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(Wikipedia’s list.)17th century[edit]The 1698 Savery Engine1605Bacon’s cipher, a method of steganography (hiding a secret message), is devised by Sir Francis Bacon.[5]1614John Napier publishes his work Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio introducing the concept of logarithms which simplifies mathematical calculations.[6][7]1620The first navigable submarine is designed by William Bourne and built by Dutchman Cornelius Drebbel.1625Early experiments in water desalination are conducted by Sir Francis Bacon.[8]1657Anchor escapement for clock making is invented by Robert Hooke.[9]1667A tin can telephone is devised by Robert Hooke.[10]1668Sir Isaac Newton invents the first working reflecting telescope.[11]1698The first commercial steam-powered device, a water pump, is developed by Thomas Savery.[12]18th century[edit]The Watt steam engine was conceived in 1765. James Watt transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine.1701An improved seed drill is designed by Jethro Tull.[13] It is used to spread seeds around a field with a rotating handle which makes seed planting a lot easier.1705Edmond Halley makes the first prediction of a comet's return.[14]1712The first practical steam engine is designed by Thomas Newcomen.[12][15]1718Edmond Halley discovers stellar motion.[16]1730The Rotherham plough, the first plough to be widely built in factories and commercially successful, is patented by Joseph Foljambe.[17]1737Andrew Rodger invents the winnowing machine.1740The first electrostatic motors are developed by Andrew Gordon in the 1740s.[18]1744The earliest known reference to baseball is made in a publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery. It contains a rhymed description of "base-ball" and a woodcut that shows a field set-up somewhat similar to the modern game—though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration, and with posts instead of ground-level bases.[19]1753Invention of hollow-pipe drainage is credited to Sir Hugh Dalrymple who died in 1753.[20]1765James Small advances the design of the plough using mathematical methods to improve on the Scotch plough of James Anderson of Hermiston.[21]1767Adam Ferguson (1767), often known as ‘The Father of Modern Sociology’, publishes his work An Essay on the History of Civil Society.[22]1776Scottish economist Adam Smith, often known as 'The father of modern economics',[23] publishes his seminal text The Wealth of Nations.[24][25]The Watt steam engine, conceived in 1765, goes into production. It is the first type of steam engine to make use of steam at a pressure just above atmospheric.1781The Iron Bridge, the first arch bridge made of cast iron, is built by Abraham Darby III.[12]1783A pioneer of selective breeding and artificial selection, Robert Bakewell, forms the Dishley Society to promote and advance the interests of livestock breeders.[26][27]1786The threshing machine is invented by Andrew Meikle.[28]1798Edward Jenner invents the first vaccine.19th century[edit]A trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, first described by Charles Babbage in 1837[29]1802Sir Humphry Davy creates the first incandescent light by passing a current from a battery, at the time the world's most powerful, through a thin strip of platinum.1804The world's first locomotive-hauled railway journey is made by Richard Trevithick's steam locomotive.[30]1807Alexander John Forsyth invents percussion ignition, the foundation of modern firearms.1814Robert Salmon patents the first haymaking machine.c1820John Loudon McAdam develops the Macadam road construction technique.1822Charles Babbage proposes the idea for a Difference engine, an automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions, in a paper to the Royal Astronomical Society entitled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables".[31]1823An improved system of soil drainage is developed by James Smith.[32]1824William Aspdin obtains a patent for Portland cement (concrete).1825William Sturgeon invents the electromagnet.1828A mechanical reaping machine is invented by Patrick Bell.[33]1831Electromagnetic induction, the operating principle of transformers and nearly all modern electric generators, is discovered by Michael Faraday.1835Scotsman James Bowman Lindsay invents the incandescent light bulb.[34]1836The Marsh test for detecting arsenic poisoning is developed by James Marsh.[35]1837Charles Babbage describes an Analytical Engine, the first mechanical, general-purpose programmable computer.[36][37]The Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, first commercially successful electric telegraph, is designed by Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke.[38][39][40]1839A pedal bicycle is invented by Kirkpatrick Macmillan.[41]1840Sir Rowland Hill reforms the postal system with Uniform Penny Post and introduces the first postage stamp, the Penny Black, on 1 May.[42]1841Alexander Bain patents his design produced the prior year for an electric clock.[43]1842Superphosphate, the first chemical fertiliser, is patented by John Bennet Lawes.[citation needed]1843SS Great Britain, the world's first steam-powered, screw propeller-driven passenger liner with an iron hull is launched. Designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, it was at the time the largest ship afloat.Alexander Bain (inventor) patents a design for a facsimile machine.1846A design for a chemical telegraph is patented by Alexander Bain. Bain's telegraph is installed on the wires of the Electric Telegraph Company on one line. Later, in 1850, it was used in America by Henry O'Reilly.[44]1847Boolean algebra, the basis for digital logic, is introduced by George Boole in his book The Mathematical Analysis of Logic.[45]1851Improvements to the facsimile machine are demonstrated by Frederick Bakewell at the 1851 World's Fair in London.1852A steam-driven ploughing engine is invented by John Fowler.[46][47]1853English physician Alexander Wood develops a medical hypodermic syringe with a needle fine enough to pierce the skin.[48]1854The Playfair cipher, the first literal digraph substitution cipher, is invented by Charles Wheatstone and later promoted for use by Lord Playfair.[40]1868Mushet steel, the first commercial steel alloy, is invented by Robert Forester Mushet.Thomas Humber develops a bicycle design with the pedals driving the rear wheel.The first manually operated gas-lamp traffic lights are installed outside the Houses of Parliament on 10 December.1869A bicycle design is developed by Thomas McCall.1873Discovery of the photoconductivity of the element selenium by Willoughby Smith. This led to the invention of photoelectric cells (solar panels), including those used in the earliest television systems.1876Scotsman Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone in the U.S.[49]The first safety bicycle is designed by the English engineer Harry John Lawson (also called Henry). Unlike the penny-farthing, the rider's feet were within reach of the ground, making it safer to stop.1878Demonstration of an incandescent light bulb by Joseph Wilson Swan.[50][51]1883The Fresno scraper, which became a model for modern earth movers, is invented in California by Scottish emigrant James Porteous.[52]1884The light switch is invented by John Holmes.1885The first commercially successful safety bicycle, called the Rover, is designed by John Kemp Starley. The following year Dan Albone produces a derivative of this called the Ivel Safety cycle.1886Walter Parry Haskett Smith, often called the Father of Rock Climbing in Britain, completes his first ascent of the Napes Needle, solo and without any protective equipment.1892Sir Francis Galton devises a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science.[53]1897Sir Joseph John Thomson discovers the electron.[54]The world's first wireless station is established on the Isle of Wight.[55][56]20th century[edit]A Colossus computer, developed by British codebreakers in 1943–19451901The first wireless signal across the Atlantic is sent from Cornwall in England and received in Newfoundland in Canada (a distance of 2,100 miles) by Italian scientist Guglielmo Marconi.[57]The first commercially successful light farm tractor is patented by Dan Albone.[58][59]1902Edgar Purnell Hooley develops Tarmac1907Henry Joseph Round discovers electroluminescence, the principle behind LEDs.1910The first formal driving school, the British School of Motoring, is founded in London.[60]Frank Barnwell establishes the fundamentals of aircraft design at the University of Glasgow,[61] having made the first powered flight in Scotland the previous year.1918The Royal Air Force becomes the first independent air force in the world[62]1922In Sorbonne, France, Englishman Edwin Belin demonstrates a mechanical scanning device, an early precursor to modern television.1926John Logie Baird makes the first public demonstration of a mechanical television on 26 January (the first successful transmissions were in early 1923 and February 1924). Later, in July 1928, he demonstrated the first colour television.[63][64]1930The jet engine is patented by Sir Frank Whittle.[65]1932The Anglepoise lamp is patented by George Carwardine, a design consultant specialising in vehicle suspension systems.1933The Cat's eye road marking is invented by Percy Shaw and patented the following year.1936English economist John Maynard Keynes publishes his work The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money which challenged the established classical economics and led to the Keynesian Revolution in the way economists thought.The world's first public broadcasts of high-definition television are made from Alexandra Palace, North London, by the BBC Television Service. It is the first fully electronic television system to be used in regular broadcasting.[66]1937First available in the London area, the 999 telephone number is introduced as the world's first emergency telephone service.1939The initial design of the Bombe, an electromechanical device to assist with the deciphering of messages encrypted by the Enigma machine, is produced by Alan Turing at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS).[67]1943Colossus computer begins working, the world's first electronic digital programmable computer.[68]1949The Manchester Mark 1 computer, significant because of its pioneering inclusion of index registers, ran its first programme error free. Its chief designers are Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn.1951The concept of microprogramming is developed by Maurice Wilkes from the realisation that the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialised computer program in high-speed ROM.LEO is the first business application (a payroll system) on an electronic computer.1952Autocode, regarded as the first compiled programming language, is developed for the Manchester Mark 1 by Alick Glennie.1953Englishman Francis Crick and American James Watson of Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, analysed X-ray crystallography data taken by Rosalind Franklin of King's College, to decipher the double helical structure of DNA. They share the 1962 Nobel Prize in Medicine for their work.[69]1955The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, is built by Louis Essen at the National Physical Laboratory. This clock enabled further development of general relativity, and started a basis for an enhanced SI unit system.[70]1956Metrovick 950, the first commercial transistor computer, is built by the Metropolitan-Vickers company.1961The first electronic desktop calculators, the ANITA Mk7 and ANITA Mk8, are manufactured by the Bell Punch Company and marketed by its Sumlock Comptometer division.1963High strength carbon fibre is invented by engineers at the Royal Aircraft Establishment.[71]The Lava lamp is invented by British accountant Edward Craven Walker.1964The first theory of the Higgs boson is put forward by Peter Higgs, a particle-physics theorist at the University of Edinburgh, and five other physicists.[72][73] The particle is discovered in 2012 at CERN's Large Hadron Collider and its existence is confirmed in 2013.1965A pioneer of the development of dairy farming systems, Rex Paterson, set out his principles for labour management.[74]The Touchscreen was invented by E.A.Johnson working at the Radar Research Establishment, Malvern, Worcestershire. [75]1966The cash machine and personal identification number system are patented by James Goodfellow.[76]1969The first carbon fibre fabric in the world is weaved in Stockport, England.[77]1970One of the first handheld televisions, the MTV-1, is developed by Sir Clive Sinclair.1973Clifford Cocks develops the algorithm for the RSA cipher while working at the Government Communications Headquarters, approximately three years before it was independently developed by Rivest, Shamir and Adleman at MIT. The British government declassified the 1973 invention in 1997.