab and spreading those teachings to his tribe. With these two tribes supporting the Saudi advance in Oman.This culminated with the 1803 siege of Muscat in which the Saudi forces supported by Oman tribal vassals and naval support from Kuwait and the Saudi vassals of Bahrain and the Qawasim took part. This alliance came to be possible following the campaign by Imam Sultan bin Ahmed Al Said in 1800 in which he took Bahrain placing a relative as governor, while taking twenty six Utubi families in Bahrain to Muscat while the rest fled to relatives in Kuwait and to the abandoned Zubarah on the Qatari mainland. The Imam of Oman then sailed to Kuwait where he demanded that the Emir, Abdullah bin Sabah pay tribute, which he did and thus withdrew. The purpose of this trip as well was to discuss the threat posed by the Saudis with the Ottoman representative in Basra. By 1801 however, the Omanis were evicted from Bahrain. With the help of the Saudis, the Al Khalifa were once again in control of Bahrain, however this time not independently but as vassals of the Emir of Diriyah. The war between the Saudis and Oman was not over yet, indeed it lasted until the year 1803. In 1803 the Emir of Diriyah called for Sheikh Salman bin Ahmed of Bahrain his vassal, and Sheikh Abdullah bin Sabah of Kuwait to join his vassals the Qawasim in a naval show of power outside the Omani capital Muscat which they did. Though Oman as a whole (except for Sohar and territories controlled by Omani tribes loyal to the Emir in Diriyah) was not subjugated into the Saudi realm in a similar fashion to Bahrain or to the emirates of the coast, from then until 1812 with breaks as a result of revolts which were crushed, they were subjected to pay homage to the Saudi Emir initially with a three year ceasefire, and thus Kuwait as well ceased to pay tribute to the Bu Sa’idi Imam.This difference in political allegiance would serve to further separate the emirates from Oman as a geographical entity. The Saudi presence and power on the coast also grew, managing to depose in 1808 the Qasimi Emir Sultan bin Saqer who had recently conquered Khor Fakkan from the Bu Sa’idis; and imprisoned him in Diriyah. While installing Hassan bin Ali (and his successor Hassan bin Rahama) as the representative of Imam Saud bin Abdulaziz of Diriyah in the region. He would escape in 1810 however and travel through Wadi Al Dawasir onto Yemen, and from the port of Mokha to Muscat and then the port of Lanjah on the Iranian coast which his relative ruled. In 1813, the Sultan of Muscat Sa’id bin Sultan attempted to restore Sultan bin Saqer to his emirate, but he only managed to take control of Sharjah, thus becoming its Emir. This is pivotal as it was the first time Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah were ruled as two separate entities with independent rulers. About three years later around 1816, Rashid bin Humaid Al Nuaimi captured Ajman from the cousin tribe of the Al Bu Shamis who also descend from the Nuaim of the Buraimi oasis. However, he would rule with the endorsement of Sultan bin Saqer as a dependency of Sharjah. Thus at this point there were three independent emirates with two ruling families which were Abu Dhabi ruled by the Al Nahayan, Ras Al Khaimah ruled by the Qawasim, and Sharjah ruled by the Qawasim; with the basis for two other emirates in Umm Al Quwain and Ajman.In 1820, a second British naval expedition took part in a campaign against the “piracy” of the Qawasim who were now independent with the fall of Diriyah at the hands of the Egyptians under the Ottoman banner; with a restored united Qasimi emirate. After the 1820 campaign, Sultan bin Saqr was restored to his seat in Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah was subsequently reunited with Ras Al Khaimah as Sultan bin Saqr took his residence and made his capital there. Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi would be the last to rule a securely united Qasimi state as two years after his death in 1866, Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah would once again separate as a result of inter-familial disputes.Unlike the previous campaign undertaken in 1805, the 1820 Campaign against the Qawasim in Ras Al Khaimah was successful and was won decisively by the British fleet. As a result, a treaty was imposed upon the Qawasim. Nearby sheikhdoms which now constitute the United Arab Emirates as well as Bahrain which then held control over the Qatari Peninsula as well, were invited to join in the treaty. The treaty was signed by or by a representative the following Arab rulers and notables: Sheikh Hassan bin Rahma Al Qasimi formerly of Ras Al Khaimah, Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut Al Nahayan of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Sultan bin Saqir Al Qasimi of Sharjah, Sheikh Abdullah bin Rashid Al Mu'alla of Umm Al Quwain, Sheikh Rashid bin Humaid Al Nuaimi of Ajman, Sheikh Muhammad bin Haza’ bin Za’al Al Sa’adouni Al Falahi of Dubai, and Sheikh Salman bin Ahmad Al Khalifa and Sheikh Abdullah bin Ahmed Al Khalifa of Bahrain.The General Maritime Treaty consisted of eleven articles, which in short barred the practice of piracy, defined piracy, forced the use of white and red flags by the Arab realms which had signed, kept records of ships, abolished slavery, and identified the consequences of breaking any of the tenets of the treaty with the British acting as the head of the anti-“piratical” police force enforcing the treaty at sea. Prominently, this agreement paired with the earlier inter-Qasimi conflict would pave the way for the further independence of Ajman and Umm Al Quwain as gradually they became more independent and seperate from the Qasimi realm, to the degree that they eventually no longer pledged fealty to the Qasimi Emir. Ajman did gain full independence for a time, until Sultan bin Saqer managed to reign Rashid bin Humaid in to recognize his authority by 1825. Umm Al Quwain though recognizing the nominal authority of Sultan bin Saqer became entirely autonomous. However for now, they still recognized the authority of the Qawasim though their autonomy would prove to be an issue.With the arrival of the 1820s, a rivalry brewed between Sheikh Sultan bin Saqer of Sharjah and Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi particularly with regards to competing interests in the Buraimi oasis and projection of power over the tribes of the interior. With the collapse of the First Saudi State, Sultan Sa’id bin Sultan of Muscat had moved to restore Omani authority over the Buraimi oasis from which instability and internal strife plagued Oman for the duration of the Saudi occupation, in which it was a base to launch campaigns as a gateway into Oman and the emirates of the coast from Najd. The location of Buraimi distant from the Sultan’s capital Muscat, resulted in difficulty with regards to the Sultan enforcing his authority. This allowed for other actors, primarily the rulers of Abu Dhabi and Sharjah to attempt to increase their influence in the area. Sharjah however, under the umbrella of the Saudi state after receiving a message along with the rulers of Ajman and Umm Al Quwain from Turki bin Abdullah Al Saud instructing Sultan bin Saqer to renovate the forts of Buraimi and in exchange no change against the interests of Sultan bin Saqer would come to be politically when the emirates of the coast were subjugated. Sultan bin Saqer also hoped this would give him an opportunity to expand into Buraimi. This would draw the ire of Sultan Sa’id bin Sultan in Muscat, who requested the British to pressure Sultan bin Saqer to cease and desist. An agreement was thus made between Sultan bin Saqer and Sa’id bin Sultan in which the forts of the oasis would remain neutral in order to prevent a party from using the oasis as a base to project power on the others. A further agreement was made, between Sultan bin Saqer and Tahnun bin Shakhbut whose interest in the Buraimi oasis was growing considerably. It stipulated that Sultan bin Saqer would demolish his forts in Buraimi and in exchange Tahnun bin Shakhbut would demolish his fort in Daira north of the Dubai creek and close to Sultan bin Saqer’s base in Sharjah.However, peace would not hold for long thereafter. Tahnun’s interests in the Buraimi oasis grew, owing to increased ownership of Bani Yas tribesmen to date gardens in the oasis and the importance of it as a trade route between Abu Dhabi and inner Oman. It thus became a policy for Emirs of Abu Dhabi to increase their power over the Buraimi oasis. That coupled with Tahnun’s newfound alliance with Sa’id bin Sultan leading to the former supporting the latter in his campaign to conquer Bahrain in 1829, resulted in tensions with Sultan bin Saqer. In Sultan bin Saqer’s end, his designs on Dubai a dependency of Abu Dhabi close to his capital of Sharjah would see his marriage to the sister of the ruling Bani Yas wali of Dubai in 1825. This plotting and counter-ambitions would lead to tensions that would grow leading to war in 1829. The resumed presence of the Saudis in Buraimi through the Second Saudi State only added another layer to the conflict. As in 1828, Turki bin Abdullah Al Saud who restored the Saudi state with a new capital in Riyadh soon once again defeated the resurgent Bani Khalid in Al Hasa and appointed Umar bin Ufaisan as his representative in Buraimi taking it over with Sultan bin Saqer pledging his allegiance in 1831.In 1829, with the failure of the joint Omani-Abu Dhabi campaign on Bahrain, Sultan bin Saqer took the opportunity to declare war and blockade Abu Dhabi. Peace was declared through the intervention of the Qasimi ruler of Lanjah, Sheikh Muhammad bin Qadheeb Al Qasimi with both sides agreeing not to interfere with the dependencies of the other. However war would resume once more in 1831 after the ruler of Ajman, a dependent of Sharjah, Rashid bin Humaid returned to Ajman after a campaign in Sohar to find it plundered by Bani Yas and Manasir tribesmen through order by Sheikh Tahnun of Abu Dhabi leading to war once again, but the ruler of Lanjah once again intervened in light of the importance of peace to the pearling season, but tensions remained.The next year, owing to violations of the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 by Umm Al Quwain and Ajman, Sultan bin Saqer rather than pay the fines on their behalf as sovereign instead surrendered any sovereignty he had over them. Thus Sheikh Abdullah bin Rashed Al Mu’alla of Umm Al Quwain and Sheikh Rashed bin Humaid Al Nu’aimi of Ajman were considered independent rulers in their own right. Thus the number of independent emirates came to be four: Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Sharjah, and Umm Al Quwain with four separate ruling families.Though this number would quickly change. In 1833, Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi was killed in a coup by his brother Khalifa bin Shakhbut supported by another brother Sultan. This violent transfer of power resulted in dissent from within Abu Dhabi and particularly the Al Bu Falasah and later Qubaisat sections of the Bani Yas tribe who had decided to secede. In order to attain legitimacy and protection from revenge for his move, Sheikh Khalifa almost immediately pledged allegiance to the Saudi Emir Turki bin Faisal who accepted his pledge. A counter-coup to install one of his cousins failed after that cousin ratted out the three principal conspirators who were put to the sword, and two influential merchants were to be executed, but the intervention of his brother Sultan and popular dissent prevented it. Instead, he exiled one of the merchants Bin Iyan to Lanjah after having him beaten and his property confiscated.The pearling season would come, and most the Al Bu Falasah led by ‘Ubaid bin Sa’id Al Falasi and Maktoum bin Butti Al Falasi (of whom all members of the Al Maktoum ruling family descend) would instead of returning to Abu Dhabi, use the opportunity to secede to Dubai as a result of Sheikh Khalifa’s propensity for violence. The wali of Dubai Ibn Za’al would surrender it without a fight. ‘Ubaid and Maktoum would rule as co-rulers with ‘Ubaid the senior of the two. In autumn they would be joined by the rest of the Al Bu Falasah who made their way to Dubai from Abu Dhabi. Sultan bin Saqer saw this as an opportunity to bring Dubai under the influence of Sharjah and secure his southern border so near to his capital and thus took up the cause of the fledgling emirate. At this point the emirates were now five and with five ruling families though Abu Dhabi and Dubai were ruled by two different branches of the Bani Yas tribe: Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Sharjah, and Umm Al Quwain.Sultan bin Saqer ordered those subject to him to return from the pearl fisheries much to their disturbance. He set up a fleet of twenty two ships carrying five hundred and twenty of his own men and eighty ships belonging to the Al Bu Falasah and those who followed them consisting of seven hundred men. The campaign was led by himself and his dependent and relative Hassan bin Rahama Al Qasimi and in the beginning if September made their way to Abu Dhabi expecting it to be nearly empty as the period of the “Great dive” was still ongoing. They thus landed about four miles from Abu Dhabi and camped for the night only awaking to find themselves outnumbered by Bani Yas and Manasir tribesmen loyal to the Emir of Abu Dhabi who had received word of the intended attack. The men of Sultan bin Saqer’s campaign immediately fled to their boats, but Khalifa bin Shakhbut’s forces pursued and thirty men loyal to the Emir of Sharjah with killed, as well as fifteen from among the Al Bu Falasah and two hundred and thirty five from among them were captured and made to return to Abu Dhabi which they seceded from. Six of the Qasimi boats and approximately sixty of the Al Bu Falasah boats were captured. It was a major defeat that claimed the life of the Qasimi sheikh of Lanjah’s brother as well as resulted in the near drowning of Sultan bin Saqer himself along with four of his slaves as a result of his escape boat sinking. The war was not over yet however.Two months later, forming an alliance with his former dependents in Ajman and Lanjah; Sultan bin Saqer departed with his fleet from Dubai. His initial invasion force was repelled but the inhabitants of Abu Dhabi and Bedouins loyal to its ruler repelled the attack, with seven large