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Why aren’t there more black developers?I think a lot of this has to do with what part of the country you live in (assuming the OP is in America)For instance, the number of Black software engineers that I encounter in Atlanta, GA has dramatically increased during the course of my almost 20 years in the field.Now, I have worked at a few companies where almost half of the developers were Black. Of course, I have worked at many more companies were I was the sole Black developer. But still… I’m seeing progress.But to answer the question more directly, one of the things that we have to remember is that American schools weren’t desegregated until 1964. But of course, that was just a law that was passed. It took many many years for this to happen in actuality.Consider this timeline for a moment1963 62% of Americans — 73% of Northerners and 31% of Southerners — believe Blacks and Whites should attend the same schools.Two African American students, Vivian Malone and James A. Hood, successfully register at the University of Alabama despite George Wallace's "stand in the schoolhouse door" — but only after President Kennedy federalizes the Alabama National Guard.For the first time, a small number of black students in Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Mississippi attend public elementary and secondary schools with white students.1964 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is adopted. Title IV of the Act authorizes the federal government to file school desegregation cases. Title VI of the Act prohibits discrimination in programs and activities, including schools, receiving federal financial assistance.The Rev. Bruce Klunder is killed protesting the construction of a new segregated school in Cleveland, Ohio.1968 The Supreme Court orders states to dismantle segregated school systems "root and branch." The Court identifies five factors — facilities, staff, faculty, extracurricular activities and transportation — to be used to gauge a school system's compliance with the mandate of Brown. (Green v. County School Board of New Kent County)In a private note to Justice Brennan, Justice Warren writes: "When this opinion is handed down, the traffic light will have changed from Brown to Green. Amen!"1969 The Supreme Court declares the "all deliberate speed" standard is no longer constitutionally permissible and orders the immediate desegregation of Mississippi schools. (Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education)1971 The Court approves busing, magnet schools, compensatory education and other tools as appropriate remedies to overcome the role of residential segregation in perpetuating racially segregated schools. (Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenberg Board of Education)1972 The Supreme Court refuses to allow public school systems to avoid desegregation by creating new, mostly or all-white "splinter districts." (Wright v. Council of the City of Emporia; United States v. Scotland Neck City Board of Education)Brown's legacy extends to gender. Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 is passed prohibiting sex discrimination in any educational program that receives federal financial assistance.1973 Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act is passed prohibiting schools from discriminating against students with mental or physical impairments.The Supreme Court rules that states cannot provide textbooks to racially segregated private schools to avoid integration mandates. (Norwood v. Harrison)The Supreme Court finds that the Denver school board intentionally segregated Mexican American and black students from white students. (Keyes v. Denver School District No. 1)The Court distinguishes between state-mandated segregation (de jure) and segregation that is the result of private choices (de facto). The latter form of segregation, the Court rules, is not unconstitutionalThe Supreme Court rules that education is not a "fundamental right" and that the Constitution does not require equal education expenditures within a state. (San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez) The ruling has the effect of locking minority and poor children who live in low-income areas into inferior schools.1974 The Supreme Court blocks metropolitan-wide desegregation plans as a means to desegregate urban schools with high minority populations. (Milliken v. Bradley) As a result, Brown will not have a substantial impact on many racially isolated urban districts.Non-English-speaking Chinese students file suit against the San Francisco Unified School District for failing to provide instruction to those with limited English proficiency. The Supreme Court rules that the failure to do so violates Title VI's prohibition of national origin, race or color discrimination in school districts receiving federal funds. (Lau v. Nichols)1978 A fractured Supreme Court declares the affirmative action admissions program for the University of California Davis Medical School unconstitutional because it set aside a specific number of seats for black and Latino students. The Court rules that race can be a factor in university admissions, but it cannot be the deciding factor. (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke)1982 The Supreme Court rejects tax exemptions for private religious schools that discriminate. (Bob Jones University v. U.S.; Goldboro Christian Schools v. U.S.)1986 For the first time, a federal court finds that once a school district meets the Greenfactors, it can be released from its desegregation plan and returned to local control. (Riddick v. School Board of the City of Norfolk, Virginia)1988 School integration reaches its all-time high; almost 45% of black students in the United States are attending majority-white schools.Look at all the turmoil going on with school desegregation in the 1970s.While people were still fighting over this, Black people were still attending schools that were under-funded and giving sub-par education. This was a known issue. The Black schools had outdated books, didn’t have funding for technology related course or the teachers to teach them.So this negates damn near every person of color from the technology industry for anyone in their late 30s on up. Most of the people you find in the field within these age groups were either.Able to live in a mixed communityIn the militaryHad a parent who got into the field because they were in the militaryHad fairly wealthy parentsI was personally lucky enough to have a father who worked on missile guidance systems in the Air Force, moved on to work at Burroughs corporation/Unisys and later started his own business that was technology related.Because I certainly didn’t learn anything in middle or high school that would’ve led me into this field.As an example. My middle school technology courses involved learning how to use a type writer. In high school, I learned about the history of computers and how to play games (not make them) on their outdated computers (of course, I knew this already… so I learned nothing). Oh, and we learned how to use WordStar & WordPerfect and how to make a resume.Nothing about building or repairing a computer and certainly nothing about programming one.And I took every tech course available to me at those schools.But at the house, we had several computers that my brother and I personally built; and a training facility my father owned (to train his clients) with another 30 computers to play with.I learned how to build web sites and desktop apps for some of our clients.That’s what started me on this path.How many Black people would you imagine were this lucky? Not many.So the number of Black developers my age or older is actually very impressive, when you consider what they had to go through to get to this point.And I’m seeing more and more young Black developers each year.Thanks for the A2A.