[78]1977Steptoe and Edwards successfully carried out a pioneering conception which resulted in the birth of the world's first baby to be conceived by IVF, Louise Brown on 25 July 1978, in Oldham General Hospital, Greater Manchester, UK.[79][80][81]1979The tree shelter is invented by Graham Tuley to protect tree seedlings.[82]One of the first laptop computers, the GRiD Compass, is designed by Bill Moggridge.1984DNA profiling is discovered by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester.One of the world's first computer games to use 3D graphics, Elite, is developed by David Braben and Ian Bell.1989Sir Tim Berners-Lee writes a proposal for what will become the World Wide Web. The following year, he specified HTML, the hypertext language, and HTTP, the protocol.[83]The Touchpad pointing device is first developed for Psion computers.1991A patent for an iris recognition algorithm is filed by John Daugman while working at the University of Cambridge which became the basis of all publicly deployed iris recognition systems.[84][85]The source code for the world's first web browser, called WorldWideWeb (later renamed Nexus to avoid confusion with the World Wide Web), is released into the public domain by Sir Tim Berners-Lee.1992The first SMS message in the world is sent over the UK's GSM network.1995The world's first national DNA database is developed.[86]1996Animal cloning, a female domestic sheep became the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell, by scientists at the Roslin institute.[87]1997Scottish scientists at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, produce the first mammal cloned from an adult cell.[88]The ThrustSSC jet-propelled car, designed and built in England, sets the land speed record.21st century[edit]2003Beagle 2, a British landing spacecraft that forms part of the European Space Agency's 2003 Mars Express mission lands on the surface of Mars but fails to communicate. It is located twelve years later in a series of images from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter that suggest two of Beagle's four solar panels failed to deploy, blocking the spacecraft's communications antenna.2004Graphene is isolated from graphite at the University of Manchester by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov.[89]2005The design for a machine to lay rail track, the "Trac Rail Transposer", is patented and goes on to be used by Network Rail in the United Kingdom and the New York City Subway in the United States.[90][91][92]2012Raspberry Pi, a single-board computer, is launched and quickly becomes popular for education in programming and computer science.[93]2014The European Space Agency's Philae lander leaves the Rosetta spacecraft and makes the first ever landing on a comet. The Philae lander was built with significant British expertise and technology, alongside that of several other countries.[94][95]Ceramics[edit]Bone china – Josiah Spode[96]Ironstone china – Charles James Mason[97]Jasperware – Josiah WedgwoodClock making[edit]Anchor escapement – Robert Hooke[98][99]Balance wheel – Robert Hooke[100]Coaxial escapement – George Daniels[101]Grasshopper escapement, H1, H2, H3 and H4 watches (a watch built to solve the longitude measurement problem)[102] – John HarrisonGridiron pendulum – John Harrison[100]Lever escapement The greatest single improvement ever applied to pocket watches – Thomas Mudge[100]Longcase clock or grandfather clock – William Clement[103]Marine chronometer – John Harrison[100]Self-winding watch – John Harwood[104]Clothing manufacturing[edit]Derby Rib (stocking manufacture) – Jedediah StruttFlying shuttle – John KayMauveine, the first synthetic organic dye – William Henry PerkinPower loom – Edmund CartwrightSpinning frame – John KaySpinning jenny – James HargreavesSpinning mule – Samuel CromptonSewing machine – Thomas Saint in 1790[105]Water frame – Richard ArkwrightStocking frame – William LeeWarp-loom and Bobbinet – John HeathcoatCommunications[edit]Christmas card [106] – Sir Henry ColeValentines card [107] – Modern card 18th century EnglandPencil – Cumbria, EnglandMechanical pencil – Sampson Mordan and John Isaac Hawkins in 1822.[108]Clockwork radio [109] – Trevor BaylisRadio, the first transmission using a Spark Transmitter, achieving a range of approximately 500 metres. – David E. HughesElectromagnetic induction & Faraday's law of induction Began as a series of experiments by Faraday that later became some of the first ever experiments in the discovery of radio waves and the development of radio – Michael Faraday [110]Pioneer in the development of radio communication – William EcclesPioneering work on the development of the long-lasting materials that made today's liquid crystal displays possible – Team headed by Sir Brynmor Jones and Developed by Scotsman George Gray and Englishman Ken Harrison In conjunction with the Royal Radar Establishment and the University of Hull [111]Pioneering development of stereo in the form of 'binaural sound' – Alan Blumlein [112]Shorthand – Timothy Bright (1550/1-1615). Invented first modern shorthandPitman Shorthand – Isaac PitmanProposed the existence of the Kennelly–Heaviside layer, a layer of ionised gas that reflects radio waves around the Earth's curvature – Oliver HeavisideTypewriter – First patent for a device similar to a typewriter granted to Henry Mill in 1714.[113]the world's first automatic totalisator – George Juliuspioneer in the use of fiber optics in telecommunications – Charles K. Kao and George HockhamThe originator of the concept of geostationary satellites for the use of telecommunications relays – Arthur C ClarkeTeletext Information Service – The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)Print stereotyping – William Ged (1690–1749) [114]Roller printing – Thomas Bell (patented 1783) [115]The adhesive postage stamp and the postmark – James Chalmers (1782–1853) [116]Universal Standard Time: Sir Sandford Fleming (1827–1915) [117]Light signalling between ships: Admiral Philip H. Colomb (1831–1899) [118]The teleprinter – Frederick G. Creed (1871–1957) [119]Radar – Robert Watson-Watt (1892–1973)[120]The underlying principles of Radio – James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [121]Computing[edit]ACE and Pilot ACE [67] – Alan TuringARM architecture The ARM CPU design is the microprocessor architecture of 98% of mobile phones and every smartphone.[122]First programmer – Ada LovelaceFirst Programming Language Analytical Engine ordercode – Charles Babbage and Ada LovelaceArgo system the world's first electrically powered mechanical analogue computer (also called at the Argo Clock) – Arthur PollenSumlock ANITA calculator the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator – Bell Punch CoThe world's first 'slimline' pocket calculator, the Sinclair Executive amongst other electrical/electronic innovations – Sir Clive SinclairOsborne 1 The first commercially successful portable computer, the precursor to the Laptop computer – Adam OsborneHeavily involved in the development of the Linux kernel – Andrew Morton & Alan CoxFlip-flop circuit, which became the basis of electronic memory (Random-access memory) in computers – William Eccles and F. W. JordanUniversal Turing machine – The UTM model is considered to be the origin of the "stored program computer" used by John von Neumann in 1946 for his "Electronic Computing Instrument" that now bears von Neumann's name: the von Neumann architecture, also UTM is considered the first operating system – Alan TuringThe development of packet switching co-invented by British engineer Donald Davies and American Paul Baran – National Physical Laboratory, London EnglandThe first person to conceptualise the Integrated Circuit – Geoffrey W.A. DummerThe first modern computer, the Manchester Baby, was the world's first electronic stored-program computer. Developed by Frederic Calland Williams & Tom Kilburn[123]Williams tube – a cathode ray tube used to electronically store binary data (Can store roughly 500 to 1,000 bits of data) – Freddie Williams & Tom KilburnFerranti Mark 1 – Also known as the Manchester Electronic Computer was the first computer to use the principles of early CPU design (Central processing unit) – Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn – Also the world's first successful commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.The oldest known recordings of computer generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer – Christopher StracheyEDSAC was the first complete, fully functional computer to use the von Neumann architecture, the basis of every modern computer – Maurice WilkesEDSAC 2 the successor to the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator or EDSAC. It was the first computer to have a microprogrammed (Microcode)control unit and a bit slice hardware architecture – Team headed by Maurice WilkesThe first graphical computer game OXO on the EDSAC at Cambridge University – A.S. DouglasAtlas Computer, it was arguably the world's first supercomputer and was the fastest computer in the world until the release of the American CDC 6600 Also This machine introduced many modern architectural concepts: spooling, interrupts, pipelining, interleaved memory, virtual memory and paging – Team headed by Tom KilburnDigital audio player (MP3 Player) – Kane KramerCo-Inventor of the world's first trackball device – developed by Tom Cranston, Fred Longstaff and Kenyon TaylorThe world's first handheld computer (Psion Organiser) – Psion PLCThe first rugged computer – Husky (computer)First PC-compatible palmtop computer (Atari Portfolio) – Ian H. S. CullimoreDenotational semantics – Christopher Strachey pioneer in programming language designWolfram's 2-state 3-symbol Turing machine – Stephen WolframEngineering[edit]Adjustable spanner – Edwin Beard BuddingBackhoe loader – Joseph Cyril BamfordCavity magnetron – John Randall and Harry Boot critical component for Microwave generation in Microwave ovens and high powered Radios (Radar)[124]Carey Foster bridge – Carey Foster[125]Electric transformer – Michael Faraday[126]First coke-consuming blast furnace – Abraham Darby I[12]First working universal joint – Robert HookeCrookes tube the first cathode ray tubes – William Crookes[12]First working and volume productionbrushless alternator – Newage EngineersFirst compression ignition engine aka the Diesel Engine – Herbert Akroyd StuartHydrogen Fuel Cell – William Robert GroveModified version of the Newcomen steam engine (Pickard engine) – James PickardCompound steam turbine – Charles Algernon Parsons[12]Francis turbine – James B. FrancisGas turbine – John Barber (engineer)Microturbines – Chris and Paul Bladon of Bladon JetsThe world's first oil refinery and a process of extracting paraffin from coal laying the foundations for the modern oil industry – James Young (1811–1883)[127]Pendulum governor – Frederick LanchesterContributed to the development of Radar – Scotsman Robert Watson-Watt and Englishman Arnold Frederic WilkinsInternal combustion engine – Samuel BrownFourdrinier machine – Henry FourdrinierMicrochip – Geoffrey W.A. Dummerlight-emitting diode (did not invent the first visible light, only theorised) – H. J. RoundHydraulic accumulatorTwo-stroke engine – Joseph DayPioneer of radio guidance systems – Archibald LowScrew-cutting lathe – Henry HindleyThe first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe – Henry MaudslayThe first electrical measuring instrument, the electroscope – William GilbertRectilinear Slide rule – William Oughtred[100]Devised a standard for screw threads leading to its widespread acceptance – Joseph WhitworthThe Wimshurst machine is an Electrostatic generator for producing high voltages – James WimshurstHot bulb engine or heavy oil engine – Herbert Akroyd StuartHydraulic crane – William George ArmstrongVacuum diode also known as a vacuum tube – John Ambrose FlemingLinear motor is a multi-phase alternating current (AC) electric motor – Charles Wheatstone then improved by Eric Laithwaite[40]Lynch Motor – Cedric LynchDesigned water and sewerage systems for over 30 cities across Europe – William LindleyConcrete Canvas – Will Crawford and Peter BrewinThe world's first house powered with hydroelectricity – Cragside, Northumberland[128]Stirling engine – Robert StirlingSupercharger – Dugald ClerkWind tunnel – Francis Herbert Wenham[100]Household appliances[edit]Perambulator – William Kent designed a baby carriage in 1733[129]Collapsible baby buggy – Owen MaclarenDomestic dishwasher – key modifications by William Howard Livens [130]"Bagless" vacuum cleaner – James Dyson[131]"Puffing Billy" – First powered vacuum cleaner – Hubert Cecil Booth[132][133][134]Fire extinguisher – George William Manby[129]Folding carton – Charles Henry FoyleLawn mower – Edwin Beard Budding[135]Rubber band – Stephen Perry[136]Daniell cell – John Frederic Daniell[137]Tin can – Peter DurandCorkscrew – Reverend Samuell HenshallMouse trap – James Henry AtkinsonModern flushing toilet – John Harington[138]The pay toilet – John Nevil Maskelyne, Maskelyne invented a lock for London toilets, which required a penny to operate, hence the euphemism "spend a penny".Electric toaster – Rookes Evelyn Bell CromptonTeasmade – Albert E. RichardsonMagnifying glass – Roger BaconThermosiphon, which forms the basis of most modern central heating systems – Thomas FowlerAutomatic electric kettle – Russell HobbsThermos Flask – James Dewar [139]Toothbrush – William Edward AddisSunglasses – James Ayscough[140]The Refrigerator – William Cullen (1748) [141]The Flush toilet: Alexander Cummings (1775) [142]The first distiller to triple distill Irish whiskey:[143]John Jameson (Whisky distiller)The first automated can-filing machine John West (1809–1888) [144]The waterproof Mackintosh – Charles Macintosh (1766–1843) [145]The kaleidoscope: Sir David Brewster (1781–1868) [146]Keiller's marmalade Janet Keiller (1797) – The first recipe of rind suspended marmalade or Dundee marmalade produced in Dundee.The modern lawnmower – Edwin Beard Budding (1830) [147]The Lucifer friction match: Sir Isaac Holden (1807–1897) [148]The self filling pen – Robert Thomson (1822–1873) [149]Cotton-reel thread – J & J Clark of Paisley [150]Lime Cordial – Peter Burnett in 1867 [151]Bovril beef extract – John Lawson Johnston in 1874 [152]Wellington BootsCan Opener – Robert Yeates 1855Ideas, Religion and Ethics[edit]Malthusianism and the groundwork for the study of population dynamics – Thomas Robert Malthus with his work An Essay on the Principle of Population.Classical Liberalism – John Locke known as the "Father of Classical Liberalism".