ships moored to the coast by iron chains firing upon the invaders. Sultan bin Saqer’s ship was damaged by the defenders and he instead opted for a different tactic. He decided to blockade the settlement, severely harming it and with the Sultan of Muscat Sa’id bin Sultan residing in Zanzibar, there was no allied force powerful enough to lift the blockade and join Abu Dhabi. Thirty ships were captured by the Qasimi fleet, and ten men were killed by a force from Dubai by land , that coupled with a caravan carrying goods to Abu Dhabi from the Buraimi oasis being intercepted put further pressure on Abu Dhabi as it was not only being cut off by sea, but now also by land. Abu Dhabi did not surrender however.With an advantage by an attack by night, three large ships carrying five hundred men managed to evade the blockading fleet, but were quickly pursued by twenty smaller boats. They managed to capture a ship belonging to the Emir of Ajman and kill seven of the eight on board, the first among other exploits. They managed to return to Abu Dhabi safely after pursuit by ships belonging to the Qasimi fleet. By land, Sheikh Khalifa bin Shakhbut himself led a campaign against the Bedouin tribes supporting the invaders among them the Ghafalah. This campaign aimed to restore the supply lines cut off by the enemy. The blockading fleet which had to bring in their provisions from far off Ras Al Khaimah and Lanjah on the eastern coast of the Gulf; at this point was almost as demoralized as the town they were blockading especially considering each individual on board was supposed to arrange their own supply of provisions. By early 1834, under the mediation of the Emir of Lanjah, Sultan bin Saqer and Khalifa bin Shakhbut would come to a ceasefire; with the former lifting the blockade and the latter returning ships seized belonging to the blockading fleet. This was not to last, as when the great pearling season of the summer began once more, Manasir tribesmen loyal to the Emir of Abu Dhabi raided territory of the Emir of Sharjah, which resulted in violence on the pearl fisheries; with a fleet from Sharjah capturing ten ships belonging to subjects of Abu Dhabi and taking eighty crew members prisoner, including confiscating four thousand rupees worth of pearls. This violence resulted in the return of pearling vessels belonging to both Abu Dhabi and Sharjah to their respective ports, severely impacting the economy. This resulted in a more permanent agreement of peace which was declared between Abu Dhabi and Sharjah, with the former recognizing the influence of Sultan bin Saqer of Sharjah on Dubai. As for Dubai itself it would soon learn that in order to maintain their independence from Qasimi or Al Bu Falah (Al Nahayan) control, that they had to play the two forces against one another.This war would result a year later in the Maritime Truce, another agreement brokered by Britain further limiting violence at sea in cases other than piracy. Any violence at sea would be prohibited within the pearling season defined as lasting from the 21st of May until the 21st of November and would be considered piracy. The rulers would also be responsible for the infractions of their subjects, and in the case of an infraction, the offended party should not retaliate but rather report the infraction to the British authorities. It is also at this point, emirates signatory to this agreement and subsequent agreement would be known as “Trucial sheikhdoms” and the “Pirate Coast” as dubbed by the British would be known as “the Trucial states” or “Trucial Oman”. The initial signatories of the treaty were Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, and Sharjah where the rulers had gathered with the British in the village of Basidu on the island of Qishm. The maritime truce would be valid for a period lasting ten years, where no hostilities would be tolerated at sea. Hostilities and states of war on land would not be considered an infraction in terms of the treaty.The period after this treaty did not see a cessation of the rivalry between Sharjah and Abu Dhabi. The wars and rivalry would continue, and would see the decline of the Qasimi Emirate as the foremost power in the coast, with its maritime capabilities limited; with Abu Dhabi gaining at its expense as the foremost power on land particularly because the clauses of the treaty made no comment on warfare at land and the British had no interest in policing what happened on soil, as it did not directly impact nor hamper their interests. The next two decades would cement Dubai’s place as an independent state in its own right after severe threats to its independence with Dubai’s influence growing as a result of the diminishing influence of Sharjah which would even see Sharjah and Abu Dhabi forming alliances against the ruler of Dubai. It would even see the attempts of the aging Sultan bin Saqer to bolster his strength by attempting to re-annex Ajman and Umm Al Quwain, and even Dubai.In the meantime; in 1836, ‘Ubaid bin Sa’id would pass and Maktoum bin Butti would become the sole ruler of Dubai, from whom all the rulers of Dubai after his brother after him would descend. Thus granting the Al Maktoum sole authority as the ruling family of Dubai. Meanwhile, Faisal bin Turki Al Saud would succeed his father in 1834, but was too busy dealing with the Ottoman Egyptian threat than in increasing his authority over Oman. Soon he would be deposed in an Egyptian campaign in 1838 and was taken captive in Cairo, and Khalid bin Saud was placed as Emir in his place. Despite Khalid acknowledging the authority of the Egyptians over him; his policy over Buraimi and Oman was more strict and he immediately dispatched Sa’ad bin Mutlaq Al Mutairi in 1839 towards Buraimi, son of the last governor of Buraimi during the first Saudi State Mutlaq bin Muhammad Al Mutairi who was killed in a campaign towards Muscat in 1813 by the Hajriyeen. With him he carried a message to the rulers of the emirates demanding allegiance and to be obedient to him as they were to Faisal and his father Saud bin Abdulaziz during the era of the first Saudi State. Despite that, the emirates opted to remain independent with a British pledge to protect them rather than have them fall to Egyptian influence as the Egyptians were hoping to achieve through their Saudi dependent in Najd.War in the region would soon breakout once again as early as 1838, and Dubai’s independence threatened. Khalifa bin Shakhbut attacked Dubai during the pearling season with most the male inhabitants at sea. After capturing a fortification by the coast, and garrisoning it; Khalifa withdrew with the rest of his men. The Al Bu Falasah quickly returned and requested aid from Sultan bin Saqer in Sharjah who joined them and after a battle lasting three days, expelled the forces loyal to the Emir of Abu Dhabi and demolished the fortification. A truce would be called and the men were able to return back to resume the diving season unmolested. A year later, tensions would rise between Umm Al Quwain and Dubai. This was due to two men from Dubai being killed in the desert by forces loyal to Sheikh Abdullah bin Rashed of Umm Al Quwain who believed them to belong to the Manasir tribe with whom relations were turbulent. The ruler of Umm Al Quwain would attempt to use Sultan bin Saqer as a mediator in order to pay the blood money owed, but the ruler of Dubai would refuse the offer instead opting for war, with Sharjah siding with Dubai. A force from Dubai was sent through Qasimi territory to raid Umm Al Quwain, but it would turn sour as six of the men would be captured and imprisoned. Sheikh Saqer bin Sultan, son of Sultan bin Saqer and his wali (governor) in Sharjah would join Sheikh Maktoum bin Butti in his war. A joint force from Sharjah and Dubai would be dispatched in response, resulting in a battle outside Umm Al Quwain which would see twenty men killed, and the joint force of Sharjah and Dubai victorious. The six prisoners were released as well as the original blood money was paid by Abdullah bin Rashed in order to secure peace. However, this would not satisfy Sultan bin Saqer, who aimed to bring Umm Al Quwain back under his control.In 1840, leading a force of seven hundred bedouins; Sheikh Sultan would attack Umm Al Quwain by land, while his son Saqer and ally Maktoum bin Butti of Dubai would lead a fleet of sixty three ships carrying one thousand five hundred men would blockade the port. A tower protecting the creek Umm Al Quwain was situated on would prevent the invading fleet from entering and an attack by a landing party was defeated by the tower’s garrison. Khalifa bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi would intervene on Umm Al Quwain’s side attempting to take Dubai by surprise. The circumstances would not allow war to proceed, and with the British political resident as a mediator, peace would be agreed with Sultan bin Saqer agreeing to the presence of Umm Al Quwain’s fortifications as is, while Abdullah bin Rashed of Umm Al Quwain would compensate him for his losses during the war. That same year, two years after being appointed by his father Sultan bin Saqer; replacing his uncle Saleh bin Saqer Al Qasimi as governor of Sharjah due to his political leanings towards the Saudis. Saqer bin Sultan attempted to declare his independence in a coup against his father, but his efforts would fail and he was welcome in Dubai by Sheikh Maktoum bin Butti to take refuge from his father. Sultan bin Saqer was furious and insulted by this turn of events, and opted to form an alliance with Khalifa bin Shakhbut as well as Abdullah bin Rashed of Umm Al Quwain against Dubai and its ruler Maktoum bin Butti. The town was to be captured and razed, with the inhabitants forced to either settle in Sharjah or Abu Dhabi. Dubai, had the allies stayed true to their arrangement would have been destroyed and would have ceased to exist entirely. Maktoum bin Butti, seeing himself surrounded by enemies surrendered to the Emir of Sharjah with a gift of money, leaving Abu Dhabi alone in the endeavor and Umm Al Quwain without easy access to Dubai having to cross through Qasimi territory with whom despite the alliance, relations were strained. The next year once again during the pearling season, with plague striking Dubai and most of the inhabitants with the permission of the Emir of Sharjah temporarily settling in Dairah north of the creek, as well as secession of five hundred of the Al Bu Muhair tribe of the Bani Yas from Dubai to Sharjah due to discontent; Khalifa bin Shakhbut once again attacked Dubai. Ensuring tribes like the Bani Keteb remained neutral, he took and plundered the town and destroyed its provisions, date groves, and burned a ship belonging to Sheikh Maktoum, killing two men aboard. Sheikh Maktoum once again requested aid from Sheikh Sultan in Sharjah who came to Dubai’s defense from the invaders who were garrisoned in Jumeirah just south of Dubai.Sheikh Khalifa expected quite correctly such a move. He sent a force to raid the settlement of Khan nearby Sharjah, taking fifteen slaves as part of the raiding booty. Khalifa bin Shakhbut withdrew himself and his forces to territory under his control and launched three coordinated surprise attacks on Dubai, and Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah the two principal towns of the Qawasim. However, finding himself surrounded and resistance stiff, he withdrew with the death of his camel and a few men. Thus displaying the strength the ruler of Abu Dhabi possessed on land, however it would be the last time Dubai’s existence or independence would face a dire threat. In 1842, Khalifa bin Shakhbut approached Maktoum bin Butti with whom relations were warming to act as a mediator between him and Sultan bin Saqer, however owning to Abu Dhabi’s alliance with his enemy the Sultan of Muscat; he refused to consider it and this only served to escalate the war between them. One hundred and fifty men under the command of Sheikh Sultan bin Shakhbut, brother of the Emir of Abu Dhabi, Khalifa; would attack tribes loyal to the Qawasim. The Bani Keteb would see three of their men killed and seventy of their camels taken as booty while the Nu’aim tribe would also see three men killed. On top of that, a caravan bound from Buraimi to Sharjah would be plundered, and the attackers would return to Abu Dhabi with only two killed, all this within a span of a week. A ceasefire would be declared in July, but newly allied with the ruler of Dubai; Khalifa bin Shakhbut would be influenced by Maktoum bin Butti into once again attacking the Bani Keteb, Nu’aim, as well as the Ghafalah tribes at Dhaid in Qasimi territory. By the year after, Maktoum bin Butti himself would lead his men in battle against the Ghafalah who had raided a caravan belonging to merchants in Dubai, he also attacked the Nu’aim. He would be victorious, but would be wounded losing an eye in the process. This series of attacks without a direct response from Sultan bin Saqer to defend his bedouins would draw the ire of the tribes who would turn against him and by 1844 when Sultan bin Saqer would attempt to restore his influence, would find the tribes were now pledged to Khalifa bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi. Though that would only last a year for reasons soon to be obvious.Meanwhile in Najd after a coup in 1841, Abdullah bin Thunayyan Al Saud took power after the Egyptian withdrawal in 1840 in Arabia and two years later; Faisal bin Turki managed to take back control of his country and made his way from his capital in Riyadh to Hofuf in the Al Hasa oasis; there the rulers of the emirates among other heads of tribes pledged their allegiance directly to the restored Emir. Sa’ad bin Mutlaq whom with a force of seven hundred men returned to Buraimi and requested tribute in a message to Thuwaini bin Sa’id, the representative of his father Sa’id bin Sultan in Oman while his father was now based primarily in Zanzibar. He sent a message to his father requesting guidance, though this action would be too long a wait for Sa’ad who quickly led a campaign towards Bahla, taking over the Dhahirah region and defeating the Hajrieen who had earlier killed his father in 1813 in a bout of revenge. The rival branches of the Al Bu Sa’id; Humoud bin Azzan Al Busa’idi the wali (governor) of Sohar paid tribute to Sa’ad and so did Thuwaini bin Sa’id in Muscat in 1845. However Sa’ad would soon be sacked by Faisal bin Turki