[153][154]Utilitarianism by Jeremy BenthamAnglicanism by Henry VIII of EnglandMethodism by John Wesley and Charles WesleyQuakerism by George FoxAgnosticism by Thomas Henry HuxleyIndustrial processes[edit]English crucible steel – Benjamin HuntsmanSteel production Bessemer process – Henry BessemerHydraulic press – Joseph BramahParkesine, the first man-made plastic – Alexander ParkesPortland cement – Joseph AspdinSheffield plate – Thomas BoulsoverWater frame – Richard ArkwrightStainless steel – Harry BrearleyRubber Masticator – Thomas HancockPower Loom – Edmund CartwrightParkes process – Alexander ParkesLead chamber process – John RoebuckDevelopment of the world's first commercially successful manufacture of high quality flat glass using the float glass process – Alastair PilkingtonThe first commercial electroplating process – George ElkingtonThe Wilson Yarn Clearer – Peter WilsonFloat Glass – Alastair Pilkington – Modern Glass manufacturing processContact ProcessFroth Flotation – William Haynes and A H Higgins.Extrusion – Joseph BramahMedicine[edit]First correct description of circulation of the blood – William Harvey[155]Smallpox vaccine – Edward Jenner with his discovery is said to have "saved more lives (...) than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."[156][157]Surgical forceps – Stephen Hales[158]Antisepsis in surgery – Joseph ListerArtificial intraocular lens transplant surgery for cataract patients – Harold Ridley[159]Clinical thermometer – Thomas Clifford Allbutt.[160]isolation of fibrinogen ("coagulable lymph"), investigation of the structure of the lymphatic system and description of red blood cells by the surgeon William Hewson (surgeon)Credited with discovering how to culture embryonic stem cells in 1981 – Martin EvansFirst blood pressure measurement and first cardiac catheterisation-Stephen Hales[161]Pioneer of anaesthesia and father of epidemiology for locating the source of cholera – John Snow (physician)[162]pioneered the use of sodium cromoglycate as a remedy for asthma – Roger Altounyan[citation needed]The first scientist to demonstrate that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen and one of the founders of orthopedy – Percivall Pott[163]Performed the first successful blood transfusion – James Blundell[164]Discovered the active ingredient of Aspirin – Edward StoneDiscovery of Protein crystallography – Dorothy Crowfoot HodgkinThe world's first successful stem cell transplant[165] – John Raymond Hobbs[166]First typhoid vaccine – Almroth Wright[167]Pioneer of the treatment of epilepsy – Edward Henry Sievekingdiscovery of Nitrous oxide (entonox/"laughing gas") and its anaesthetic properties – Humphry Davy[168]Computed Tomography (CT scanner) – Godfrey Newbold HounsfieldGray's Anatomy widely regarded as the first complete human anatomy textbook – Henry GrayDiscovered Parkinson's disease – James Parkinson[169]General anaesthetic – Pioneered by Scotsman James Young Simpson and Englishman John Snow[162]Contributed to the development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – Sir Peter MansfieldStatistical parametric mapping – Karl J. FristonNasal cannula – Wilfred JonesThe development of in vitro fertilization – Patrick Christopher Steptoe and Robert Geoffrey Edwards[170]First baby genetically selected to be free of a breast cancer – University College LondonViagra – Peter Dunn, Albert Wood, Dr Nicholas Terrett[citation needed]Acetylcholine – Henry Hallett DaleEKG (underlying principles) – various[vague]Discovery of vitamins – Frederick Gowland HopkinsEarliest pharmacopoeia in English[171]The hip replacement operation, in which a stainless steel stem and 22mm head fit into a polymer socket and both parts are fixed into position by PMMA cement – pioneered by John CharnleyIn vitro fertilisation – Developed by Sir Robert Geoffrey Edwards with a first successful birth in 1978 as a result of natural cycle IVF where no stimulation was made.Description of Hay fever – John Bostock (physician) in 1819Pioneering the use of surgical anaesthesia with Chloroform: Sir James Young Simpson (1811–1870) [172]Discovery of hypnotism (November 1841) – James Braid (1795–1860) [173]Identifying the mosquito as the carrier of malaria: Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932) [174]Identifying the cause of brucellosis: Sir David Bruce (1855–1931) [175]Discovering the vaccine for typhoid fever: Sir William B. Leishman (1865–1926) [176]Discovering insulin – John J R Macleod (1876–1935) with others [177]Ambulight PDT: light-emitting sticking plaster used in photodynamic therapy (PDT) for treating non-melanoma skin cancer. Developed by Ambicare Dundee's Ninewells Hospital and St Andrews University. (2010)[178]Primary creator of the artificial kidney (Professor Kenneth Lowe – Later Queen's physician in Scotland) [179]Developing the first beta-blocker drugs: Sir James W. Black in 1964 [180]Glasgow Coma Scale: Graham Teasdale and Bryan J. Jennett (1974) [181]EKG [Electrocardiography]: Alexander Muirhead (1911) [182]Pioneering the use of surgical anaesthesia with Chloroform: Sir James Young Simpson (1811–1870) [172]Discovery of hypnotism (November 1841) – James Braid (1795–1860) [173]Identifying the cause of brucellosis: Sir David Bruce (1855–1931) [183]Development of ibuprofenDiscovering the vaccine for typhoid fever: Sir William B. Leishman (1865–1926) [184]Discovering insulin – John J R Macleod (1876–1935) with others [177]The earliest disvcovery of an antibiotic, penicillin: Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) [185]Discovering an effective tuberculosis treatment: Sir John Crofton in the 1950s [186]Primary creator of the artificial kidney (Professor Kenneth Lowe – Later Queen's physician in Scotland) [187]Developing the first beta-blocker drugs: Sir James W. Black in 1964 [188]EKG [Electrocardiography]: Alexander Muirhead (1911) [189]Discovering secretin, the first hormone, and its role as a chemical messenger: William Bayliss and Ernest Starling.[190]Military[edit]Percussion ignitionTurret ship – Although designs for a rotating gun turret date back to the late 18th century, HMS Trusty was the first warship to be outfitted with one.Battle Tank/The tank – Developed and first used in combat by the British during World War I as a means to break the deadlock of trench warfare. Attributed to Ernest Dunlop SwintonFighter aircraft – The Vickers F.B.5 Gunbus of 1914 was the first of its kind.Congreve rocket – William CongreveHarrier Jump Jet – VTOL (Vertical take-off and landing aircraft)Aircraft carrier – HMS ArgusDreadnought battleship – HMS DreadnoughtBailey bridge – Donald BaileyChobham armourLivens Projector – William Howard Livens[191]H2S radar (airborne radar to aid bomb targeting) – Alan BlumleinBouncing bomb – Barnes WallisSafety fuse – William BickfordFairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife – William Ewart Fairbairn and Eric A. SykesArmstrong Gun – Sir William ArmstrongHigh explosive squash head – Sir Charles Dennistoun BurneyNuclear fission chain reaction – Leo Szilard whilst crossing the road near Russell Square.Shrapnel shell – Henry ShrapnelBullpup firearm configuration – Thorneycroft carbinePuckle Gun – James PuckleThe side by side Boxlock action, AKA the double barreled shotgun – Anson and DeeleyStun grenades – invented by the Special Air Service in the 1960s.Mills bomb – the first modern fragmentation grenade.Smokeless propellant to replace gunpowder with the use of Cordite – Frederick AbelRubber bullet and Plastic bullet – Developed by the Ministry of Defence during The Troubles in Northern Ireland.Depth chargeTorpedo – Robert WhiteheadThe Whitworth rifle, considered the first sniper rifle. During the American Civil War the Whitworth rifle had been known to kill at ranges of about 800 yards (730 m) – Sir Joseph WhitworthThe world's first practical underwater active sound detection apparatus, the ASDIC Active Sonar – Developed by Canadian physicist Robert William Boyle and English physicist Albert Beaumont WoodThe first self-powered machine gun Maxim gun – Sir Hiram Maxim, Although the Inventor is American, the Maxim gun was financed by Albert Vickers of Vickers Limited company and produced in Hatton Garden LondonSteam catapult-Commander Colin C. Mitchell RNVRSelf-propelled gun - The Gun Carrier Mark I was the first piece of Self-propelled artillery ever to be produced.Special forces – SAS Founded by Sir David Stirling.Mining[edit]Tunnel boring machine – James Henry Greathead and Isambard Kingdom BrunelDavy lamp – Humphry DavyGeordie lamp – George StephensonBeam engine – Used for pumping water from minesMusical instruments[edit]Concertina – Charles Wheatstone[40]Theatre organ – Robert Hope-JonesLogical bassoon, an electronically controlled version of the bassoon – Giles BrindleyNorthumbrian smallpipesTuning fork – John ShoreThe piano footpedal – John Broadwood (1732–1812) [192]Photography[edit]Ambrotype – Frederick Scott Archer[193]Calotype – William Fox Talbot[194]Phtographic negative - William Fox TalbotCollodion process – Frederick Scott Archer[193]Collodion-albumen process – Joseph Sidebotham in 1861Stereoscope – Charles Wheatstone[39][40]Thomas Wedgwood – pioneer of photography, devised the method to copy visible images chemically to permanent media.Dry plate process also known as gelatine process, is the first economically successful durable photographic medium – Richard Leach MaddoxKinemacolor was the first successful colour motion picture process, used commercially from 1908 to 1914 – George Albert SmithCinematography – William Friese-GreeneMotion picture camera, the Kinetoscope – William Kennedy Laurie DicksonThe first movie projector, the Zoopraxiscope – Eadweard MuybridgeThe first experimental film called "The Horse in Motion" in 1872 – Eadweard MuybridgePublishing firsts[edit]Oldest publisher and printer in the world (having been operating continuously since 1584): Cambridge University Pressfirst book printed in English: "The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye" by Englishman William Caxton in 1475The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1768–81) [195]The first English textbook on surgery(1597) [196]The first modern pharmacopaedia, William Cullen (1776) The book became 'Europe's principal text on the classification and treatment of disease' [197]The first postcards and picture postcards in the UK [198]Science[edit]Modern atomic theory – Considered the father of modern chemistry, John Dalton's experiments with gases led to the development of what is called the modern atomic theory.