in Riyadh, owing to this former’s ruthlessness towards the local inhabitants and making decisions without consulting the Emir in Riyadh.In the mean time that same year in 1845, Khalifa bin Shakhbut would be assassinated along with his brother Sultan by a cousin by the name of ‘Essa bin Khalid during the pearling season who took power for two months. He himself would be slain by Dhiyab bin ‘Essa; a first cousin of Sheikh Khalifa and Dhiyab would be killed by the son of ‘Essa bin Khalid also named Khalid. Though he was not interested in assuming power but was satisfied with revenge. His brother however attempted to take power, but two from among the Bani Yas Muhammad bin Humaid and Rashed bin Fadhil expelled him, and pledged themselves to Sheikh Sa’id bin Tahnun, the son of Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut and nephew to the recently killed Sheikh Khalifa. This new ruler was not too fond of the Saudi presence and while outwardly presenting loyalty to the Saudi ruler, plotted.With a change in leadership in Abu Dhabi and the end of the Maritime Truce in 1843 brokered by the British, Sultan bin Saqer of Sharjah now felt free to pursue his ambitions and increase his influence and power in the region. With an aim to annex both Ajman and Umm Al Quwain as well as cripple Dubai if not annex it as well. He would find himself met with a combined alliance of those three emirates, he himself would form an alliance with the new Emir of Abu Dhabi, Sa’id bin Tahnun in 1846 with whom the spoils would be shared. The war would begin with Sultan bin Saqer ordering the construction of fortifications in Abu Hail only five miles from the town of Dubai itself, which threatened its ruler. Meanwhile, his son Saqer once again restored as governor of Sharjah campaigned against Umm Al Quwain aiming to bring it under his direct control. A battle would ensue between the forces of Umm Al Quwain led by their ruler Abdullah bin Rashed and the forces of Sharjah supported by the Bani Keteb tribe led by Saqer bin Sultan. The battle would be in the favor of Abdullah bin Rashed and Saqer bin Sultan would be killed in battle and his men would retreat. Sultan bin Saqer would soon find himself depressed with the loss of his son whom he would mourn, and the ruler of Umm Al Quwain until his death would grow weary and paranoid of vengeance from Sultan bin Saqer. However for now, a truce of six months would be called following his son’s death and brokered through mediation by a British admiral. Though he would resume construction of the fortifications at Abu Hail, and prevent inhabitants of Dubai from entering Qasimi territory. Once the sixth month truce had ended, Sultan bin Saqer gathered with his ally Sa’id bin Tahnun and it was agreed that a campaign would be launched and that its first target would be Dubai which would be destroyed. However after fearing that Sa’id bin Tahnun would instead keep Dubai as a dependency, instead opted to insist to make Umm Al Quwain the first target of a joint campaign. In the meantime, Sheikh Maktoum of Dubai would make peace with Sultan bin Saqer in 1847 who promised to destroy his fortifications in Abu Hail (but did not). Meanwhile tensions would remain though no active campaign would ensue until 1848, when Abdullah bin Sultan Al Qasimi who was his late brother Saqer’s replacement as governor of Sharjah intended to annex Ajman and bring it under his authority. He would fail however.That same year, Hamriyah a dependency of Sharjah between Ajman and Umm Al Quwain would elect a person by the name of Abdullah as ruler of the settlement after the death of the previous governor Saif bin Abdullah Al Shamsi. Sheikh Abdulaziz bin Rashed Al Nu’aimi of Ajman did not take too kindly to this and attacked Hamriyah with a force of four hundred men. The ensuing battle would see the people of Hamriyah victorious over the ruler of Ajman who would be killed and his brother Humaid bin Rashed wounded. The Ajmani force was routed and the Hamriyah force pursued until reaching the gates of Ajman. However in the pursuit the newly elected ruler of Hamriyah was also killed. Abdulrahman bin Saif bin Abdullah Al Shamsi would instead become the new wali of Hamriyah, and Humaid bin Rashed who had already ruled from 1838 to 1841 previously; would succeed his brother in Ajman. This would be the first among a series of events which would see the further autonomy of Hamriyah from Sharjah until attaining independence under the Al Bu Shamis a subsection of the Nu’aim tribe in later years, though unrecognized by the Emir of Sharjah or the British.Meanwhile, the Saudi power over Buraimi while still present, waned especially considering Faisal bin Turki was at war with Sharif Muhammad bin Oun of Mecca and Emir of the Hejaz under the Ottomans who aimed to restore Khalid bin Saud as Emir in Riyadh, though the war would end in 1848 which saw Faisal pay the Sharif a sum which ended the war. Though owing to the Saudi weakness in the region at the time, Sheikh Sa’id bin Tahnun of Abu Dhabi allied with the Omani Wali of Sohar as well as the Dhawahir and Nu’aim tribes of the oasis to expel the Saudis from Buraimi which they effectively did, though not permanently and the whole of Buraimi fell to the control of the Emir of Abu Dhabi.Upon hearing of this, Faisal bin Turki immediately sent Sa’ad bin Mutlaq Al Mutairi to take back Buraimi and punish Sa’id bin Tahnun and his forces. The rulers of the other emirates particularly Maktoum bin Butti of Dubai and Sultan bin Saqer of Sharjah fearing the growing strength of Abu Dhabi with control of the Buraimi oasis formed a coalition against it, and would immediately dispatch messages to Sa’ad Al Mutairi requesting him to join them before setting out, but he continued towards Buraimi and lost against the forces of Sa’id bin Tahnun who ambushed Sa’ad’s forces in ‘Anikah between Abu Dhabi and Buraimi with a joint force of the tribes of the Dhawahir, Awamir, Bani Qeteb/Keteb, the Manasir, as well as his own Bani Yas tribesmen particularly from the Mazari’ tribe. Sa’ad and his forces would retreat to Dubai where they were welcomed by the Emir and they stayed there for three days before continuing on to Sharjah. Sultan bin Saqer and Maktoum bin Butti joined Sa’ad Al Mutairi in a renewed campaign which managed to take back Buraimi as well as the booty taken from the Saudi forces in the initial encounter. Abu Dhabi renewed its allegiance to the Saudi state, though within months Sa’id bin Tahnun was looking into forming an alliance with Thuwaini bin Sa’id in Muscat against the Saudis in Buraimi. However, this alliance would fail to make any substantial gain as the wali of Sohar Humoud bin Azzan Al Bu Sa’idi refused to take part, preventing Thuwaini from traveling to Buraimi. Sa’id bin Tahnun instead found an ally in Sultan bin Saqer who joined forces with his Bani Yas and Manasir tribesmen and jointly expelled the Saudis under the leadership of Sa’ad Al Mutairi from Buraimi.This angered Faisal bin Turki in Riyadh, who decided to head a renewed campaign himself. He first headed into Bahraini-controlled Qatar however, which requested aid from the Emir of Abu Dhabi however seeing the strength of Faisal’s force he instead sued for peace and the Emir of Al Hasa under the Saudis Ahmed Al Sudairi acted as the mediator. Sa’id bin Tahnun would withdraw his forces from Buraimi and Faisal bin Turki would send his son Abdullah and Ahmed Al Sudairi with around three to five thousand men on camels to Buraimi in a show of force where the rulers of the coastal emirates were gathered and renewed their allegiance to Faisal bin Turki. They also managed to force tribute upon Thuwaini bin Sa’id in Oman who had ceded much of the territory north of Bahla to the Saudis in 1853. This arrangement would remain until the death of Faisal bin Turki in 1865 and the civil war that would encompass Najd.In 1853 as well, the Perpetual Treaty of Peace would be brokered by Britain between the rulers of the emirates. The Maritime Truce that had ended ten years prior proved to be beneficial economically as it barred warfare at sea which much of the inhabitants of the coast depended on for their living. This treaty would turn that ten year truce into a permanent state of affairs. The ruler of Sharjah guaranteed that it did not include warfare in the Gulf of Oman was satisfied that he would be able to defend his holdings there (the Shamaliyah) from the Sultan of Muscat with whom he fought several wars for control over the region. It was also during the period after this treaty that Abu Dhabi would become the foremost power on the coast with its significant power on land as the Qasimi capability of conducting warfare at sea which was their major strength was limited, and they became increasingly susceptible to the internal division of their realm, particularly with Sultan bin Saqer being increasingly restricted as a result of age and the increasing feuds and independence of his sons and grandsons whom pursued their own interests.In 1854, Hamriyah would attempt to secede from the control of Sultan bin Saqer. In thar year a dispute broke out within the town of Sharjah between differing Huwala (Arabs from the eastern coast of the Gulf) sections among them the Shuwaihiyeen opposed by the others; whom numbered five hundred fighting men and were recent immigrants to the town. Following the recommendation by the Saudi governor in Buraimi Ahmed Al Sudairi, Sultan bin Saqer transferred the Shuwaihiyeen to his dependency in Hamriyah in an attempt to prevent further internal discord in Sharjah. Though this only resulted in a further problem, as the new migrants began plotting with Hamriyah’s ruler Abdulrahman bin Saif who sought independence. Sultan bin Saqer seeing this and having recently signed the Perpetual Treaty of Peace the year prior, sought permission from the visiting British resident in the Gulf Captain Kemball to intimidate Hamriyah through a naval show of power. Kemball however, recommended against it suggesting that Ajman and Umm Al Quwain would undoubtedly get involved owing to Hamriyah’s geographical location between those two settlements despite not wanting to further encourage rebellion on the coast. He instead asked that the sheikh wait and delay his intended attack. In the meantime, the Qasimi territory of Lanjah on the Iranian coast was ruled by Khalifa bin Sa’id Al Qasimi who was still a minor and internal affairs in the port saw that Sultan bin Saqer would need to act as a regent in that place for a period. Before departing, he requested Ahmed Al Sudairi to take care of the issue of Hamriyah in his absence. In that period, the Saudi governor attempted to use the opportunity to arrange for the garrisoning of Najdi forces in Hamriyah, though that attempt would fail and as soon as Sultan bin Saqer returned to Sharjah, Ahmed Al Sudairi called for a joint attack on Hamriyah by land and by sea. A siege against the town would take place in the beginning of May by Sultan bin Saqer’s own forces, supported by one hundred and fifty Najdis under Ahmed Al Sudairi, and three thousand men sent by Humaid bin Rashed of Ajman as well as five artillery pieces, two from Lanjah, two from Sharjah, and one from Ajman. As for the defenders of Hamriyah, they numbered eight hundred men and their refusal to surrender was a result of the support (not militarily) of Sheikh Ali bin Abdullah Al Mualla of Umm Al Quwain who had succeeded his father two years prior and Sheikh Sa’id bin Butti of Dubai who had succeeded his brother Maktoum three years prior.Captain Kemball arriving off Hamriyah on the twenty fifth day of the siege noticed that the besiegers suffered from heavy casualties. Sixty men killed among them Abdullah bin Sultan Al Qasimi the son of Sultan bin Saqer and his wali in Sharjah. As for the besieged they had only lost ten men up to that point. Captain Kemball attempted to mediate between the warring parties, but Hamriyah under Abdulrahman bin Saif refused any form of peace, encouraged by a continued supply line from Umm Al Quwain and a so far successful defense. Captain Kemball however threatened the ruler of Hamriyah by putting him to blame for the fighting and that he would be forced to enforce the maritime peace stipulated by the treaty of 1853. Abdulrahman quickly became more receptive to mediation. It was then decided that monetary tribute would be granted by Hamriyah to Sultan bin Saqer and that the town would submit to the authority of the Qasimi Emir. As for the Shuwaihiyeen they would have to leave Hamriyah and settle elsewhere; most chose to move back to Sharjah.Meanwhile that same year in 1855, a Bedouin tribal elder would kill the ruler of Abu Dhabi’s brother. Sa’id bin Tahnun of Abu Dhabi aimed to put the killer to death, but his subjects rejected such a proposal and saw the elder as justified in this case. Sa’id bin Tahnun promising pardon for the elder, upon seeing him before him changed his mind. He drew his dagger and killed the elder on his own. A revolt erupted in Abu Dhabi, and Sa’id bin Tahnun was besieged in his fortress. He escaped with most his goods and property to the island of Qais (Kish) and his young first cousin Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahayan was selected by the elders of the Bani Yas to succeed him after the former’s escape.With the death of Abdullah bin Sultan during the battle at Hamriyah, who governed Sharjah on behalf of his father; governorship was assumed by his nephew Muhammad bin Saqer, grandson of Sultan bin Saqer and son of the previous governor of Sharjah Saqer bin Sultan who himself was killed in a campaign against Umm Al Quwain. In the same time, Ibrahim bin Sultan another one of Sultan bin Saqer’s sons was governor of Ras Al Khaimah on behalf of his father. With the aging of Sultan bin Saqer, his memory fleeting and his hearing diminished; increasing autonomy was assumed by his governors, most importantly his offspring. Not only that, but active plots were being conducted by other sons of Sultan bin Saqer to assume power. Muhammad bin Saqer’s authority in Sharjah was challenged in 1859 by his uncle Khalid bin Sultan and both men had supporters leading to internal strife in the politics of the town of Sharjah. By late 1860 or early 1861, Khalid managed to lure his nephew outside the town under the pretext of a morning ride on their horses then shot him, disposing the body of his murdered nephew in a well and assuming the governorship of Sharjah.By 1866, Sheikh Saqer bin Sultan at a ripe old age over eighty; after ruling the whole Qasimi realm since 1803, then a period of dormancy from 1808 before he restored himself in Sharjah in 1813, and finally the whole Qasimi realm once again continuously from 1820 would pass. Nearly six decades of his life in power. His sons would immediately spur into action. Khalid bin Sultan would assume the emirate in the Qasimi capital of Sharjah. Ibrahim bin Sultan would instead declare his independence in Ras Al Khaimah paving the way for the splitting of the Qasimi realm. At this point, there were six emirates with five ruling families: Abu Dhabi under the Al Nahayan of the Al Bu Falah, Ajman under the Al Nu’aimi, Dubai under the Al Bu Falasah (authority was not yet cemented in the descendants of Maktoum bin Butti as his brother Sa’id bin Butti succeeded him; but at this point since Sa’id’s death in 1959 the emirate was ruled by Maktoum’s son Hasher bin Maktoum and from then on all the rulers of Dubai were from Maktoum’s progeny.), Ras Al Khaimah under the Qawasim, Sharjah under the Qawasim, and Umm Al Quwain under the Al Mu’alla.This situation was about to change but not for the last time. In May 1867, Sheikh Khalid bin Sultan of Sharjah managed to successfully take Ras Al Khaimah and expel his brother Ibrahim. Ibrahim attempted to get the Saudi governor in Buraimi Turki bin Ahmed Al Sudairi to intervene in his favor but to no avail. Thus there were once again five emirates with five ruling families. Though Khalid bin Sultan would find that his reign would not last very long. By April 1868, Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa of Abu Dhabi launched a campaign against Sharjah with the two forces led by the two rulers coming face to face. Zayed bin Khalifa would make his way ahead of his troops and challenge Khalid bin Sultan to personal combat. This, while more common in Arabia a millennia earlier in this time period was considered an unusual event. Though nonetheless Khalid bin Sultan accepted the challenge posed by his rival and enemy. During the course of combat, Khalid would be overtaken, mortally wounded, and defeated. Dying not long after. The killer of his nephew earlier in the decade was now killed himself. His death would have political consequences.Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa, holding an open air majlis (gathering) in 1904 outside his seat of rule; Qasr Al Hosn in Abu Dhabi.Sheikh Salem bin Sultan Al Qasimi, another one of Sultan bin Saqer’s sons from a slave woman succeeded his brother. In the meantime his nephew Humaid bin Abdullah bin Sultan, son of the former governor of Sharjah who was killed in battle against Hamriyah would either be appointed or assume for himself the governorship of Ras Al Khaimah. In 1869, Humaid bin Abdullah would declare the independence of Ras Al Khaimah from Sharjah once again bringing the number of emirates to six while the number of ruling families remaining five. This would draw the intervention of the Saudi governor in Buraimi.Turki bin Ahmed Al Sudairi made his way to Sharjah to sort the political conflict that erupted in the Qasimi realm. From the onset he intended to imprison Salem bin Sultan and instigate a reshuffle of rulership by making Humaid bin Abdullah ruler of Sharjah, and the previously deposed Ibrahim bin Sultan ruler of Ras Al Khaimah. A fight would breakout in Sharjah in which Turki Al Sudairi would be shot and killed for his attempt to involve himself in an inter-Qasimi conflict. For fear this would draw the ire of the Saudi Emir, Abdullah bin Faisal who succeeded his father Faisal bin Turki in 1865; Sheikh Salem feigned stepping down from the emirate in favor of his brother Ibrahim bin Sultan with whom he shared close relations. Noticing after a few months no reaction from the Saudis, he resumed his position. Abdullah’s position in Riyadh was weakening, and Seeing the weakness of the Saudis, Sultan Azzan bin Qais Al Busaidi of Muscat who came to power after deposing his distant relative Salem bin Thuwaini a year earlier, who himself succeeded his father Thuwaini bin Sa’id in 1866; took the opportunity and expelled the Saudis permanently from the oasis and Oman, well for atleast another century. Azzan knowing he would not be able to permanently secure Buraimi for himself, instead made an alliance agreement with Zayed bin Khalifa of Abu Dhabi. The Emir of Abu Dhabi would be granted a substantial subsidy in exchange for defending the Omani frontier in Buraimi. This subsidy would remain even after the deposition and killing of Azzan in 1871 by his relative Turki bin Sa’id, uncle of Salem bin Thuwaini who ruled before Azzan. This would continue on with the rising influence eventual annexation of most of the Buraimi oasis by Abu Dhabi in the coming decades, though this has no relation to the formation of other emirates so for now it will not be discussed.That same year in 1869, war between Salem bin Sultan of Sharjah and his nephew Humaid bin Abdullah of Ras Al Khaimah would breakout. Wanting to reunify the Qasimi realm, Sheikh Salem and his brother Sheikh Ibrahim with a force of one thousand five hundred men and thirty two vessels landed in the vicinity of Ras Al Khaimah by sea. A breach of the Perpetual Treaty of Peace which outlawed maritime warfare on the Trucial Coast. Sheikh Ali bin Abdullah of Umm Al Quwain immediately dispatched a force of five hundred men to support Humaid bin Abdullah in Ras Al Khaimah. Umm Al Quwain, after all; benefiting from the internal divisions of the Qawasim whom in previous years attempted to re-annex the emirate into their domain. Battles ensued in Jazirat Al Hamra a settlement south of Ras Al Khaimah and ruled by its Emir, as well as outside the town of Ras Al Khaimah itself. Colonel Pelly the British Resident in the Gulf was in Lanjah on his way to Muscat when he received the news of the breach of the treaty in Ras Al Khaimah. He immediately made his way there when he met both sides. Colonel Pelly soon demanded that Salem bin Sultan and Ibrahim bin Sultan withdraw their forces lest he hold them responsible for the breach of the maritime peace, and would enforce it. By sunset, the forces from Sharjah withdrew. In 1871, two years after the incident; a falling out would occur between Salem and Ibrahim, with the latter attempting to utilize the absence of the former in Abu Dhabi to establish his authority in Sharjah. Salem bin Sultan requested aid from Humaid bin Abdullah, his nephew in Ras Al Khaimah and Ali bin Abdullah of Umm Al Quwain assistance in driving out Ibrahim. Which they managed to do successfully. This event would cement Humaid bin Abdullah’s grip on Ras Al Khaimah who would also reassert his authority in the dissenting settlements of Rams, Sha’am, and Shimal.In 1873, war would breakout between Sharjah led by Salem bin Sultan Al Qasimi joined by Ajman under Rashed bin Humaid Al Nu’aimi who had succeeded his father Humaid bin Rashed in 1864; and Umm Al Quwain led by Ahmed bin Abdullah Al Mualla, who had only recently that year succeeded his brother Ali bin Abdullah and he was joined by a dissenting Hamriyah nominally subject to Sharjah, led by Saif bin Abdulrahman Al Shamsi. Tensions had been building up between Sharjah and Umm Al Quwain over claims to Abu Musa island since 1871, where Salem bin Sultan kept his horses, and an intended raid from Umm Al Quwain aimed at those horses was prevented by naval interception by a fleet from Sharjah. Abu Dhabi under Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahayan would soon join in the side of Umm Al Quwain and launch a raid by night on Sharjah which would see Salem bin Sultan’s forces defeated with a loss of fifty men. The following year, the war grew even larger with Humaid bin Abdullah of Ras Al Khaimah rushing to the aid of his kinsman in Sharjah, while Hasher bin Maktoum of Dubai joined with the faction backing Umm Al Quwain. In the meantime, Hamriyah which nominally belonged to Sharjah withdrew into neutrality and would soon act as a mediator between the two sides. However, the war would continue through 1875 with a two hundred man strong campaign from Dubai was launched, raiding Ras Al Khaimah territory and killing seven men in the process. Through the mediation of Saif bin Abdulrahman of Hamriyah, Umm Al Quwain and Sharjah made peace; however the war with Dubai and Abu Dhabi continued with an attempted attack by forces from Sharjah and Ajman supported by Nu’aim bedouins on Dubai. This was followed by an attack by two hundred camel riders from Abu Dhabi on Hamriyah, and a joint Abu Dhabi-Dubai attack and ravaging on gardens belonging to Sharjah, in Sharjah and Fasht.With Sharjah embroiled in war with its neighbors, and Hamriyah being directly affected presumably as a result of its connection to Sharjah as its dependency; Sheikh Saif bin Abdulrahman Al Shamsi of Hamriyah declared his independence in 1875 or 1876. Thus the number of emirates came to seven and the number of ruling families six, Abu Dhabi under the Al Nahayan, Ajman under the Al Nu’aimi, Dubai under the Al Maktoum, Hamriyah under the Al Shamsi, Ras Al Khaimah under the Al Qasimi, Sharjah under the Al Qasimi, and Umm Al Quwain under the Al Mu’alla. Though Hamriyah’s independence would not be recognized by Sharjah nor the British; however the reality on the ground was in favor of Hamriyah’s independence particularly in its relations with its neighbors.Meanwhile, in the Shamaliyah secession was rife. The Shamaliyah is the mountainous region consisting today of the entirety of the Emirate of Fujairah, the dependencies of Kalba, Khor Fakkan, and Dibba Al Hesn belonging to Sharjah, and the Omani exclave of Madha and is essentially in correspondence with the eastern coast of the UAE on the Gulf of Oman. It was a region of contention between the Sultans of Muscat and the Qasimi Emirs in Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah mainly due to the presence of the independent-minded Sharqiyeen tribe from the end of the 1790s up until 1850 when an agreement between Sultan bin Saqer of Sharjah and Sa’id bin Sultan of Muscat confirmed Omani authority over Musandam and Sharjah’s authority over the Shamaliyah. With the death of Sultan bin Saqer in 1866, the wali of Fujairah Abdullah bin Khamis ceased payment of tribute to Khalid bin Sultan and the Qawasim. The whole of the Shamaliyah would revolt, and the rebellion would not be crushed until Salem bin Sultan came to power in 1868. In 1871, he dispatched a force to his dependency in Dibah in the northern edge of the Shamaliyah bordering the Musandam Peninsula. The Sharqiyeen tribe who did not wish to come under Qasimi authority once more and enjoying much of their independence, joined forces with the Shihuh tribe under Saleh bin Muhammad who ruled the settlement of Bai’ah and the tribe on behalf of the Sultan of Muscat as well as Abdullah bin Khamis of Fujairah to combat the Qasimi force. Dibah was thus besieged by Shihuh and Sharqiyeen, and Salem unable to sent reinforcements by land as a result of the Shihuh controlling the passes and hills between Sharjah and Dibah instead sent one of his brothers as an emissary on his behalf to negotiate a peaceful settlement. It resulted in the Sharqiyeen once again submitting to the authority of the Qasimi ruler in Sharjah and agreeing to pay tribute. Ahmed bin Sultan Al Qasimi would be appointed wali over Dibah and Majed bin Sultan Al Qasimi would be appointed wali over Kalba.In 1876, Ahmed bin Sultan of Dibah would have twelve from among the Sharqiyeen imprisoned leading to a revolt. The Sharqiyeen allied with the Shihuh once again besieged Dibah. Fifty men were sent as immediate reinforcements by sea from Sharjah to Dibah. In the meantime eight hundred men came from the south from the direction of Shinas in Oman, and attacked the fort of Gharaifah which the rebelling Sharqiyeen used as a base of operations. The Qawasim took the fort, killing thirty six and taking another thirty prisoner. However, another revolt would break out only three years later in 1879. Salem bin Sultan had appointed a slave by the name of Sarur to govern the affairs of the settlement of Fujairah on his behalf. In 1879, the inhabitants of Fujairah rose in rebellion against the appointee and appointed one by the name of Marzouq to act as governor, sending a delegation to Sharjah to confirm this change in affairs. Salem bin Sultan wroth, imprisoned the delegation and sent a force to retake Fujairah and in its fortress established a garrison of Balochi fighting men loyal to him.Hamad bin Abdullah Al Sharqi, Emir of the Sharqiyeen tribe and an inhabitant of Fujairah did not take too kindly to this. He made his way to Muscat and received an audience with Sultan Turki bin Sa’id who had come to power in 1871 after overthrowing his distant relation Azzan bin Qais and who was killed in battle in Mattrah near Muscat; and who he himself overthrew Turki’s nephew Salem bin Thuwaini in 1866. Hamad bin Abdullah called for Turki bin Sa’id to take Fujairah for himself. This led to Turki bin Sa’id presenting his complaints to the British, claiming Fujairah for himself but afterwards relenting after the British noted the rebellious nature of the region. He instead complained of Salem bin Sultan’s tyranny in the matters of local politics in the Shamaliyah. He then sent a correspondence directly to Salem bin Sultan confirming the whole of the Gulf of Oman coast, except for Khasab and Musandam as belonging to the Qawasim but this agreement was previously agreed upon with obligations on part of the Qasimi Emir. Opening the door for a potential Omani reclamation of the Shamaliyah.In the mean time, Hamad bin Abdullah returned to Fujairah and with his tribe rose in rebellion towards the end of 1879 and the beginning of 1880. He expelled the garrison established by Salem bin Sultan and took the fort, killing eight of the enemy in the process. The British discouraged Salem bin Sultan from retaking Fujairah immediately for fear that it would harm the maritime peace. Sheikh Salem instead made a set of demands to the British, that they should support a land campaign by him with a “man of war” ship and that Sultan Turki bin Sa’id of Oman should be prevented from reinforcing and supporting the rebellion by Hamad bin Abdullah. Salem bin Sultan who was visiting the British political agent in Bushehr Colonel Ross, instead was convinced