[12][199]Equals sign Robert Recorde, WelshmanCell biology – Credit for the discovery of the first cells is given to Robert Hooke who described the microscopic compartments of cork cells in 1665[199]Compound microscope with 30x magnification – Robert HookeUniversal joint – Robert Hooke[citation needed]Coggeshall slide rule – Henry CoggeshallThe Iris diaphragm – Robert HookeCorrect theory of combustion – Robert HookePartition chromatography – Richard Laurence Millington Synge and Archer J.P. Martin[200]Arnold Frederic Wilkins – pioneer in the development of RadarAtwood machine used for illustrating the law of uniformly accelerated motion – George AtwoodMarine Barometer – Robert Hooke[100]Hooke's Law (equation describing elasticity) – Robert Hooke[100]Electrical generator (dynamo) – Michael Faraday[126]Faraday cage – Michael Faraday[126]Magneto-optical effect – Michael Faraday[126]Calculus – Sir Isaac NewtonInfrared radiation – discovery commonly attributed to William Herschel.Holography – First developed by Dennis Gabor in Rugby, England. Improved by Nicholas J. Phillips who made it possible to record multi-colour reflection hologramsDiscovery of the pion (pi-meson) – Cecil Frank PowellWheatstone bridge – Samuel Hunter ChristieTriple achromatic lens – Peter DollondNewtonian telescope – Sir Isaac NewtonHawking radiation – Stephen HawkingDemonstrated that electric circuits obey the law of the conservation of energy and that electricity is a form of energy First Law of Thermodynamics. Also the unit of energy, the Joule is named after him – James Prescott JouleMicrometer – William Gascoignethe first bench micrometer that was capable of measuring to one ten thousandth of an inch – Henry MaudslaySinclair Executive, the world's first small electronic pocket calculator – Sir Clive SinclairDiscovered the element argon – John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh with Scotsman William RamsayStandard deviation – Francis GaltonSlide rule – William Oughtred [201]Synthesis of coumarin, one of the first synthetic perfumes, and cinnamic acid via the Perkin reaction – William Henry PerkinThe Law of Gravity – Sir Isaac NewtonNewton's laws of motion – Sir Isaac NewtonPre-empting elements of General Relativity theory – William Kingdon CliffordGeological Timescale – Arthur Holmes[202]Electromagnet – William Sturgeon in 1823.[199]Helium – Norman LockyerWeather map [203] – Sir Francis GaltonIntroduced the symbol for "is less than" and "is greater than" – Thomas Harriot 1630Introduced the "×" symbol for multiplication as well as the abbreviations "sin" and "cos" for the sine and cosine functions – William OughtredDew Point Hygrometer – John Frederic DaniellPeriodic Table – John Alexander Reina NewlandsSplitting the atom – John Cockcroft and Irish physicist Ernest WaltonFirst full-scale commercial Nuclear Reactor at Calder Hall, opened in 1956.[204]Seismograph – John MilneDiscovery of oxygen gas (O2) – Joseph PriestleyDiscovery of the Atom(nuclear model of) – Ernest RutherfordDiscovery of the Proton – Ernest RutherfordDiscovery of the Electron, isotopes and the inventor of the Mass spectrometer – J. J. ThomsonDiscovery of the Neutron – James ChadwickNuclear transfer – Is a form of cloning first put into practice by Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell to clone Dolly the SheepTheory of Evolution – Charles DarwinDiscovery of alpha and beta rays - Ernest RutherfordAstronomy[edit]Discovery of the "White Spot" on Saturn – Will HayDiscovery of Proxima Centauri, the closest known star to the Sun, by Robert Innes (1861–1933) [205]Discovery of the planet Uranus[206] and the moons Titania, Oberon, Enceladus, Mimas [207] by Sir William Herschel (German born astronom, later in life British)Discovery of Triton[208] and the moons Hyperion, Ariel and Umbriel – William Lassell[209]Planetarium – John Theophilus DesaguliersPredicts the existence and location of Neptune from irregularities in the orbit of Uranus – John Couch Adams [210]Important contributions to the development of radio astronomy – Bernard Lovell [211]Newtonian telescope – Sir Isaac Newton [212]Achromatic doublet lens – John Dollond [213]Coining the phrase 'Big Bang' – Fred Hoyle [214]First theorised existence of black holes, binary stars; invented torsion balance – John Michell[215]Stephen Hawking – World-renowned theoretical physicist made many important contributions to the fields of cosmology and quantum gravity, especially in the context of black holesSpiral galaxies – William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse [216]Discovery of Halley's Comet – Edmond Halley [217]Discovery of pulsars – Antony Hewish [218]Discovery of Sunspots and was the first person to make a drawing of the Moon through a telescope – Thomas Harriot [219]The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object – Arthur Stanley Eddington [220]Aperture synthesis, used for accurate location and imaging of weak radio sources in the field of Radio astronomy – Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish [221]Chemistry[edit]Dalton's law and Law of multiple proportions – John Dalton [222]The structure of DNA and pioneering the field of molecular biology – co-developed by Francis Crick [223] and the American James WatsonDNA sequencing by chain termination – Frederick Sanger [224]Discovery of introns in eukaryotic DNA and the mechanism of gene-splicing – Richard J. Roberts [225]Discovery of Buckminsterfullerene – Sir Harry Kroto [226]Discovery of thallium – William Crookes[12]Discovered the structure of ferrocene – Geoffrey Wilkinson & others [227]Discovers hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and can form an explosive mixture with air – Henry Cavendish [228]Proposes the law of octaves, a precursor to the Periodic Law – John Newlands [229]Bragg's law and establish the field of X-ray crystallography, an important tool for elucidating the crystal structure of substances – William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg [230]Introduces concept of atomic number to fix inadequacies of Mendeleev's periodic table, which had been based on atomic weight – Henry Moseley [231]First isolation of sodium – Humphry Davy [232]First isolation of potassium – Humphry Davy[12]First isolation of boron – Humphry Davy[12]First isolation of benzene, the first known aromatic hydrocarbon – Michael Faraday[233]Publishes Opus Maius, which among other things, proposes an early form of the scientific method, and contains results of his experiments with gunpowder – Roger Bacon [234]Publishes several Aristotelian commentaries, an early framework for the scientific method – Robert Grosseteste [235]Baconian method, an early forerunner of the scientific method – Sir Francis Bacon[236]The first discovery of aluminium – Sir Humphry DavyPioneer in early Solar Power – Weston cell – Edward Weston (chemist)[citation needed]Proposes the concept of isotopes, elements with the same chemical properties may have differing atomic weights – Frederick Soddy[12]The synthesising of xenon hexafluoroplatinate the first time to show that noble gases can form chemical compounds – Neil BartlettCallendar effect the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature (Global warming) – Guy Stewart CallendarPioneer of the fuel cell – Francis Thomas Bacon[237]Pioneer of meteorology by developing a nomenclature system for clouds in 1802 – Luke Howard[238]Rayleigh scattering explains why the sky is blue, and predicted the existence of the surface waves – John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh[239]Discovered the chemical composition of water: Henry Cavendish.[240]Discovered electrolysis and electrochemistry: William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle.[241]Discovered valence: Edward Frankland.[242]Developed the Kinetic theory of gases: James Maxwell.[243]Discovered silicones: Frederic Kipping.[244]Established chemical oceanography: Robert Boyle.[245]Invented kerosene: Abraham Gesner and James Young.Invented the chemical fertilizer: John LawesSport[edit]Football – The rules as we know them today were established in 1848 at Cambridge University, Sheffield F.C. is acknowledged by The Football Association and FIFA as the world's first and oldest football club.[246]Rugby – William Webb EllisCricket – the world's second-most popular sport can be traced back to the 13th century[247]Tennis – widely known to have originated in England.[248]Boxing – England played a key role in the evolution of modern boxing. Boxing was first accepted as an Olympic sport in Ancient Greece in 688 BCGolf – Modern game invented in ScotlandBilliardsBadmintonDarts – a traditional pub game, the numbering layout was devised by Brian GamlinTable-Tennis – was invented on the dinner tables of Britain as an indoor version of tennisSnooker – Invented by the British Army in India[249]Ping pong – The game has its origins in England, in the 1880sBowls – has been traced to 13th century England[250]Field hockey – the modern game grew from English public schools in the early 19th centuryNetball – the sport emerged from early versions of women's basketball, at Madame Österberg's College in England during the late 1890s.[251]Rounders – the game originates in England most likely from an older game known as stool ballThe Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race, the first race was in 1829 on the River Thames in London [252]Thoroughbred Horseracing – Was first developed in 17th and 18th century EnglandPolo – its roots began in Persia as a training game for cavalry units, the formal codification of the rules of modern Polo as a sport were established in 19th century EnglandThe format of Modern Olympics – William Penny BrookesThe first Paralympic games competition were held in England in 1948 – Ludwig Guttmann[253]Hawk-Eye ball tracking system.Transport[edit]Pedal driven bicycle - Kirkpatrick MacmillanAviation[edit]Aeronautics and flight. As a pioneer of glider development & first well-documented human flight he discovered and identified the four aerodynamic forces of flight – weight, lift, drag, and thrust. Modern airplane design is based on those discoveries including cambered wings. He is sometimes called the "Father of aviation" – George Cayley[254]Steam-powered flight with the Aerial Steam Carriage – John Stringfellow – The world's first powered flight took place at Chard in Somerset 55 years before the Wright brothers attempt at Kitty Hawk[255]VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) fighter-bomber aircraft – Hawker P.1127, designed by Sydney Camm[256]The first commercial jet airliner (de Havilland Comet)[257]The first Supersonic Airliner – Concorde. Developed by the British Aircraft Corporation in partnership with Aérospatiale 1969The first aircraft capable of supercruise – English Electric LightningAilerons – Matthew Piers Watt BoultonHead-up display (HUD) – The Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) designed the first equipment and it was built by Cintel with the system first integrated into the Blackburn Buccaneer.Pioneer of parachute design – Robert CockingThe first human-powered aircraft to make an officially authenticated take-off and flight (SUMPAC) – The University of Southampton[258]Hale rockets, improved version of the Congreve rocket design that introduced Thrust vectoring – William HaleSABRE engine- The first hypersonic jet/rocket capable of working in air and space to allow the possibility of HOTOL.Air Force – Royal Air ForceRailways[edit]Great Western Railway – Isambard Kingdom BrunelStockton and Darlington Railway the world's first operational steam passenger railwayFirst inter-city steam-powered railway – Liverpool and Manchester RailwayLocomotives[edit]Blücher – George StephensonPuffing Billy -William HedleyLocomotion No 1 – Robert StephensonSans Pareil – Timothy HackworthStourbridge Lion – Foster, Rastrick and CompanyStephenson's Rocket – George and Robert StephensonSalamanca – Matthew MurrayFlying Scotsman- Sir Nigel Gresley [259]Other railway developments[edit]Displacement lubricator, Ramsbottom safety valve, the water trough, the split piston ring – John RamsbottomMaglev (transport) rail system – Eric LaithwaiteWorld's first underground railway and the first rapid transit system. It was also the first underground railway to operate electric trains – London UndergroundAdvanced Passenger Train (APT) was an experimental High Speed Train that introduced tilting – British RailRoads[edit]Bowden cable – Frank BowdenHansom cab – Joseph HansomSeat belt – George Cayley[260]Sinclair C5 – Sir Clive SinclairTarmac – E. Purnell HooleyTension-spoke wire wheels – George Cayley[254]LGOC B-type – the first mass-produced busPneumatic tyre – Robert William Thomson is deemed to be inventor, despite John Boyd Dunlop being initially creditedDisc brakes – Frederick W. Lanchester[12]Belisha beacon – Leslie Hore-BelishaLotus 25: considered the first modern F1 race car, designed for the 1962 Formula One season; a revolutionary design, the first fully stressed monocoque chassis to appear in Formula One – Colin Chapman, Team LotusHorstmann suspension, tracked armoured fighting vehicle suspension – Sidney HorstmannSteam fire engine – John BraithwaitePenny-farthing – James StarleyDynasphere – John Archibald PurvesCaterpillar track – Richard Lovell EdgeworthMini-roundabout – Frank BlackmoreQuadbike – Standard Motor Company patented the 'Jungle Airborne Buggy' (JAB) in 1944[261]Sea[edit]Plimsoll Line – Samuel PlimsollHovercraft – Christopher CockerellLifeboat – Lionel LukinResurgam – George GarrettTransit (ship) – Richard Hall GowerTurbinia, the first steam turbine powered steamship, designed by the engineer Sir Charles Algernon Parsons and built in Newcastle upon TyneDiving Equipment/Scuba Gear – Henry FleussDiving bell – Edmund HalleySextant – John BirdOctant (instrument) – Independently developed by Englishman John Hadley and the American Thomas GodfreyWhirling speculum, This device can be seen as a precursor to the gyroscope – John SersonScrew propeller – Francis Pettit SmithThe world's first patent for an underwater echo ranging device (Sonar) – Lewis Richardsonhydrophone Before the invention of Sonar convoy escort ships used them to detect U-boats, greatly lessening the effectiveness of the submarine – Research headed by Ernest RutherfordHydrofoil – John Isaac ThornycroftInflatable boatHMS Warrior The world's first iron armoured and iron hulled warship.Scientific innovations[edit]The theory of electromagnetism – James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [262]The Gregorian telescope – James Gregory (1638–1675) [263]The concept of latent heat – Joseph Black (1728–1799) [264]The pyroscope, atmometer and aethrioscope scientific instruments: Sir John Leslie (1766–1832) [265]Identifying the nucleus in living cells – Robert Brown (1773–1858) [266]Hypnotism – James Braid (1795–1860) [267]Transplant rejection: Professor Thomas Gibson (1940s) the first medical doctor to understand the relationship between donor graft tissue and host tissue rejection and tissue transplantation by his work on aviation burns victims during World War II.