to allow for mediation by Humaid bin Abdullah of Ras Al Khaimah which both Salem bin Sultan and Hamad bin Abdullah in Fujairah approved. This mediation proved to be a success with the rebellious Sharqiyeen renewing their allegiance to Sharjah and would return to paying the customary tribute. Hamad bin Abdullah would also cement his control over Fujairah and would rule the settlement as a dependent of the ruler of Sharjah. This would bring a period of peace to the Shamaliyah for the time being.In 1883, Salem bin Sultan sailed to the island of Abu Musa for a bit of leisure and it is also where he kept his horses to graze. His brother Ahmed in the meantime was in Ras Al Khaimah, as such Saqer bin Khalid bin Sultan Al Qasimi was left in charge of Sharjah, twenty years of age and son of Khalid bin Sultan who was killed in battle with Zayed bin Khalifa back in 1868. He took this opportunity to declare himself ruler and was quickly recognized as ruler by Zayed bin Khalifa of Abu Dhabi, Hasher bin Maktoum of Dubai, Ahmed bin Abdullah of Umm Al Quwain, Rashed bin Humaid of Ajman, as well as his first cousin Humaid bin Abdullah of Ras Al Khaimah. After political moves by Salem bin Sultan against his nephew Saqer bin Khalid, the two sides under the mediation of Humaid bin Abdullah of Ras Al Khaimah and Hasher bin Maktoum of Dubai, agreed to meet in Dubai where an agreement was settled in which Salem bin Sultan recognized his nephew’s ascension to the emirate and in exchange he would receive an annual pension, have his personal debts cleared by Saqer, and have rights over his properties in Sharjah and the inland palm gardens of Dhaid protected. In the meantime, Salem took the island of Abu Musa as his primary place of residence and would for the rest of the decade continued plotting with several failed attempts until he was appointed in 1889 as Wazir (Minister) to his nephew after a reconciliation.Saqer bin Khalid within the first year of taking power in 1884, attempted to reestablish Sharjah’s control over Hamriyah, which had enjoyed independence since 1875 though unrecognized by the Emir of Sharjah. He attempted to lure the ruler of Hamriyah, Saif bin Abdulrahman away from Hamriyah through an invitation to visit Sharjah. In the meantime, he plotted with Saif’s brother Muhammad bin Abdulrahman to take the opportunity and organize a coup in which Muhammad would rule the town as a dependent of Saqer bin Khalid of Sharjah. The plan went accordingly, until Saif returned to Hamriyah and took back power with no difficulty, expelling his brother in the process. That same year, Hamad bin Abdullah continued consolidating his power in Fujairah, taking the coastal settlement of Gharaifah and the inland settlement of Bithnah in the mountainous valley of Wadi Ham. The latter settlement was particularly important strategically, as it allows control over the only direct route from the Arabian Gulf coast to the mountainous Shamaliyah on the Gulf of Oman. The territories he gained, instead of ruling them on behalf of Saqer bin Khalid instead ruled them on behalf of the ruler of Ras Al Khaimah, Humaid bin Abdullah whom Saqer did not wish to offend owing to his relationship as his cousin as well as the good relationship between them. This allowed increasing independence for Hamad bin Abdullah who was expanding the domain for this new emirate he was building and at this point in all but name, practically independent. He became a prominent player in the Shamaliyah region divided into two separate fiefdoms ruled from Kalba and Dibah respectively, with Fujairah and Hamad bin Abdullah’s nominal allegiance falling within the domains of the former.In 1887, in response to Persian intrigues in the region of the Trucial Coast; the British sought written though unofficial agreements with the rulers of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Ras Al Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm Al Quwain that they would not enter into relations with a foreign power or sign an agreement with them without prior correspondence and approval by the British government. This however did not prevent further intrigues on part of the Ottoman Empire who were beginning to interfere in Abu Dhabi as a result of the Khor Al Udaid conflict with secessionist rebels of the Qubaisat tribe who had seceded from Abu Dhabi to the Khor Al Udaid waterway on the border with Qatar and claimed by the Ottomans as well as the prolonged conflict between Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahayan of Abu Dhabi and Jassim bin Muhammad Al Thani of Qatar who paid allegiance to the Ottoman governor of Al Hasa. The French also aimed to gain a foothold in the region through relations with Umm Al Quwain, aiming for influence over its Emir, Sheikh Ahmed bin Abdullah Al Mu’alla whom they gave presents and convinced him of flying the French flag on his ships, pointing at the advantages gained from doing so. Indeed, convincing the ruler was not hard as ships from Sur in Oman taking part in the slave trade would use the French flag and would be able to continue their activities unmolested. These threats to British influence in the region by other foreign powers would make a previously unwilling Britain take on more responsibility in its relations with the coastal emirates, in order to cement its influence in the region. In March 1892, the Exclusive Agreement between the emirates of the Trucial Coast excluding Hamriyah as to not antagonize the Emir of Sharjah who claimed it; and Bahrain was signed with Britain. In it, the Emirs bound themselves and their successors not to enter in relations or receive agents of foreign powers other than Britain without prior British consent, they would also not cede, rent, or give to occupation any part of their lands to any other power but Britain. In exchange their independence would be guaranteed and protected by the British Empire. It is vital from now on to make a distinction, between the independent emirates recognized by Britain and those not. Thus by the time the agreement was signed, there were seven emirates with six ruling families. Six of whom with five ruling families had treaty relations and were recognized by Britain, and one of which (Hamriyah) was not. Fujairah though not yet independent was at this point almost completely autonomous under Hamad bin Abdullah Al Sharqi.In August 1900, Humaid bin Abdullah of Ras Al Khaimah would pass as a result of a paralytic stroke. Saqer bin Khalid would use the opportunity to retake Ras Al Khaimah and its dependencies, once again uniting the Qasimi realm which had up to this point been divided for thirty one years. Sheikh Saqer would first appoint his first cousin Hamad bin Majed Al Qasimi, his governor in Kalba as the governor of Ras Al Khaimah. However, after some months he would appoint his own son Khalid as governor. As such at this point, there were six emirates with six ruling families: Abu Dhabi under the Al Nahayan, Ajman under the Al Nu’aimi, Dubai under the Al Maktoum, Hamriyah under the Al Shamsi, Sharjah under the Al Qasimi, and Umm Al Quwain under the Al Mu’alla. With all but Hamriyah in treaty relations and have had their independence recognized by the British. However this situation would not last very long.In 1901, Saqer bin Khalid would dispatch his dependent Hamad bin Abdullah of Fujairah to act as his representative with the Shihuh tribe in respects to a murder in Dibah. Hamad bin Abdullah would instead use the opportunity to form an alliance with the Shihuh and upon his return to Fujairah, he would declare a revolt against Saqer bin Khalid. He immediately cut off Sharjah’s contact with its dependencies in the Shamaliyah by land, particularly the most isolated of them Kalba which was governed by Hamad bin Majed Al Qasimi, through strategic use of the fortress of Bithnah. Through it he held control over the only natural route into the Shamaliyah by land from the Trucial Coast via Wadi Ham. After Saqer bin Khalid gathered a force of two hundred and fifty Bedouin tribesmen in 1902; Hamad bin Abdullah requested aid from Sultan Faisal bin Turki of Muscat who had succeeded his father in 1888, Maktoum bin Hasher of Dubai who succeeded his uncle Rashed bin Maktoum in 1894 who himself succeeded his brother Hasher in 1886, and Abdulaziz bin Humaid of Ajman who came to power after his nephew Humaid bin Rashed was killed in a coup in 1900 and who he himself succeeded his father Rashed bin Humaid in 1891. The rulers were it not for British diplomatic proceedings, would have supported Hamad bin Abdullah, however the British warned Maktoum bin Hasher from intervening and after Hamad bin Abdullah made his way to Muscat to receive support; the British made sure to restrain Sultan Faisal bin Turki from intervening. The British instead began to mediate, but seeing the stubbornness of the ruler of Fujairah and the lack of actual desire for reconciliation instead opted to withdraw from interference in the situation as long as the maritime truce was maintained. In 1903, Saqer bin Khalid launched a campaign against Bithnah which forced Hamad bin Abdullah to pledge his alleigance once more to Sharjah, again only nominally and Hamad bin Abdullah would not quit his rebellious activities and would maintain his practical independence over not just Fujairah, but other settlements under his control; Bithnah, Gharaifah, Marbah, Qaraiyah, Qidfah, Saqamqam, and Sufad. A significant portion of the Shamaliyah.In November 1903, Lord Curzon the British Viceroy of India would visit the Gulf and its various ports. Among his first stops was the Trucial Coast where he met with the rulers of the emirates and their dependencies in a “Durbar” on a ship anchored off Sharjah. A Durbar is essentially a court event inherited by the British Raj from the Mughal Emperors of India. The ruler of Hamriyah Saif bin Abdulrahman who attended the Durbar in vain, attempted to gain British recognition of his independence from Sharjah and before Lord Curzon’s visit indeed almost received it; however not wishing to draw the ire of Saqer bin Khalid especially during the visit of Lord Curzon, the British avoided such a recognition. The Durbar allowed for the British and the rulers to discuss common issues that affected the various emirates, including various tribal issues and the influence of the various Emirs on the various tribes and their spheres of influence and also of the Fujairah issue where Lord Curzon recommended a friendly agreement which was not heeded by those involved. As for Hamriyah, less than a year after in September 1904; Saif bin Abdulrahman would pass and would be succeeded by his son Abdulrahman bin Saif. Abdulrahman would step down in favor of an elder relative Saif bin Saif, however as soon as Saif bin Saif confiscated from Abdulrahman his personal property, Abdulrahman did not take too kindly to that. He immediately set to attack Saif’s house, in the process killing his son and taking Saif captive and once again assumed authority over Hamriyah. The ruler of Umm Al Quwain, Sheikh Rashed bin Ahmed who only recently succeeded his father in July 1904; decided to interfere. Saif bin Saif would be taken into asylum in Umm Al Quwain.The Durbar on board RIMS Argonaut, Sharjah 1903.The rulers and their entourage in attendance, 1903.That same year, a coup plot was uncovered in Sharjah by dissatisfied citizens that aimed to replace Saqer bin Khalid with his uncle Salem bin Sultan. Information was received surrounding the plot by Saqer bin Khalid who used the information to bring the conspirators under custody. A man by the name of Muhammad bin Khadim who was among the main organizers of the conspiracy managed to flee and received asylum in Umm Al Quwain. Saqer bin Khalid essentially gave up on Fujairah and bringing its ruler under his direct control which allowed for designs by other rulers on the Shamaliyah. This culminated in 1904 of Hamad bin Abdullah of Fujairah pledging his allegiance to the Emir of the Nu’aim in the Buraimi oasis who was pledged to the Sultan of Muscat, and later in 1906 to the Emir of Abu Dhabi Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa. Indeed, Saqer bin Khalid made no protest when Zayed bin Khalifa in communications with Rashed bin Ahmed of Umm Al Quwain mentioned Hamad bin Abdullah as one of his dependents. However, this arrangement would not outlive Zayed’s death in 1909. He who held significant influence over the Bedouin tribes of not just the Coast of Oman, but even in the Dhahirah within Oman proper, wresting control of the Bedouin tribes from other rulers; particularly that of Sharjah who in his rule had seen his emirate recede in importance to a shadow of its former power particularly in influence over Bedouin tribes whom not guaranteeing protection from Saqer bin Khalid, pledged themselves to his rival in the Emir of Abu Dhabi. It was during his long fifty four year rule as well that Abu Dhabi managed to annex the majority of the Buraimi oasis with his principal settlement in the area being Al Ain. It can be assumed that Fujairah at this point became independent, with the breakdown in authority following the death of Zayed bin Khalifa and the jostling of his sons Tahnun (1909–1912) and Hamdan (1912–1922) to maintain control over the Bedouin tribes pledged to their father before him.Thus by 1909, there were again seven independent emirates, with seven ruling families as Fujairah under the Emir of the Sharqiyeen Sheikh Hamad bin Abdullah Al Sharqi declared independence, while Ras Al Khaimah was reabsorbed into Sharjah. Thus the emirates were: Abu Dhabi under the Al Nahayan, Ajman under the Al Nua’imi, Dubai under the Al Maktoum, Fujairah under the Al Sharqi, Hamriyah under the Al Shamsi, Sharjah under the Al Qasimi, and Umm Al Quwain under the Al Mu’alla. However Hamriyah and Fujairah’s independence were not recognized by the British who considered them dependencies of Sharjah.In 1908, Khalid bin Saqer who ruled Ras Al Khaimah on behalf of his father Saqer bin Khalid of Sharjah, would fall ill. His father would go to visit his ailing son, and in the meantime rule from there; leaving his uncle Salem bin Sultan behind as regent in Sharjah. Khalid bin Saqer would die of consumption. Saqer bin Khalid would ask from the people of Ras Al Khaimah who they would want to govern them, and for the most part they asked for Salem bin Sultan, with other recommendations also present. Saqer bin Khalid discussed the matter with his uncle, who refused to be subordinate to his nephew preferring to rule independently if he were to rule alone. His son Muhammad bin Salem would instead be appointed as wali of Ras Al Khaimah representing his cousin Saqer in Sharjah. In 1910 and without the consent of Sheikh Saqer in Sharjah, Salem bin Sultan the former ruler of Sharjah from 1868 to 1883 which included Ras Al Khaimah from 1868 to 1868; would assume rulership over Ras Al Khaimah and its dependencies from his son and declare his independence from Sharjah. This would draw the ire of his nephew in Sharjah, and Ras Al Khaimah would become independent without recognition from Sharjah or the British. Saqer bin Khalid would not attempt to resume his authority through force of arms, instead preferring to wait for his uncle; who was over eighty years old, to die and assume his rule in Ras Al Khaimah much as how he took it from Humaid bin Abdullah in 1900. Thus by 1910 there were eight emirates, with seven ruling families as recounted previously but with Ras Al Khaimah ruled by the Al Qasimi added. All recognized by the British, except for Hamriyah, Fujairah, and Ras Al Khaimah.Saqer bin Khalid who awaited his uncle’s death would instead die before him in 1914. As his children were at the time all minors, he was instead succeeded by his cousin Khalid bin Ahmed bin Sultan Al Qasimi who he chose before his death and whose brother was wali of Dibah. Relations between Khalid and his uncle Salem in Ras Al Khaimah were good, and in 1914 dispute over whether Jazirat Al Hamra (also called Jazirat Al Zaab) was governed from Sharjah or Ras Al Khaimah was decided, and the usually rebellious dependency was recognized by Sheikh Khalid as belonging to his uncle. The British in the meantime did not recognize Salem’s independence in Ras Al Khaimah purely as a result of his age, seeing it as unnecessary as if he would die it was presumed authority over the place would return to Sharjah. This would not be the case however.In 1916, in a joint operation by the British and Sharjah, Hamriyah would once again be incorporated as a dependency of Sharjah after over forty years of independence; with Abdulrahman bin Saif pledging allegiance to Khalid bin Ahmed of Sharjah. Thus bringing back the number of independent emirates from eight to seven, ruled by six ruling families. All emirates recognized by the British except Fujairah and Ras Al Khaimah. Meanwhile in Ras Al Khaimah, Salem bin Sultan would suffer from a paralytic stroke; leaving him bedridden and unable to speak. The inhabitants of Ras Al Khaimah would select his son Muhammad as regent. In 1919, Muhammad would step down as regent in favor of his younger brother Sultan bin Salem and shortly after Sheikh Salem bin Sultan would pass away and would be succeeded as ruler by his son Sultan. This went against British presumptions that Ras Al Khaimah’s independence was a temporary affair, but due to the presence of a significant faction in Ras Al Khaimah preferring Muhammad bin Salem as ruler and the fact that the current ruler was quite young; did not recognize Sultan bin Salem as a Trucial ruler which he requested. This would change in 1921, seeing as Sultan bin Salem had cemented his authority. Thus, Ras Al Khaimah would formally be recognized by the British as an independent emirate rather than a dependency of Sharjah. Relations were not hampered between Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah, seeing as the the relationship between the two first cousins ruling the two emirates were good; and Khalid bin Ahmed of Sharjah made no claims of sovereignty over Ras Al Khaimah since he assumed the emirate from his cousin Saqer bin Khalid.In 1922, when Abdulrahman bin Saif of Hamriyah was visiting Khalid bin Ahmed in Sharjah after being called; his son Humaid bin Abdulrahman took power in a coup and declared Hamriyah’s independence once more. He was however immediately removed by a joint force from Sharjah and the British. A few months later a similar situation would occur, and Humaid would once again be removed. In 1923, Hamriyah was once again independent through agreement between Abdulrahman bin Saif and Khalid bin Ahmed, where the latter recognized the former’s independence. In 1924 however, Sultan bin Saqer bin Khalid Al Qasimi, son of Saqer bin Khalid who ruled before Khalid bin Ahmed; would remove his first cousin once removed in a coup after an eleven day conflict in Sharjah and would become ruler of Sharjah, however he would not recognize the previous agreement between Abdulrahman and Khalid as being valid. At this point Hamriyah’s status was ambiguous. In 1927, Khalid bin Ahmed and Sultan bin Saqer would come to agreement and Khalid bin Ahmed would be made wali over the inland settlement of Dhaid and had rights over its income in exchange for formally surrendering rights to the emirate to his cousin’s son. Abdulrahman bin Saif was in attendance; it is here where he supposedly received verbal confirmation of his independence from Sultan bin Saqer, but this was unconfirmed; however even if he did it was not surprising. Revenue from Hamriyah went from being one-third of the the ruler of Sharjah’s income to twenty bags of rice. Abdulrahman would be murdered in 1931 (not by Humaid), and his son Humaid succeeded him and would also a year later would have a group of three men make an attempt on his life. Sultan bin Saqer in a letter to the British Residency Agent, would refer to the people of Hamriyah as his subjects and promised to punish the plotters. This once again saw Sharjah’s claims on Hamriyah renewed. However for all intents and purposes, since 1923 Hamriyah was once again independent and despite renewed claims by Sheikh Sultan bin Saqer bin Khalid; Sharjah had no actual authority over Hamriyah. Indeed it was the lowest point in the power of the rulers of Sharjah, for their de facto authority did not extend except for a few miles in land from the settlement of Sharjah. So it can be said for all intents and purposes that there were eight independent emirates since 1923, with seven ruling families. With all but Hamriyah and Fujairah recognized as independent.In 1936, the British for some time have attempted to convince the ruler of Kalba, Sheikh Sa’id bin Hamad bin Majed bin Sultan Al Qasimi to construct and have rights to an airstrip, landing rights, a petrol store, and shelter. The ruler would agree to this on the condition that the British recognize his independence from Sharjah. As he was already autonomous and Sultan bin Saqer’s authority severely restricted, to the degree that in the summer months while other emirate rulers went inland to their gardens for the summer, he had to stay on the coast. The British would recognize his independence in August 1936. Though by April, while on a visit to Khor Fakkan a dependency of Kalba, with his eldest daughter Aisha bint Sa’id who was also the wife of Khalid bin Ahmed the former ruler of Sharjah from 1914–1924; he would pass away and launch Kalba into a succession crisis. Aisha seeing her father was close to death; would immediately make her way to Kalba with two slave women. There, she ordered the slaves and guards to their posts and fortified their positions in the fortress of Kalba. She also appointed the slave Barut who frequently acted as regent during the reign of her father during his periods outside Kalba; as acting Emir.She then proceeded to dispatch five men to call her husband Khalid bin Ahmed to Kalba, from where he was residing in Ras Al Khaimah with his brother Abdullah. Khalid upon receiving the news dispatched his brother Abdullah to proceed to Kalba to see whether the people there would be receptive to him and that if they were they should send for him in Ajman. The Emir of Ras Al Khaimah, Sultan bin Salem after Abdullah bin Ahmed had left; would hear of the news of the death of his brother in law, the ruler of Kalba. He immediately would dispatch two of his men to claim authority in the town for him. However, they would be stopped in the village of Hail on the way to Kalba and were prevented from continuing on as long as the settlement was leaderless. The opportunism did not end there. Sheikh Rashed bin Ahmed Al Qasimi, the wali of Dibah who was brother to Khalid bin Ahmed, would attempt to make his way to Kalba upon hearing the news also intending to claim the settlement for himself. However, when he arrived in Khor Fakkan on the way to Kalba he was stopped by the Emir of the Naqbiyeen tribe, Salem bin Abdullah Al Naqbi. The tribal leader asked if he came to offer his condolences for the death of Sheikh Sa’id; if so he would be allowed to remain in Khor Fakkan for one day. Otherwise if his intent was to attempt to claim the emirate in Kalba then it would be better for him to return to Dibah. Rashed bin Ahmed in response claimed that he was only there to offer his condolences, and he soon returned to Dibah.The ruler of Sharjah, Sultan bin Saqer; heard the news of the death of the ruler of Kalba from sailors who had come from Ras Al Khaimah. He immediately dispatched a messenger to Sultan bin Salem of Ras Al Khaimah to confirm the news and it seemed that Sultan bin Salem had deliberately delayed sharing the news with him in order to be able to establish his authority in Kalba first. By the fifth of May, the people of Kalba had chosen the twelve year old Hamad bin Sa’id Al Qasimi, son of the previous ruler as their ruler and until he attains the age of majority chose the slave Barut to rule as acting Emir until that time. In the same time, Sultan bin Salem attempted to gain the support of the Emir of the Naqbiyeen Salem bin Abdullah by appointing him governor over Khor Fakkan and Kalba and sent his clerk with five men to garrison in the fort. He also dispatched a letter to Barut with one hundred and fifty rupees to cover expenses as well as requesting him to take inventory of the fortress at Kalba and keep the possessions safe. In response to this, Salem bin Abdullah Al Naqbi responded that the people of Kalba had chosen Hamad bin Sa’id as their ruler and that Sultan bin Salem should support his relation. He also received a letter from the immediate family of the late ruler of Kalba that the issue of inventory is a matter that could be delayed. Finally, he received a letter from Hamad bin Sa’id, that the people of Kalba had chosen him as ruler.Khalid bin Ahmed with support from the ruler of Umm Al Quwain, Sheikh Ahmed bin Rashed Al Mu’alla who had been ruler since 1929, after a coup attempt left his cousin Hamad bin Ibrahim ruler since 1923 dead, and before him Ahmed’s brother Abdullah bin Rashed had ruled for a year in 1922 after succeeding their father Rashed bin Ahmed who was ruler since 1904; had gathered a force of one hundred men. He camped outside of Kalba attempting to pressure the inhabitants into selecting him as ruler and he received some sort of support from all the Trucial rulers, but those of Dubai, Sheikh Sa’id bin Maktoum bin Hasher Al Maktoum and of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Shakhbut bin Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahayan who became ruler in 1928 after his uncle Saqer bin Zayed was killed after he himself killed Shakhbut’s father and his own brother Sultan bin Zayed, who himself had killed another brother Hamdan bin Zayed in 1922. This however did not prevent the ruler of Sharjah, Sultan bin Saqer to once again claim Kalba as his and that he had a duty to support who the people of Kalba chose to govern under him. Sultan bin Salem also did not relent, attempting to gain influence in Kalba and Khor Fakkan through claiming that he intended to support the boy Hamad bin Sa’id. In the end by June, Khalid bin Ahmed would be chosen to be regent in the place of Barut whom the British deemed unfit as his position as a slave; may cause other rulers to undermine his position, however day to day affairs were still governed by Barut as Khalid bin Ahmed was abroad and until Hamad bin Sa’id came of age. Thus the issue of succession in Kalba was settled for the time being.Sheikh Hamad bin Sa’id Al Qasimi of Kalba (center).As a result by 1936, there were nine independent emirates with seven ruling families. Abu Dhabi under the Al Nahayan, Ajman under the Al Nu’aimi, Dubai under the Al Maktoum, Fujairah under the Al Sharqi, Hamriyah under the Al Shamsi, Umm Al Quwain under the Al Mu’alla, as well as Kalba, Ras Al Khaimah, and Sharjah under the Qawasim. All the emirates but Fujairah and Hamriyah were recognized by the British. In 1948, Humaid bin Abdulrahman of Hamriyah formally recognized the authority of Sultan bin Saqer of Sharjah after signing an oil concession agreement with Britain. Those exploring for oil should not be harmed in territory controlled by Humaid lest he have to answer to Sultan bin Saqer. Thus, the emirates became eight and the ruling families six, with only Fujairah unrecognized by the British.In February 1950, Muhammad bin Hamad Al Sharqi, the ruler of Fujairah who succeeded his brother Saif bin Hamad in 1938, who himself succeeded their father Hamad bin Abdullah; had a meeting with a British agent where he attempted to get recognition of his independence. Indeed, he mentioned overtures made by the Sultan Sa’id of Muscat to get him to pledge allegiance as a means to coax the British into recognizing him. However, it did not change the British position very much for the time being, indeed with the agent mentioning that in the same time it was obvious the ruler’s views on the Sultan were contemptuous. He even mentioned a possibility of a union between Kalba and Fujairah. However the events that would transpire would surely prevent that.In April 30, 1951, Hamad bin Sa’id of Kalba would be assassinated by Saqer bin Sultan bin Salem Al Qasimi, son of the former ruler of Ras Al Khaimah, Sultan bin Salem; who was removed from power in a bloodless coup by his nephew Saqer bin Muhammad bin Salem Al Qasimi. His father immediately distanced himself for him and condemned him in a letter to Muhammad bin Saqer bin Khalid Al Qasimi, the uncle of the ruler of Sharjah, Saqer bin Sultan bin Saqer who succeeded his late father that same year in 1951. Meanwhile Muhammad bin Hamad of Fujairah; was in Muscat from the 14th of April until the 21st of May 1951. He attempted to leave three times, but was prevented by Sultan Sa’id, aiming to convince the ruler into pledging allegiance to him. This did not occur, however he did in the process get a Sultanate passport despite pushing the British to recognize his independence and enter treaty relations with him. Indeed, ever since 1909 Fujairah was completely independent yet unrecognized with not even the ruler of Sharjah claiming authority.In March 1952, Fujairah was recognized as an independent emirate by the British government and would be the last emirate to enter into treaty relations despite protests by Sultan Sa’id of Muscat. By May 1952, the British supported by the Trucial rulers and Sultan Sa’id bin Taimur of Muscat pressured Saqer bin Sultan bin Salem to withdraw from Kalba and Saqer bin Sultan of Sharjah managed to occupy it and its dependencies including Khor Fakkan and incorporated it into his emirate.Thus the eight emirates became the seven we know today with six ruling families and all recognized by the British. Abu Dhabi ruled by the Al Nahayan, Ajman ruled by the Al Nua’imi, Dubai ruled by the Al Maktoum, Fujairah ruled by the Al Sharqi, Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah ruled by the Al Qasimi, and Umm Al Quwain ruled by the Al Mu’alla. In December 1971 they came together to form the United Arab Emirates to fill the void of security the British that protected them previously filled and chose Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan of Abu Dhabi as their President. Well except Ras Al Khaimah, but they came around within two months in February 1972.The founding rulers of the United Arab Emirates.