[268]Colloid chemistry – Thomas Graham (1805–1869) [269]The kelvin SI unit of temperature – William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907) [270]Devising the diagramatic system of representing chemical bonds – Alexander Crum Brown (1838–1922) [271]Criminal fingerprinting – Henry Faulds (1843–1930) [272]The noble gases: Sir William Ramsay (1852–1916) [273]The Cloud chamber – Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (1869–1959) [274]Pioneering work on nutrition and poverty – John Boyd Orr (1880–1971) [275]The ultrasound scanner – Ian Donald (1910–1987) [276]Ferrocene synthetic substances – Peter Ludwig Pauson in 1955 [277]The MRI body scanner – John Mallard and James Huchinson from (1974–1980) [278]The first cloned mammal (Dolly the Sheep): Was conducted in The Roslin Institute research centre in 1996 [279]Seismometer innovations thereof – James David Forbes [280]Metaflex fabric innovations thereof – University of St. Andrews (2010) application of the first manufacturing fabrics that manipulate light in bending it around a subject. Before this such light manipulating atoms were fixed on flat hard surfaces. The team at St Andrews are the first to develop the concept to fabric.[281]Macaulayite: Dr Jeff Wilson of the Macaulay Institute, Aberdeen.[282]Miscellaneous[edit]Oldest police force in continuous operation: Marine Police Force founded in 1798 and now part of the Metropolitan Police ServiceOldest life insurance company in the world: Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office founded 1706First Glee Club, founded in Harrow School in 1787.[283]Oldest arts festival – Norwich 1772 [284]Oldest music festival – The Three Choirs FestivalOldest literary festival – The Cheltenham Literature FestivalBayko – Charles PlimptonLinoleum – Frederick Walton [285]Chocolate bar – J. S. Fry & Sons [286]Meccano – Frank HornbyCrossword puzzle – Arthur WynneGas mask – (disputed) John Tyndall and othersGraphic telescope – Cornelius VarleySteel-ribbed Umbrella – Samuel FoxPlastic – Alexander ParkesPlasticine – William HarbuttCarbonated soft drink – Joseph PriestleyFriction Match – John WalkerInvented the rubber balloon – Michael FaradayThe proposal of a new decimal metrology which predated the Metric system – John Wilkins[287]Edmondson railway ticket – Thomas EdmondsonThe world's first Nature Reserve – Charles Waterton *Public Park – Joseph PaxtonScouts – Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-PowellSpirograph – Denys FisherThe Young Men's Christian Association YMCA was founded in London – George Williams[288]The Salvation Army, known for being one of the largest distributors of humanitarian aid – Methodist minister William BoothPrime meridian – George Biddell AiryProduced the first complete printed translation of the Bible into English – Myles CoverdaleFounder of the Bank of Scotland – John HollandVenn diagram – John VennVulcanisation of rubber – Thomas HancockSilicone – Frederick KippingPykrete – Geoffrey PykeVantablack – The world's blackest known substanceStamp collecting – John Edward Gray bought penny blacks on first day of issue in order to keep themlorgnette – George Adams (optician)Boys' Brigade [289]Bank of England devised by William PatersonBank of France devised by John LawColour photography: the first known permanent colour photograph was taken by James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [290]BarnardosBoy ScoutsGirl GuidesRSPCARSPBRNLI

Perhaps you should channel your writing by being involved in the school paper or Year Book, debate team, essay contests etc.beginning of content:The Atlantic & College Board Writing Prize2016 Writing Prize Winner AnnouncedThe College Board and The Atlantic want to thank all students who submitted entries for the 2016 Writing Prize. We’re encouraged by the positive response of students who, through this exercise, learned the importance of analytical and reflective writing, essential skills for college and career success, while thoughtfully engaging with a variety of artworks. Entries were judged by 24 college professors of art history and composition who read over 1,600 submitted essays from the U.S. and 43 other countries. They were impressed by the intelligence and passion shown by students in describing their engagement with great works of art.This year’s winner, selected by a panel of College Board and Atlantic staff, is Thanh Nguyen, a student at Hanoi-Amsterdam High School for the Gifted in Hanoi, Vietnam. His essay — on School of Athens by Renaissance artist Raphael — stood out for his rich interpretation of the painting and his thoughtful and engaging description of its relevance to his life in contemporary Hanoi. For his accomplishment, Mr. Nguyen was recognized at [Opens in New Window]The Atlantic Education Summit in Washington, D.C., on May 17th. He received a $5,000 prize, and his essay will be published in the September 2016 issue of The Atlantic.Two finalists each received $2,500 prizes. Alejandra Canales attends John B. Alexander High School in Laredo, Texas. She was recognized for her powerful writing about culture and identity in her analysis of Frida Kahlo’s painting Autorretrato en la frontera entre México y Estados Unidos. Her fellow finalist, Rahul Malayappan, is from Danbury High School in Danbury, Connecticut. His essay was selected for its sophisticated analysis of M. C. Escher’s lithograph Waterfall and for its exploration of reality versus perception and the limits of perspective.The Importance of WritingTeacher ResourcesThe new online module [Opens in New Window]Writing About Art offers strategies to help students transform their analysis and interpretation of art to writing.Writing is one of the most important skills to master. Not only is writing essential for college and career, but learning to write clearly also helps students develop their thinking skills. To be successful at analytical writing, students must support their arguments with evidence found in the text and clearly convey information to the reader. It is this kind of writing that allows students to build knowledge, deepen understanding, and develop informed opinions.With this in mind, [Opens in New Window]The Atlantic and the College Board have collaborated to create this annual contest. The focus of this contest will change each year to align with the introduction of a newly redesigned AP course and exam.27 Free Writing Contests: Legitimate Competitions With Cash PrizesFebruary 11, 2016 By Kelly Gurnett 236 CommentsWhen I was about 12, I saw an ad in a magazine for a poetry contest that sounded fancy and impressive, something like “International Library of Poetry.” I bled poetry at that age, so I crossed my fingers and sent in a poem I’d been slaving over for weeks.And, lo and behold, the people behind the contest quickly wrote back to tell me my poem had been selected as a winner!I was speechless with honor. Of the thousands of poets who must have submitted to the contest — no doubt many of them adults much wiser and more skilled than me — my poem had been chosen to be featured in an exclusive, hardcover anthology! And honored on a something-karat-gold plaque!Of course, I had to pay $50 if I wanted to see my work in print in the anthology, and I had to pay another $100 if I wanted the plaque. Those were the only “prizes.”Even as a pre-teen, I sensed a scam.Sadly, not much has changed when it comes to companies trying to take advantage of writers who want a chance at recognition and maybe a little bit of money. Google the term “writing contests,” and you’ll come up with approximately 7.9 million results. It can be hard for a writer to know where to start looking for competitions, and how to tell if they’re legitimate or not.So I’ve done the legwork for you.Here are 29 reputable, well-reviewed, free writing contests for poets, fiction writers, essayists and more. Some legitimate contests do charge a small entry or “reading” fee, but often a fee can be a red flag for a scam, so you may want to stick to free writing contests — and there are certainly enough of them.Fiction and nonfiction writing contestsReady to share your novel or personal essay with the world? Whether you’re a newbie or more established writer, you’re likely eligible for a few of these contests.1. L. Ron Hubbard Writers of the Future ContestWhatever your feelings about L. Ron Hubbard’s work and philosophy, the prizes for this regular contest are nothing to sneeze at. Every three months, winners earn $1,000, $750 and $500, or an additional annual grand prize worth $5,000.Submissions must be short stories or novelettes (up to 17,000 words) in the genre of science fiction or fantasy, and new and amateur writers are welcome to apply.Deadlines: Quarterly on January 1, April 1, July 1 and October 1.2. Graywolf Press Nonfiction PrizeAwarded to “the most promising and innovative literary nonfiction project by a writer not yet established in the genre,” this prize provides a $12,000 advance and publication by Graywolf Press.If you live in the U.S. and have published at least one book (in any genre), you’re eligible to submit a current manuscript in progress for consideration. The judges look for winners who push the boundaries of traditional literary nonfiction.Deadline: Annually; the 2016 deadline was January 31.3. Drue Heinz Literature PrizeYou can win $15,000 and publication by the University of Pittsburgh Press with this prize, awarded for a collection of short fiction.You may submit an unpublished manuscript of short stories, two or more novellas or a combination of novellas and short stories. Your total word count should be between 150 and 300 typed pages.Deadline: Annual submission window is May 1 through June 30.4. Tony Hillerman PrizePresented by St. Martin’s Press and WORDHARVEST, this prize awards the best first mystery novel set in the Southwest with $10,000 and publication by St. Martin’s Press.It’s open to professional or non-professional writers who have not yet had a mystery published, and there are specific guidelines for the structure of your story: “Murder or another serious crime or crimes must be at the heart of the story, with emphasis on the solution rather than the details of the crime.”Deadline: Annually on June 1.5. St. Francis College Literary PrizeThis biannual prize honors mid-career writers who have recently published their third, fourth or fifth work of fiction. The winner receives $50,000 but must be able to appear at St. Francis College in Brooklyn, NY to deliver a talk on their work and teach a mini-workshop in fiction to St. Francis students.Deadline: Biannually; the deadline for work published between June 2015 and May 2017 has not been announced.6. Young Lions Fiction AwardThis $10,000 award recognizes “young authors,” which the rules define as any author aged 35 or younger. Submit any novel or short story published or scheduled to be published in the calendar year. Works must be written for adults; children’s or YA pieces are ineligible.Deadline: Annually in August.7. Real Simple’s Life Lessons Essay ContestHave you ever had a “eureka” moment? If you have, and you can write a compelling personal essay about it in no more than 1,500 words, you may be able to win $3,000 in Real Simple’s annual essay contest.Deadline: Annually; 2016 deadline has not yet been announced.8. New Voices AwardPresented by Lee & Low Books, an award-winning children’s book publisher, this award is given for a previously unpublished children’s picture book manuscript (of no more than 1,500 words) written by a writer of color.The winner receives $1,000 cash and a standard publication contract. You may submit up to two manuscripts.Deadline: Submissions must be postmarked by September 30 each year.9. Ernest J. Gaines Award for Literary ExcellenceThis contest aims to provide visibility for emerging African American fiction writers and to enable them to focus on their writing by awarding a $10,000 cash prize. Eligible authors should submit a work of fiction, such as a novel or short story collection, published in the calendar year.Deadline: Annually; 2016 deadline has not yet been announced.10. PEN/Faulkner Award for FictionHonoring the best work of fiction published by an American author in a single calendar year, this award has been given to the likes of John Updike, Philip Roth and Ann Patchett.The winner receives $15,000 and an invitation to read at the award ceremony in Washington, DC. Four finalists also each receive a $5,000 award.Deadline: Annually on October 31 for books published that calendar year.