The region of Sahil Oman or the Coast of Oman, of which encompasses the United Arab Emirates today was largely subdued and brought under the control of the First Saudi State in the years between 1796–1803 during the reign of Imam Abdulaziz bin Muhammad bin Saud of Diriyah following the conquest of Al Hasa from the Bani Khalid Emirs.In 1795, the first Saudi campaign into territories controlled by the Bani Yas and their allies the Manasir, led by Mutlaq Al Mutairi would fail. However, another led by Ibrahim bin Ufaisan who was among the prominent commanders that participated in the conquest of Al Hasa, besieged Kuwait, and conquered the Qatari peninsula including its capital Zubarah under the control of the Al Khalifa; would meet with success. The Bani Yas in the person of the Emir of Abu Dhabi (Shakhbut bin Dhiyab Al Nahayan) would pledge allegiance to the Saudi Imam, followed by the Nuaim and Bani Qeteb (Keteb) tribes of the Buraimi oasis which the Saudis would use as a base of operations to project power in the region. The Qawasim under Saqer bin Rashed Al Qasimi in Ras Al Khaimah would initially resist swearing fealty to the Saudi ruler, however eventually did owing to the power of opposing forces, the Tunaij tribe of Rams and the Zaab tribe of Jazirat Al Hamra did not initially pledge alleigance but did in later campaigns launched in 1800 and 1803 in Oman.They would remain until the fall of Diriyah at the hands of the Ottoman-Egypt force first led by Tusun Pasha and then his brother Ibrahim Pasha sons of Muhammad Ali Pasha the governor of Egypt. Sultan Sa’id bin Sultan of Muscat in this time took back control of the Buraimi oasis where the Saudis were based in the region. Thus from around 1796-1818 there was some sort of Saudi control in the region. The Second Saudi State would return to the region in 1828 with Imam Turki bin Abdullah Al Saud defeating a resurgent Emirate of Al Hasa and appointing Umar bin Ufaisan as governor in Buraimi. Sultan bin Saqer Al Qasimi of Sharjah and who controlled all what is today the northern emirates pledged allegiance in 1831 and Khalifa bin Shakhbut Al Nahayan of Abu Dhabi after overthrowing his brother pledged allegiance in 1833 to attain support and legitimacy. Thus the entire coast once again fell under the control of the Second Saudi State and this period would last from around 1831–1869 except for a period between 1838–1842 when the Egyptians reoccupied Najd and installed their dependent Khalid bin Saud Al Saud, until Faisal bin Turki Al Saud who succeeded his father in 1834 took back power and the rulers of the emirates pledged allegiance to him in Al Hasa.The assassination of Khalifa bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi in 1845 and the selection of his nephew Sa’id bin Tahnun as ruler would also change things for the Saudis in the region. This new ruler was not too receptive of Saudi overlordship and plotted against them. This plotting would culminate with a revolt in 1848 by the Emir of Abu Dhabi, though the Emirs of Sharjah and Dubai would side with the Saudis:Meanwhile, the Saudi power over Buraimi while still present, waned especially considering Faisal bin Turki was at war with Sharif Muhammad bin Oun of Mecca and Emir of the Hejaz under the Ottomans who aimed to restore Khalid bin Saud as Emir in Riyadh, though the war would end in 1848 which saw Faisal pay the Sharif a sum which ended the war. Though owing to the Saudi weakness in the region at the time, Sheikh Sa’id bin Tahnun of Abu Dhabi allied with the Omani Wali of Sohar as well as the Dhawahir and Nu’aim tribes of the oasis to expel the Saudis from Buraimi which they effectively did, though not permanently and the whole of Buraimi fell to the control of the Emir of Abu Dhabi.Upon hearing of this, Faisal bin Turki immediately sent Sa’ad bin Mutlaq Al Mutairi to take back Buraimi and punish Sa’id bin Tahnun and his forces. The rulers of the other emirates particularly Maktoum bin Butti of Dubai and Sultan bin Saqer of Sharjah fearing the growing strength of Abu Dhabi with control of the Buraimi oasis formed a coalition against it, and would immediately dispatch messages to Sa’ad Al Mutairi requesting him to join them before setting out, but he continued towards Buraimi and lost against the forces of Sa’id bin Tahnun who ambushed Sa’ad’s forces in ‘Anikah between Abu Dhabi and Buraimi with a joint force of the tribes of the Dhawahir, Awamir, Bani Qeteb/Keteb, the Manasir, as well as his own Bani Yas tribesmen particularly from the Mazari’ tribe. Sa’ad and his forces would retreat to Dubai where they were welcomed by the Emir and they stayed there for three days before continuing on to Sharjah. Sultan bin Saqer and Maktoum bin Butti joined Sa’ad Al Mutairi in a renewed campaign which managed to take back Buraimi as well as the booty taken from the Saudi forces in the initial encounter. Abu Dhabi renewed its allegiance to the Saudi state, though within months Sa’id bin Tahnun was looking into forming an alliance with Thuwaini bin Sa’id in Muscat against the Saudis in Buraimi. However, this alliance would fail to make any substantial gain as the wali of Sohar Humoud bin Azzan Al Bu Sa’idi refused to take part, preventing Thuwaini from traveling to Buraimi.Though the revolt would be crushed and Abu Dhabi subjugated; in 1850 another revolt by the ruler of Abu Dhabi would break out, this time supported by Sultan bin Saqer of Sharjah. He joined forces with Sa’id bin Tahnun and his Bani Yas and Manasir bedouins and expelled the Saudis led by Sa’ad Al Mutairi from their base in Buraimi.This angered Faisal bin Turki in Riyadh, who decided to head a renewed campaign himself. He first headed into Bahraini-controlled Qatar however, which requested aid from the Emir of Abu Dhabi however seeing the strength of Faisal’s force he instead sued for peace and the Emir of Al Hasa under the Saudis Ahmed Al Sudairi acted as the mediator. Sa’id bin Tahnun would withdraw his forces from Buraimi and Faisal bin Turki would send his son Abdullah and Ahmed Al Sudairi with around three to five thousand men on camels to Buraimi in a show of force where the rulers of the coastal emirates were gathered and renewed their allegiance to Faisal bin Turki. They also managed to force tribute upon Thuwaini bin Sa’id in Oman who had ceded much of the territory north of Bahla to the Saudis in 1853.Sa’id bin Tahnun would be deposed in 1855, and was succeeded by his young cousin Zayed bin Khalifa. This time no challenge would be posed against Saudi authority in the region until after Faisal bin Turki’s death in 1865 and the internal divisions that followed resulting in a waning of Saudi power. Sultan bin Saqer the long reigning Qasimi ruler would pass in 1866, also resulting in a feud of succession between his sons. His son, Khalid bin Sultan; managed to hold power for two years in 1868 when he was killed in personal combat by Zayed bin Khalifa of Abu Dhabi.Sheikh Salem bin Sultan Al Qasimi, another one of Sultan bin Saqer’s sons from a slave woman succeeded his brother. In the meantime his nephew Humaid bin Abdullah bin Sultan, son of the former governor of Sharjah who was killed in battle against Hamriyah would either be appointed or assume for himself the governorship of Ras Al Khaimah. In 1869, Humaid bin Abdullah would declare the independence of Ras Al Khaimah from Sharjah once again bringing the number of emirates to six while the number of ruling families remaining five. This would draw the intervention of the Saudi governor in Buraimi.Turki bin Ahmed Al Sudairi made his way to Sharjah to sort the political conflict that erupted in the Qasimi realm. From the onset he intended to imprison Salem bin Sultan and instigate a reshuffle of rulership by making Humaid bin Abdullah ruler of Sharjah, and the previously deposed Ibrahim bin Sultan ruler of Ras Al Khaimah. A fight would breakout in Sharjah in which Turki Al Sudairi would be shot and killed for his attempt to involve himself in an inter-Qasimi conflict. For fear this would draw the ire of the Saudi Emir, Abdullah bin Faisal who succeeded his father Faisal bin Turki in 1865; Sheikh Salem feigned stepping down from the emirate in favor of his brother Ibrahim bin Sultan with whom he shared close relations. Noticing after a few months no reaction from the Saudis, he resumed his position. Abdullah’s position in Riyadh was weakening, and Seeing the weakness of the Saudis, Sultan Azzan bin Qais Al Busaidi of Muscat who came to power after deposing his distant relative Salem bin Thuwaini a year earlier, who himself succeeded his father Thuwaini bin Sa’id in 1866; took the opportunity and expelled the Saudis permanently from the oasis and Oman, well for atleast another century.A more detailed explanation of much of the history of the emirates in the period can be seen here:Abdulaziz Al Meajel's answer to How is there only 6 ruling families of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) but 7 states?Abdullah bin Faisal Al Saud, who himself was the Saudi governor of Buraimi between 1852 and 1853; did not take too kindly to the loss of Buraimi and the Saudi presence on the Coast of Oman. Sultan Azzan bin Qais who had recently taken power and in response to a Saudi led raid on the Omani port of Sohar, found himself agreeing to an offer of a joint alliance with the Emir of the Nua’im tribe based in Buraimi and with a force of 1,500 men defeated the Saudi troops based there and made an alliance with the Emir of Abu Dhabi in order to safeguard the region from further Saudi incursions and this occurred in 1869. In order to combat this alliance, Abdullah bin Faisal travelled to Al Hasa where he proceeded in an attempt to muster a force of men as well as boats on the coasts of Eastern Arabia under his control including in the settlements of Qatar. He made his way finally to the port of Uqair where he intended to set out to bring the emirates under his direct control as well as bring Buraimi back into his domain. However, the British threatened him, reminding him of his pledge in 1866 to desist attacks against Arab states in friendly relations with the British.This pledge was a response to the 1865 raid against the Omani port of Sur where British Indian subjects were present and were taken prisoner by Jannabah tribesmen loyal to the Saudi Emir during the reign of Abdullah’s father Faisal bin Turki. This brought about direct conflict between the British and the Saudis. The British government in India began to support the Sultan of Oman, Thuwaini bin Sa’id and upon his death in 1866, his son Salem bin Thuwaini with arms and material assistance and encouraged him to actively resist Saudi incursions and attempts at exacting tribute. Naval attacks on Saudi positions and ports were also authorized as long as warfare on land was not conducted in order to support the Omani position if need be. Colonel Pelly, a British agent in 1865 during the reign of Faisal bin Turki, travelled from Kuwait to Riyadh where he met with the Emir. Among the things agreed upon were the release of the British Indian subjects and the restoration of their property, however compensation was not discussed. The British told the Saudis that attacks on the territory belonging to the Sultan of Oman who was an ally of the British would not be tolerated. This however was ignored.In January 1866, the Omani coastal town of Saham was attacked by the Saudi loyal tribesmen, forcing British Indian merchants to flee to the sea, resulting in one of them drowning. The British began to encourage the emirates of the coast to rebel against Saudi influence and support the Sultan of Oman in anyway they could. Two British agents; Colonel Pelly and Captain Pasley, also proceeded to send a letter to the Saudi Emir, Abdullah bin Faisal demanding an official apology regarding the raid on Sur during the reign of his father and for a written pledge to avoid any such raids in the future, as well as compensation of 27,000 Maria Theresa Thalers for the property lost by British Indian subjects. If after seventeen days of this list of demands being received by the Saudi governor of the port of Qatif no action was taken, then the British would proceed to destroy Saudi controlled ports and fortifications on the Gulf and plunder and take any vessels found in them. In late January, Captain Pasley’s cruiser which had travelled to Bahrain and delivered the letter to the Governor of Qatif, then proceeded to Abu Dhabi where it moved along the Trucial Coast and bombarded the Qasimi fort of Zora between Hamriyah, a dependency of Sharjah; and Ajman that could possibly aid the Saudis.On February 2nd, the period of response expired without a response from Abdullah bin Faisal. This prompted Captain Pasley to dispatch a naval force under one Lieutenant Fellowes to Qatif where he proceeded to destroy a Saudi fortress on the island of Abu Leif and the one vessel there. Captain Pasley also dispatched one Lieutenant Long who then made his way to Dammam, where they expected merely a force of twelve men as part of the garrison, and they realized they could not proceed closer than a distance of 182 meters due to the shallowness of the water. The force waved closer and managed to take control of territory outside the fortress, but the Saudi force larger than expected repulsed the assault, sending the British back into the sea killing five including two officers and wounding three. A day later on February 4th, Long attempted to bombard the fortress with rockets and shells; yet the range was too great and the British attack on Dammam failed. The British expected during this time for Sultan Thuwaini to launch an attack against Buraimi, however by the 20th of February he would be killed and the Omani campaign would come to a standstill. The British prior to this as well proceeded on the 11th and 12th of February, the Jannabah tribe in Sur were bombarded by Captain Pasley; however no attempt at taking compensation was attempted due to orders from the Government in India.The British would receive a response from Emir Abdullah bin Faisal dated to the 28th of January, agreeing for British mediation between him and the Omani Sultan. He also sent a second letter, offering to send an agent to Bushehr to discuss with the British. The Saudi agent, Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Mana’ on the 21st of April would meet with Colonel Pelly to sign a peace agreement. It entailed the Saudis ensuring the safety of British subjects in their territory and promising not to attack Arab states in alliance with the British, and in particular Oman. Abdullah at the time was facing a revolt by his brother Saud who was based in the town of Kharj, south of Riyadh. He would later proceed to crush the revolt by Saud and the Dawasir tribe loyal to him later that year, but his brother would continue plotting.Abdullah bin Faisal thus in 1869, was dissuaded from pursuing his campaign to take back Buraimi and the coastal emirates due to not wishing to come into conflict with the British who were supporting a strong Abu Dhabi-Oman alliance. That as well as his fears of action taken by his rebellious brother Saud back home were he to embark on this campaign. At this point he was surrounded by enemies, and needed to tread well.However for the time being, that was the end of the presence of the Second Saudi State in the region, and following the Ottoman conquest of Al Hasa in 1871 that came about following a civil war between Abdullah and his brother Saud which would continue with the rise of other actors well until 1876; there was practically no chance for the fragmenting Saudi State from returning and it would collapse in 1892 with the Battle of Mulayda between Saudi and Rashidi (who were previously Saudi governors in Ha’il) forces which saw Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal Al Saud go into exile, first to Bahrain and then to Kuwait. The emirates would remain independent from then on; however the threat from Najd did not cease.In 1888, Sheikh Jassim bin Muhammad Al Thani of Qatar, then an autonomous ruler under the Ottoman Empire as his father since 1871; and who was constantly in conflict with Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahayan of Abu Dhabi over territorial control of Khor Al Udaid (an inlet today separating Saudi Arabia from Qatar) began spreading news of an impeding reconquest of the Gulf coast from Najd on part of Muhammad bin Abdullah Al Rashid of Ha’il who had supplanted the Al Saud, and had become effectively the ruler of the whole of the Najd plateau. Jassim bin Muhammad who shared good relations with the Rashidi Emir became a major proponent for his ally’s supposed intentions. However, the Rashidis never attempted to conquer the Gulf emirates and British sources at the time saw it as a rumor deliberately spread by the ruler of Qatar in order to gather allies against Abu Dhabi. Rashed bin Maktoum of Dubai, while initially seemingly would have been prepared to align himself with Ibn Thani and Ibn Rashid; after visiting Muscat, instead formed an alliance with Zayed bin Khalifa of Abu Dhabi to jointly combat any attempted invasion from Najd. Saqer bin Khalid Al Qasimi of Sharjah was also inclined to accept Ibn Thani’s offer of providing a supply line for any Rashidi campaign, but was pressured by the British to reject such a campaign. However in the end, no attempt at invasion occurred; however this displayed how an invasion could have been a stark possibility at the time.The Third Saudi State under Abdulaziz bin Abdulrahman Al Saud would also meddle in the region quite early on after Ibn Saud’s reconquest of Riyadh in 1902. Indeed, after Ibn Saud took Riyadh, Zayed bin Khalifa sent him a gift of camels and in turn was gifted with four Arabian horses. This was only the first contact in what would soon become Ibn Saud’s attempt to establish himself in the Coast of Oman. As his power grew in 1905, Ibn Saud sent letters to rulers of the emirates that he would be in Qatar and intended to visit the Coast of Oman in 1906. This letter caused much fear in Abu Dhabi and Dubai whom had mentioned earlier formed a faction against any such intrusion from Najd and also feared Ibn Saud receiving support from the other emirates such as Sharjah whom held Abu Dhabi’s power in the region in contempt. Immediately, Zayed bin Khalifa made his way to Muscat to meet with Sultan Faisal bin Turki Al Sa’id of Oman (not to be confused with Emir Faisal bin Turki Al Saud of the Second Saudi State mentioned earlier) in order to form an alliance against Ibn Saud and Sir Percy Cox the British Resident in the Gulf warned and pressured the rulers of the Trucial Coast from forming an alliance or pledging allegiance to Ibn Saud. Captain Knox, the British political agent in Kuwait met with Sheikh Mubarak Al Sabah; Ibn Saud’s good friend, ally, and mentor who wanted the Emir to bring the topic up with Ibn Saud and to tell him that the British would not take too kindly to any form of Saudi intrusion in the Coast of Oman. Ibn Saud would later make clear that he intended no ill with his letters to the rulers of the emirates and did not have ill intention towards the British or their interests in the Trucial Coast. That would be the last major threat to the independence of the emirates of the Trucial Coast until the discovery of oil leading up to the Buraimi dispute.In 1935, two years after Saudi Arabia granted oil concessions to American oil company Standard Oil of California (SoCal) a territorial dispute between Saudi Arabia backed by the United States on the one side and Abu Dhabi and to a lesser extent Oman backed by Britain on the other side. It came about after the government of the United States requested from the United Kingdom which was the protector of Abu Dhabi the exact boundary between the emirate and Saudi Arabia for oil exploration purposes. The United Kingdom pointed to the Anglo-Ottoman conventions signed in 1913 and 1914 as the basis for the boundary and claimed Saudi Arabia inherited the Ottoman claim. Saudi Arabia on the other hand refused this on the basis that no reference was ever made in previous agreements between Britain and Ibn Saud that ever took agreements with the Ottoman Empire into account. The British instead, thus proposed what would be dubbed “the Ryan line” on the borders of the Rub’ Al Khali desert except near its protectorates in Hadhramaut in modern Southern Yemen where the boundary included certain parts of the Rub’ Al Khali. The Saudis rejected this and the Saudi foreign minister Fuad Bey Hamzah instead proposed the “Hamzah line” which put the entire Khor Al Udaid under Saudi control as well as split the Liwa Oasis between Saudi Arabia and Abu Dhabi. This was not accepted, as such in 1937 the British amended their proposal allowing Saudi Arabia access to the Sufuk wells closer to the coast but refused to cede on Abu Dhabi’s behalf any coastal territory particularly on the Khor Al Udaid which saw the Saudis further reject the proposal.Certain elements within the British government in 1938 proposed to cede Khor Al Udaid to the Saudis in exchange for Saudi Arabia to cease its territorial threats and in compensation the British would give Sheikh Shakhbut bin Sultan of Abu Dhabi £20,000. This however was in the end was rejected for fear Britain’s status as protector would be undermined in the eyes of the rulers of other Gulf emirates. As a result, this territorial dispute would continue with Saudi Arabia suggesting various claims it had over the disputed region. Indeed, it was at this point that Ibn Saud would suggest ancestral claims over the region, citing its previous periods of control under the First and Second Saudi States and in particular Buraimi which was under direct Saudi governorship the previous century for extended periods. As well as that, the Saudis suggested that the Manasir and Al Murrah tribes, the bedouin nomadic inhabitants of the region paid Zakat to the Saudi state which was a sign of their allegiance.This dispute would see the first flames of armed conflict in 1949. Saudi Arabia would send its zakat collectors to the Liwa and Buraimi oases as well as the Dhahira region in Oman. This was followed by an effort by American oil explorers to look for oil protected by an armed group of twenty Saudi soldiers. This would draw complaints by the Emir of Abu Dhabi to the British who quickly moved with a small force to the location where the ARAMCO were based in the desert. This led to a confrontation, where the Saudis and Americans disarmed and arrested the British before releasing them. The British protested, however that same year American lawyers working for ARAMCO on behalf of Saudi Arabia presented revised territorial claims in which 80% of what is today Abu Dhabi territory would be annexed to Saudi Arabia, including Khor Al Udaid, the Liwa Oasis, the Buraimi Oasis, and the whole Dhafra desert. Abu Dhabi would be restricted to a strip of the coast.The British were not as powerful as they once were, with India’s independence. The US would attempt to pressure Britain to come to an understanding with Saudi Arabia. In 1951, Saudi Arabia would forego any military agreements it had with Britain and signed a military agreements with the United States. The Saudi city of Dhahran a major site of oil production would see planes belonging to the US air-force stationed there. By the time of Suez Crisis of 1952, the British were under severe pressure and negotiations with Saudis would consistently lead to inconclusiveness. That coupled with the British formation of a force dubbed the Trucial Oman Levies/Scouts trained by Jordanian forces of the Arab Legion would cause Saudi Arabia to be increasingly threatened. Particularly because of the sour relations between Saudi Arabia and Jordan at the time. A previous agreement in 1951 which proposed to cease oil exploration efforts in the disputed region would fail within months by early 1952, due to the Trucial Scouts having a presence there. This would eventually see war breakout.Failure in negotiations would see Saudi forces led by Turki bin Abdullah Al Otaishan enter the Buraimi oasis in 1952, occupying the settlement of Hamasa belonging to Oman. Independent minded Bedouin tribal leaders in the oasis would support the Saudis, particularly Sheikh Saqer bin Sultan Al Nua’imi the Emir of the Nuaim tribe in the oasis and Sheikh Rashid bin Hamad Al Shamsi the Emir of a sub-section of the Nuaim tribe known as the Shawamis, but were in effect independent from them, as well as the Emir of the Bani Ka’ab tribe, Sheikh Obaid bin Jum’ah Al Ka’abi. The Saudis pointed to the support received from the leaders of these local tribes as well as the lack of public protest from the Sultan of Oman to justify their position. They furthered, that inhabitants of the Buraimi oasis were rejected passports by the British political residency in Sharjah on the basis that they were not subject to any Trucial ruler. As such the Saudis argued that Buraimi was in effect independent and sought to cede that independence to the King of Saudi Arabia.Britain intervened to maintain a ceasefire which would last for two years. In 1954, joint Omani and Abu Dhabi forces backed by Britain attacked the Saudi positions in Hamasa and expelled them but they maintained control in Buraimi. A ceasefire ensued in order for international arbitration to take place but failed due to attempts by Saudi forces in distributing gifts in order to convince the locals and their leaders to support the Saudi claim. Which led to resumed fighting in 1955 where the Saudis were completely expelled from the oasis.Abdulaziz Al Meajel's answer to How did Arab nation develop these borders? How did Arab nation's borders become like this?This would lead to Britain in 1955, as the victors in the conflict to force their preferred borders on Saudi Arabia. Though this would lead to protest by the Saudi state which refused to accept the forced borders. After the British withdrawal from the region and the subsequent formation of the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia again took up its claims with the new state.In 1971 following the union of the emirates, the United Arab Emirates and Oman formally agreed to split the Buraimi oasis based on the status quo. With Oman maintaining the three settlements of Buraimi, Hamasa, and Su’ra and the Emirate of Abu Dhabi within the UAE maintaining Al Ain and six other villages. As for the disputed territories between Saudi Arabia and Abu Dhabi, the dispute was settled in the Treaty of Jeddah of 1974. Abu Dhabi would cede the territory east of Khor Al Udayd granting Saudi Arabia an outlet to the Gulf and causing Qatar to lose its border with the Emirates, with its sole land border being with Saudi Arabia. As well as that Abu Dhabi would cede all oil rights to the Shayba-Zarrara oil field now in Saudi territory in exchange Saudi Arabia would recognize Emirati sovereignty over its part of the Buraimi oasis. Though the agreement was never lodged officially.That is the history of the association of what is today the United Arab Emirates with the three Saudi states. They were not always a part of the Second Saudi State and certainly not by the time of the Second Saudi State’s collapse in 1891. While Ibn Saud certainly showed interest at times in extending his authority over the emirates, it never came to be.