$5,000 for Your History Paper!Enter your essay to win the Prize!ReadReadPioneer Institute is pleased to announce the third annual Frederick Douglass Prize Essay Contest for Massachusetts high school students. Pioneer Institute is a private, non-partisan public policy think tank with a longstanding reputation for innovative education reformWe believe that Massachusetts students are capable of excellence in history. We need your essays to prove us right.2015-16 ESSAY TOPICThe Frederick Douglass Prize asks students to respond to key questions in history. The 2015-16 contest encourages students to investigate the stories behind the many technological innovations born in Massachusetts. Choose from dozens of Bay State entrepreneurs and inventions, and develop a clearly organized and well-researched essay drawing on primary and secondary sources, that explains the greater historical impact and significance of your subject matter.TEACHERS, TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THIS OPPORTUNITY!The Frederick Douglass Prize is an excellent opportunity for your students to demonstrate their strong research and writing skills before college applications begin and to meet some very remarkable people.SAMPLE TOPICS AND IDEASThe innovative spirit that has animated America is particularly evident here in the Bay State. The colonists established themselves as a center of global maritime trade, and in 1795 Massachusetts businessmen built the country’s first railroad on Beacon Hill. Sample topics drawn from 20th and 21st century Massachusetts inventions include:The Sewing Machine: Elias Howe, born in 1819 in Spencer, developed, the nation’s first patented sewing machine, which still contain three key features that he designed: the needle, operational lock stitch, and automatic thread feed.New York’s Underground Subway: Alfred Beach, born in Springfield in 1826, invented the Beach Pneumatic Transit system to alleviate traffic.Campbell’s Condensed Soup: Dr. John T. Dorrance discovered how to condense soup without sacrificing its rich taste. His invention allowed Campbell’s to save large amounts of money on shipping. One of his five original flavors became the kitchen staple “Campbell’s Tomato Soup.”The Gillette Disposable Razor (1904): William E. Nickerson, a MIT-trained engineer, helped King Camp Gillette discover how to stamp a razor blade from an inexpensive steel sheet.The Computer: In 1928, MIT professor Vannevar Bush engineered the first manually mechanically operated analog computer, capable of solving differential equations with up to 18 independent variables. In 1951, other MIT researchers built the first computer that operated in real time, and it was used by the U.S. Navy during the Cold War.MORE INFORMATION:+ -FREDERICK DOUGLASSWhy is this contest named for Frederick Douglass?Frederick Douglass (1818-1895)Frederick Douglass fled to Massachusetts after he escaped from slavery. He lived in New Bedford and Nantucket. He became one of the most important Abolitionists and one of the most important figures in American history because he was an advocate and articulator of American freedom. Douglass’ 1845 autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, became a bestseller.Douglass’ oratorical skills were so impressive that some doubted that he had been a slave, so he wrote Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. During the Civil War he assisted in the recruiting of African-American men for the 54th and 55th Massachusetts Regiments and fought for the emancipation of slaves. After the war he worked to protect the rights of the freemen. He was secretary of the Santo Domingo Commission, marshall and recorder of deeds of the District of Columbia, and United States Minister to Haiti. His other autobiographical works are My Bondage And My Freedom and Life And Times Of Frederick Douglass, published in 1855 and 1881, respectively. He died in 1895.Nothing speaks to the dehumanizing impact of slavery and the accompanying deprivations than a human being not knowing their own birthday. His several autobiographies begin with this question about this basic fact of his life: “I was born in Tuckahoe, near Hillsborough, and about twelve miles from Easton, in Talbot county, Maryland. I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen any authentic record containing it.”Frederick Douglass was one of America’s great articulators of the meaning of freedom, and the importance of understanding our past. That’s why our U.S. History essay contest is named in honor of him.+ -PRIZESPRIZESWe will recognize the top essays as follows:1st place: $5,0002nd place: $2,0003rd place: $1,000Honorable Mentions: $500 eachSchool Prize: The 1st place winner’s school will receive $1,000+ -SHOULD I ENTER?Entrants must be US citizens or resident aliens who attend a Massachusetts high school during the 2015-2016 academic year. Students who attend a boarding school in Massachusetts or are home-schooled are eligible to submit an essay. If you are interested in this year’s question and have strong writing skills, we encourage you to submit your essay.+ -PRIZE SCHEDULEMarch 7, 2016: Submission Deadline. Submit your essay through the form below.+ -CRITERIAArgument/Analysis (40%)Articulates a clear thesis supported by evidence in the essay.Uses strong textual evidence.Shows detailed analysis and interpretation.Historical Research (40%)Conducts research beyond assigned texts.Provides accurate historical information.Demonstrates a strong understanding of the historical context.Writing Quality (20%)Correct GrammarClear StructureVoice and ToneProper Citations (MLA or footnotes)If you have questions on how to develop a strong thesis, to present convincing research, and to format your bibliography, we encourage you to consult A Pocket Guide to Writing in History.+ -QUESTIONS? Micaela DawsonThe Frederick Douglass Prize Essay Contest CoordinatorPioneer Institute185 Devonshire Street, Boston MA [email protected](617) 723-2277 ext. 203High School Contests - HomeworkSpot.comWritingAmericanism Essay ContestAnnual contest offered to students in grades 7-12, with a grand prize of $5,000.American Fire Sprinkler Association National Scholarship Essay ContestTen $2,000 scholarships will be awarded to select students who read a 3,000 word sprinkler essay and complete the exam that follows. For each correct answer, the student will be reentered into the competition.Ayn Rand Institute Essay ContestContest open to middle schoolers, high schoolers and college students to write an Ayn Rand-themed essay for cash prizes.Cassini Scientist for a Day Essay Contest Students grades 5 to 12 write an essay of up to 500 words, with winning schools invited to participate in a teleconference with Cassini scientists.Carnegie Council's International Student/Teacher Essay ContestThis essay contest is open to teachers and students anywhere in the world. The essay should be written in op-ed style, length 1,000 to 1,500 words. First prize is a $250 Amazon gift card, second prize is a $150 Amazon gift card, and third prize is a $75 Amazon gift card.Civil Rights Today Essay ContestIn honor of the 50th anniversary of President Lyndon Johnson's signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, The LBJ Foundation is hosting an essay contest that is open to all 12th grade students in Texas. First prize is $2,500 and a trip to the LBJ Library in Austin, Texas, in April 2014 to attend the Civil Rights Summit. There is also a second prize of $1,000, and a $1,000 cash prize and a trip to Austin to attend the Civil Rights Summit for the first place winner's sponsoring teacher.First Freedom Student CompetitionStudents grades K-12 participate in a national essay and video contest. Students compete for $2,500.The Holocaust Remembrance ProjectNational essay contest open to high school students in the United States and Mexico, designed to encourage and promote the study of the Holocaust. Contestants compete for scholarships and a trip to Washington, D.C.The Humanist Essay Contest for Young Women and Men of North AmericaContest is open to students residing in the United States or Canada who are enrolled in grades 9-12 to compete for $1,000 and a three-year membership to the American Humanist Association.John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Essay ContestAnnual competition open to high school students nationwide to write an original essay about an elected official who has demonstrated political courage to receive awards totaling up to $10,000.Making Democracy Work Student Essay ContestPresented by the United States Capitol Historical Society, this writing contest asks high school students to write between 800 and 1,200 words on the rights and responsibilities of citizenship to compete for $1,000 and a trip to Washington, D.C. Additionally, a classroom grant of $1,000 plus a selection of teaching materials will be presented to the school of the first place winner. Second- and third-place prizes are $500 and $250, respectively.National Peace Essay ContestAnnual essay contest sponsored by the U.S. Institute of Peace, open to high school students to write a peace-themed essay for cash prizes.Scholastic Art & Writing AwardsStudents grades 7-12 submit their best works of visual art - including sculpture, painting, ceramics, photography, animation, video and animation - and writing - including poetry, play scripts, personal essay, works of journalism, satire and short fiction - to compete for scholarships.Society of Professional Journalists Essay ContestContest open to high school students nationwide to write an essay on a given media-related topic, with winners receiving scholarship awards ranging from $300-$1,000.Signet Classics Student Scholarship Essay ContestEach year, a new book is chosen for students to read and write about. High school juniors or seniors or home-schooled students between the ages of 16-18 are eligible to compete to win a $1,000 scholarship.Voice of Democracy Audio Essay ContestHigh school students compose an audio-essay on a theme selected by the U.S. Veterans of Foreign Wars to compete for more than $3 million in scholarships.Math and ScienceThe American Mathematics CompetitionsVarious math competitions open to qualifying students of all grade levels.Team America Rocketry ChallengeStudents in grades 7-12 can register as a team to design and build a safe and stable one-stage model rocket. Prizes include $60,000 in cash and scholarships and participation in NASA's advanced rocketry program Student Launch Initiative.NASA Space Settlement ContestInternational contest open to 6th-12th graders (11-18 years old). Students compete in teams to develop space settlement designs and related materials for various prizes.Spirit of Innovation ChallengeAnnual competition from the Conrad Foundation that invites high school students to work in teams using science, technology, engineering and math skills to develop innovative products to help solve global and local problems while supporting global sustainability. The prize is $10,000 and a trip to the Innovation Summit at NASA Johnson Space Center to present to a panel of expert judges.Artistic ExpressionGlobal Citizen Corps Contests focused on art, photography, video games and more.Web-basedGlobal Virtual Classroom Contest Global team cooperation and Website-building activity for students from 7 to 18 years of age. Awards range from $1,500 to $375 per team.ThinkQuest Website Competition Teams create an original website on a topic of global importance for a student audience. Prizes include a trip to ThinkQuest Live in San Francisco, laptop computers, digital cameras and school monetary grants.International Schools CyberFairStudents ages 5-19 years old conduct research about their local communities, then publish their findings on the Web for various prizes and awards.Doors to DiplomacyU. S. Department of State "Doors to Diplomacy" educational challenge to encourage middle school and high school students to produce Web projects that teach others about the importance of international affairs and diplomacy. Students on winning team receive a $2,000 scholarship, and the winning coaches' schools each receive a $500 cash award.Other Fun ContestsGloria Barron Prize for Young HeroesStudents ages 8-18 must be nominated by a qualifying adult for their leadership and courage in developing and implementing an exceptional service project. Ten students will be chosen to win $2,500 to be applied to their higher education or service project.The Institute for Global Environmental StrategiesArt, photo and other project-based contests open to students of all ages.National History Day Contest Students in grades 6-12 engage in discovery and interpretation of historical topics related to an annual theme. Awards range from $250 to $1,000, in addition to other prizes.National High School Chef of the YearHigh school students submit an original creation recipe to compete for tuition scholarship prizes to JWU culinary school.Essay Contest Scholarships - 2016 2017 USAScholarships.com“We the Students Scholarship” Essay Contestby Scholarship Advisor onDecember 15, 2016in Contest, FebruaryDo you want to win one of more than $20,000 in prizes and a trip to Washington, D.C.? Don’t waste your time and apply today. You can win cash just by register yourself for “We the Students Essay Contest”. The contest is open to students who are no older than 19 and no younger than […]Continue ReadingYoung Patriots Essay Contestby Scholarship Advisor onDecember 13, 2016in Contest, JanuaryThe National Center for Policy Analysis and Debate Central are happy to announce the 2016-2017 Young Patriots Essay Contest. The essay contest is sponsored by Copart, the premier destination for quality vehicles. The Young Patriots Essay Contest is designed to challenge middle and high school students to creatively engage with public policy and current events through […]Continue ReadingThe National WWII Museum Essay Contestby Scholarship Advisor onNovember 26, 2016in Any Subject, Contest, December, High School Students, ScholarshipsThe National WWII Museum is pleased to announce High School Essay Contest and Middle School Essay Contest. To commemorate the life, courage and achievements of Elie Wiesel, the National WWII Museum is asking middle and high school students to respond to a quote by Wiesel about his life and legacy. Winning essays will be posted […]Continue ReadingSharps Compliance Inc. Scholarship Essay Contestby Scholarship Advisor onNovember 24, 2016in Any Subject, Contest, December, Scholarships by Major, Social and Health Care Programs, UndergraduateSharps Compliance Inc. is now accepting the application for its Scholarship Essay Contest. Sharps’ essay contest is open to all students who have been accepted to or are currently enrolled in an accredited university in healthcare related studies. Sharps Compliance strives to innovate new services that are regulatory compliant and environmentally sensitive. 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I have some notes on this question which are unlikely to see the light of day anywhere else.The tl;dr is that the Allies were able to use extravagant methods to refine gasoline with a higher base octane rating than the Axis, and so had avgas that could tolerate a higher compression ratio, and thus deliver more power, or a higher fuel economy, than the Axis. The Wikipedia article is, as usual, a quite satisfactory introduction to the subject, but in the interest of adding a little value, I’m going to dump those notes below. As usual, Quora fails to preserve the tabular presentation of the data from my references, but these are available in good research libraries for the reader’s consultation.PetroleumE. V. Murphree, B.S., M.S., D. Sc.h.c. F.Inst. Pet. And G. Cirprios, “chapter 9: Cracking and Reforming,” in Modern Petroleum Technology, 3rd. Ed., Hon. Ed. E. B. Evans (London: By the Institue of Petroleum, 1962): 313-64.(314) Cracking, which began prior to WWI as a way to extract additional gasoline from the “gas oil” left over after distillation, raised the percentage of crude oil marketed as gas from 25% in 1918 to 45% in 1940. But while straight-run gas averaged 60-63 octane (Research Method, unleaded), cracked averaged 72-5 (ditto). This was not enough by 1939, and cracked gas was no longer valued for anti-knock reasons, but it has a place in history.(325) By the late thirties, catalytic cracking was introduced to obtain 92-95 octane gas because thermal cracking was uneconomical due to increased gas and coke formation. Although catalytic production also produces coke, which must be burnt off catalyzer surfaces regularly, an important issue for chemical engineers designing plant, as they must design features to recover the catalyst for cleaning. (326) US. Cracking capacity was 928,000 bsd [I presume barrels a day] in 1946. Catalysts were silica, alumina, and some neutral clays. (327) Cracking feed stocks may include catalyst “poisons” like sulphur, or nitrogen compounds, or nickel, vanadium and iron. (330) The kind of stock doesn’t matter much [although here stocks with gasoline yields of 43-46.8% and octane ratings of 94.4-98.2 with 3 ml. TEL/gallon are cited. This is much better than figures cited for cracked East Texas gas oil cited 325, with a product of 3.2% dry gas, gasoline 31.1%, “cycle stock,” 65.2% and coke 2.04%, and a Research Method unleaded octane rating of 78.7. Unless something is being left out, the stocks used in cracking do matter]. Coke product can vary from 0.9-4.9%, with the larger figure coming from cycle stocks. (335) About 0.2 oz. of catalyst is consumed per bb. of oil using the original (Houdry) cracking method. [Houdry plants are famous for using Brown Boveri gas turbines to recover waste energy, the earliest application of a combustion gas turbine, c. 1937. According to personal information from a retired Exxon engineer, the Houdry plant was impractical because the catalysts scoured the turbines and were harder to “regenerate,’ ie recover and clean by burning. The catalysts were, as you might expect, beads of platinum-group metals that were expensive and strategic materials.] (343) ]Reforming is the process of turning low octane natural gasoline distillates into high-octane by reforming their molecules. (343-4) This began in the 30s, using thermal methods, but these reduce gasoline output and restrict octane level to 85-90. (345) 68.7%-92.4% gas can be produced at various temps: for a Mid-continent Naptha,Product960NF99610051028vol% butane47.910.412.3Debutanized gasoline, %92.481.571.568.7Octane Number, Research, unleaded56.170.977.183(347) Catalytic reforming involves “processing with catalysts in the presence of hydrogen (to minimize coke deposits.” This produces gasolines high in aromatics and isoparaffins, low in olefins, with ON (Research method, unleaded) of 85-102 or higher. These were developed “prior to WWII.” (348) Paraffins and napthenes are the primary feedstocks, but (350) it works better with more napthenes and less parafin.N. O. Rawlinson, “Chapter 13: Aviation Fuels,” 490-547 in Ibid. (492) For UK Avgas Grades Specification D. Eng. R. D. 2485, Issue 3, the standard wartime specification, four gas grades are specified.Grade7391/96100/130115/145Max TEL content/gallon5.525.525.525.52(492, 509) The 115/145 specification was subsequently amended to allow a maximum aromatic content of 5% due to tank sealant difficulties. (494) The most vital anti-knock measure is modification of compression ratio, with consequences for thermal efficiency, performance, and economy. (495) 115 has 115% the knock-limited power of 100, within the limits of actual operating conditions. (496) When testing methods were introduced in 1932, it was not understood that knock varies with mixture strength and that fuels had to be double calibrated. Thus the fact that “100 octane” is a weak mixture rating, when it is usually considered only in the context of full ops.From Herman P. Mark, Editorial Board Chairman, Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. (?) Vols. New York; London; Syndey: Interscience Publishers, a division of John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1966.10: 467, Idem. “Gasoline and Other Motor Fuels,” Dr. Graham Edgar of Ethyl coined the octane scale in 1926; the road test is discussed, 480-1; (483) at perfect efficiency, 1 US gallon will give 45 hp/hrs, but the best modern (1966) engine recovers only 30% of this power.Transactions of the American Institute of Chemical EngineersRobert E. Wilson, “Petroleum and the War”: 37 (1941): 501-11. Note that closing pagination is a guess. (504) Unused American refining capacity is 1 million barrels a day; (506) 100 octane gas is now available at 15 cents/gallon at the refinery; current refining capacity is in excess of present needs, and stockpiling seems in order; (508-09) in contrast to the rosy refining situation, a tanker shortage is clearly foreseeable; 9511) European oil fields under German control produce 0.5% of world production compared to 63% in the US alone, or 175,000 bbl (42 gall)/day. On the other hand,t his figure doesn’t include Romania, so I can’t see what possible relevance it has.Robert J. Moore, “Chemicals in the National Defence:” 37 (1941): 521-30 (final page a guess). Mostly devoted to explaining what kinds of chemicals will be needed, speculating about methods of avoiding the escalation in toluene prices of the last war, and offering an explanation for the government’s apparently excessively high purity standards for toluene and glycol stocks (for explosives); however, notes (524-5), two kinds of optical plastics, vinyl copolymer and methyl methacrylate (Plexiglas). Notes that the last has been commercially available since 1940(!). The origins of this misapprehension may be worth pursuing, since it was used in “modern” European combat aircraft from the 1934 generation on.Gustav Erloff and Edwin F. Nelson, “The Modern Cracking Process.” 32 (1936): 221-260.In 1935 1/4 of the 217.56 m. barrels (42 gall.) Of straight run gas was cracked or reformed (221) while 205.92 m were produced directly from crude (221-2); 80% of cracking done in the US, but also in other refining centres of the world, among which Egypt gets a place, but not U.K. Investment in cracking equipment is $400m, and $5m is spent each year on R&D (222); (260) refinery oil stocks include some of high corrosive capacity, and this has led to extensive use of stainless steels and other alloys in cracking plant (260).James G. Vail, “An Introduction to the Chemical Industry in the Philadelphia Area.” 34 (1938): 603-626.(611) Imagine yourself on a ship sailing up the Delaware river: perhaps a tanker, or a freighter loaded with gypsum, sulpher, dyewod, or even a barge destined to pick up coal. “The current picture” shows first (612) at Deepwater Point on the Jersey side, “a great plant to remind us of the American dyestuff industry, of tetraethyl lead, and a host of useful organic compounds.” On the left is Wilmington, with its plants producing synthetic camphor, neoprene, ammonia and urea and cellulose manufacturers (i.e. manufacturers of products from cellulose.) Further on, steel, coke, viscose rayon, dyewood extracts, refractories and sodium silicates. On the jersey side, nitrates, acids, nitroglycerine, organic solvents, and “plasticizers.” To the left again, paper mills, dye and print works, and on both sides petroleum refineries and the sulpher stacks which indicate acid plants. Also in general, sugar, fertilizer, fine chemicals, magnesia, gypsum products, alcohol plants, and ceramics. (614) 90m barrels of oil were refined in Philadelphia last year from Gulf and “foreign” sources. Notable features include distillation of lubricating oil under vacuum in rapidly moving thin films using mercury heat exchangers, a method adopted in 1926, and the Houdry process, the first two plants for which were built here [NB there was in fact an ongoing patent dispute over whether subsequent catalytic cracking plants actually used the Houdry process]; solvent refining of lubricating oils “in continuous counterstreams” is also a big thing. (617) also locally important is fatty acid distillation (i.e. of linseed, peanut etc oils as well as “oleic and stearic oils”); plus, (618) leather tanning is a big thing, and on an industrial scale requires many chemical feedstuffs, including enzymes, for such purposes as lifting off hair. Considerable quantities of hide are imported from Europe for this process. (619-20)Paints and varnish are also big; (622) and sugars, with acetone feedstocks a byproduct of molasses distillation.Institute of Petroleum ReviewGustav Erloff, “Petroleum as a Chemical Industry,” Inst. Pet. Rev. 1 (1947): 16-27.(16) the intake of gas oil by catalytic crackers had jumped to just over 1m bbl. A day by the end of the war.” Much of that capacity will have to be turned over to automobile use. [But note the skepticism of others about such a possibility.](20) In May, 1945, cat. Cracking capacity in the U.S. was distributed as follows:Bbl/day chargeFluid Flow388,000Moving Bed325,000Static Bed318,000Cycloversion12,000Also important to wartime avgas production was the alkylation process which produced butylenes, propylenes, and amylenes, presumably as additives (20). (21) Of these additives, isobutylene was particularly valuable. Shortages of it led to the use of other butylenes, suppressing octane numbers. (25) U.S. usage of petroleum is up 25% since the war. Oil makes our lives better in many ways. For instance, the use of ethylene to ripen fruit, Russian experiments with fertilizers made from petroleum products, and the manufacture of DDT. [Overall, this is another angle on the transformation of society by the substitution of petroleum products for agricultural outputs.]Lt. Colonel S. J. M. Auld, “Some American Thoughts on To-Morrow’s Oil,” Inst. Pet. Rev. 1 (1947): 97-108.(107) Steady depletion of Pennsylvania fields and the West Texas fields originally expected to replace them have led to a shortage in lubricating oils. (107): U.S. 100-oct. Output at the end of the war stood at 500,000 bbls a day. Unfortunately there is no immediate prospect of automobile engines capable of using this highgrade material, and the painful prospect of writing this plant off looms.Industry Guides151: Ethyl Corporation./ The corp.’s ancestry is in Thomas Midgeley, Jr.’s Engineering Laboratories Co. Of Dayton, which was taken over in 1916 by GM. Charles Kettering, head of GM had a developed interest in knock, and turned Midgeley loose on it./ The attack was via the periodic table, which was scoured for chemicals with the right capabilities. Ultimately, TEL was developed in 1921, sold commercially in 1923, and patent registered in 1926 (1262) it was made at the Dupont plant in Deepwater, N. J.. Ethyl was set up as a joint subsidiary of GM and Standard Oil of Ohio, which had played a part in the R&D process. (153) In turn, Etyhl set up a subsidiary, Ethyl-Dow, which made the [lead] scavenger, ethyl dibromide, from seawater.(216) The Houdry Process Corp started in France, where Eugene J Houdry and his brother first developed the catalytic cracker process. Vacuum Oil was involved from an early date, and in 1933 Sun Oil came in a year after the merger which created Socony-Vacuum. Sun’s first big cracker went into action in 1937, although by that time there was a pilot plant running. Today, total cat. Cracking amounts to 1 ml bbl a day, producing 0.5 m barrels of high grade motor oil, “or a somewhat lower production of aviation gas base stock.”380-5 Two subsidiaries of Shell Oil are here discussed, the Shell Chemical Corp and the Shell Development Corp. The former, a firm based on the creation of a chemical industry from petrochemical feedstocks discovered a way to increase available 100-octane output 25% in 1942 by producing the additive cumene by alkylating benzene with propylene. Shell Chemical Corp. (380-2) approached high octane gas in a different fashion, apparently by production of isooctane as an additive using a “hot acid polymerization” of isobutylene and normal butylenes (381-2). By producing xylidines as an anti-knock compound Shell alleviated another fuel shortage at “another crucial period, 1943-4.”E. V. Murphree, “Esso” Promotes Fuel Research,” Aero Digest, 15 October, 1944, 118, 232Avgas manufacture combines blending agents such as hydro dimer, codimer, and alkylate with base stocks such as virgin naphtha, catalytically cracked gas, superfractionated. Combined with TEL, these form high octane fuels. The reference fuel is 2,2,4-tri-methyl-pentane, one of 17 octanes. The Jersey group began supplying production octane blending agent in 1934, producing it from butane by the cold acid process. This combines 2 molecules isobutane gas to give one molecule diisobutane, which is hydrogenated to form iso-octane. In 1938 the “hot acid” process emerged, which allowed the conversion of isobutylene into iso-octane. This is codimer in the list above. The various iso-octanes are then blended to form hydrocodimer. a similar process, inferentially not used by Esso, uses solid catalyst, the “selective polymerization process.” Then, alkylation was used to form a saturated polymer out of the C4 cut butylene. Alkylation triples iso-octane production compared with the hot-acid process and 8 fold vs previous. And it can be used on gasses in the C3 and C5 fractions. Standard Oil Development Corporation and Humble Oil Refining collaborated on the research and Humble opened the first commercial alkylation plant in the fall of 1938. Catalytic cracking, etc, produces a larger C4 fraction, making for more feed stock for producing blending agents. Eventually, a method was found for converting ordinary butane into isobutane, superfractionating, has proven to produce more high octane from virgin naphtha by better refining. Hydroforming, “largely” developed by the Jersey group, has produced toluene. A complex flow chart accompanying this article shows how the inputs of virgin naphtha, heavy gas oil, and butane are formed into high octane gas, with the loss of considerable fuel, so that for a given (omitted) input, one gets 6.6 barrels of motor gasoline and 135 barrels light fuel oils for every 78.4 barrels high octane gas production.Some more sourcesOn the claim that 100/130 avgas is introduced in 1943 (that is, is first produced for USAAF in American refineries, see Henrietta M. Larson, et al., History of the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey): New Horizons, 1927-1950 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 503; for a review of British fuel and aeroengine policy, see Andrew Nahum, “Two-Stroke or Turbine: The Aviation Research Committee and British Aero Engine Development in World War II,” Technology and Culture 38 (April, 1997): 336-48. Nahum argues that although the value of high octane fuels were recognised early, the Air Ministry resisted the implications, fearing supply and price problems. Rather, there was considerable focus on achieving higher compression ratios without raising octane levels. Options included diesels, notably the Rolls Royce Crecy plant, and surprisingly not the Napier development that eventually actually worked, the Nomad. There were also great hopes invested in increasing engine speeds and reducing cylinder hot spots, notably the exhaust valve. This inspired the development of the sleeve valve and also rising engine speeds, culminating in the very high rpm characteristic of the Napier Sabre. However, by 1935, high octane fuels were accepted as inevitable, perhaps because the gas turbine engine seemed in sight.There is no comprehensive monograph on British prewar aviation/engine fuel policy, but F. R. Banks laid out the Air Ministry policy change by implication in “Fuels and Engines,” Flight, 28 September, 1939, 269–70. Banks remained active within the air ministries through the war, and restated his views in his James Clayton Lecture to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1950, Air Commodore F. R. Banks, “The Aviation Engine, J. Inst. Mech Eng. 162 (1950): 433–45. Air Commodore Banks observes that in 1936 the Merlin I gave 1030hp at 16,250ft on 87 octane fuel at a dry weight of 1,335lb. The “modern” Merlin engine [no mark number given] gives, on 100–130 octane fuel, at a dry weight of 1740lb, 1760hp (at 16,250ft?). “Using an engine with a two-stage supercharger in high gear on the test bed, a maximum corrected power of 2,620bhp was obtained at 3,150rpm with a boost pressure of 101.46 lbs Hg (35.73lb/sq. in at the gauge) on a fuel of 100-150 grade, plus water injectin. A ten-hour flight approval test was made with a similar engine in a “Mustang” and, at a limiting boost of 91 inches of mercury (30.5lb per sq. in. gauge) on 100-150 octane fuel only, he maximum power developed was 2129 bhp at 3150rpm. The former power is equivalent to a b.m.e.p. of 400 lb per sq. in. and the latter to one of 326 lb. per sq. in., calculated on net power delivered at the propeller shaft.” (434). The Sabre, a 24-cylinder, sleeve-valve, double-crankshaft engine of flat “H” configuration. First run in 1937, it had a bore of 5 inches and a stroke of 4.75 inches (compare 5.4/6 inches for the Merlin), giving a total displacement of 2239 cubic inches or 36.7 litres. Designed to give 2000hp, it delivered a maximum wartime takeoff power of 2600hp. In 1946, the Sabre 7 gave takeoff power of 3000bhp at 3850rpm with a maximum boost of 17.25 lb/sq in, a compression ratio of 7/1, 100-130 grade octane, water-methanol injection, with power of 1975bhp delivered at 3700rpm at 18,250 feet. Dry weight was 2540lb. (435).Dry weight of the Griffon 57 is o.825lb/bhp, and that of the Sabre 7 is 0.85lb/bhp, for 100-130 octane. (435).Detail improvements of interest in Bank’s more extended discussion include the introduction of “Brightray” as a valve facing material in place of stellite, in general use in aeroengines tested by the RLM in 1941 (cf. P. Kötschke, “German Report on Allied Aeroengines,” in Aircraft Engineering, September 1941.) Stellite Number 5, an alloy of 65% cobalt, 30% chromium and 5% tungsten was the final iteration of the alloy before it became clear that Brightray had a superior resistance to lead attack due to the use of higher octane fuels. Brightray, an alloy of 80% nickel and 20% chromium presents some working difficulties, but much more importantly, used the scarce strategic material nickel, of which the Germans had limited supplies. (436) Sintered aluminum oxide spark plugs with platinum wires and 1000 ohm carbon resistors were in general use in the RAF during the war years and were supplied to the 8th Air Force until American production belatedly began. Banks rather smugly points out that German spark plugs were inferior, “principally due to poor design and manufacture.” (437) The specific inferiority is not mentioned, but this is another area where lead attack could ave been a significant factor.A. C. Lovesay, “Development of the Rolls-Royce Merlin,” Aircraft Engineering, July, 1946, 218–25 observes that the development of the intercooler had a substantial benefit on high altitude Merlin performance, but this gain had to be balanced against increased drag from the intercooler radiator. A 35% reduction in the increase of charge temperature by the intercooler proved to be the maximum gain. Since this is effectively adiabatic, you can work out the likely power gain from Boyle’s law (220). Lovesay vaguely refers to the development of 100/150 octane from a testbed basis that showed that such a rating would give an increase in takeoff power to 2050hp. Since the TEL addition required to gain this rating was excessive, other additives were looked for, and 2.5% mono methyl aniline production in the UK was set in motion, the production facility coming on line in time for its first operational use “against the flying bombs in the middle of 1944" .....”Later it was used by the Second Tactical Air Force during and after the invasion of the Continent. The Americans promptly followed suit, and used this British produced fuel in their escort fighters of all kinds.” Lovesay’s chronology is weak (perhaps he has confused flying bombs with FW190 “tip and run” raids). I have a suspicion that the 100/150 blend is related to 115/145, but what do I know?Lovesay notes that to use these higher octane fuels required strengthened crankcases, main bearings, end oil feed crankshaft, and the addition of a deep top land to the pistons, cutting the number of scraper rings by 1, omission of some core plugs from the cylinder heads, a strengthened cylinder skirt, improving the bearing capacity of the reduction gear pinion bearings (I believe by nitriding, but I may be overintepreting my evidence) and a new supercharger ball bearing.In other words, the Merlin design had to be extensively revised to take the higher boost pressures. Some of these upgrades used strategic alloys not available in Germany.