HomeRandomNearbyElijourLog outWatchlistContributionsSettingsAbout WikipediaDisclaimersA SUMMARY OF THE TRANSACTIONAL THEORY OF READING AND WRITINGInstitutional affiliationStudent NumberCourse NumberIntroductionThe transaction theory or the “reader response theory” explores the important roles played by the reader and the text in forming meaning. Meaning is constructed by the continuous transaction that occurs between the reader and the text, which employs a reader’s experiential reservoir and meaning potential generated from that particular text (Rosenblatt, 1985b). While a reader remains very active to select and synthesize his reservoir potential, the contribution of the text is to shape the reader’s selection and hypotheses, thus leading to the interplay between the reader and the text. Put differently, reading and writing are intersectional and interrelated skills that apply the transactional theory. The theory as well provides implications to classroom language instructions. The following report provides a summary of the transaction theory of reading and writing by Rosenblatt.Traditional view of LanguageRosenblatt (1985a) explains that language refers to a self-containment system of conventions, rules and guidelines which are manipulated by the language users, thus imprinting information in the minds of receivers. Rosenblatt (1991) supports this assertion by explaining that the word transaction is contextually used when describing associations of the known, the knowing and the knower, with the conditions in place of each. Furthermore, the connection that exist between the sign and its referent (in the world) only occurs within the mind of the human through which the sign is perceived, and it can therefore be deduced that languages are inseparable from humans using it and their inhabited world.Transaction with the textThe transaction of the reader and the text is what creates meaning. Meaning does not reside within the text or the reader. This implies that the text will only remain a mark on a surface until it is read. For instance, the example given by Chomsky (1968) stating that “flying planes may be a danger”- would mean that the syntax to be inferred is solely based on the reader’s selection of meaning. The author as well explains that readers possess linguistic-experiential reservoir resonating to each mark seen on the surface. A reader will therefore, assume that the mark they see bears a coherent set of meaning and may use their individual life and linguistic experiences to construct meaning; on the same, the scope of possible meanings depends and is limited to the experience of the readers of the seen marks.In addition, through the process of selective attention, a reader may pick out elements that will be synthesized to form “meaning”. Nevertheless, the choosing activity is subject to the cultural, social, personal and physical factors that constitute the environment in which the reading is taking place.The Reader’s stanceA text is not poetic or expository, non-literary or literary on its own; a reader who gives such a label to the text is actually reporting his own interpretation of the writer’s intention or recording his individual stance. But, the reader has a freedom of choice to their own stance, a concept that will guide their selective attention. This falls under efferent-aesthetic continuum. By definition, efferent stance refers to a kind of reading that centers the attention on what may need to be retained or extracted following the reading. On the other hand, aesthetic stance denotes the type of reading in which attention is mostly concentrated on ideas, images, feelings, and sensations experienced by the reader, including rhythms and the sounds of the words in the text. Here, the reader will participate in the conflict and resolution of images and scenes invoked by the text, while savoring the personalities and situations in the reading. Ultimately, the feeling of “evocation” felt corresponds to the text and will form the interpretation and response of the reader.For that reason, a reader may go through a text efferently in order to paraphrase it for a particular audience; but no one can aesthetically read a text and engage the same experience for others. An experience reader will alert on the cues on what stance may be adopted, for example in the form of the title, poem or opening lines. However, it is important to note that readers may construe these cues, or these cues themselves may spring confusion. Also a reader’s schooling indoctrinates, - to a measurable extent, the adoption of similar stances towards several texts, that may have different writer intentions. As an example, a student who is preparing for a quiz on the plot of a story and the facts on each of the character will adopt an efferent stance. Subsequently, the teachers should facilitate adoption of the different stances regardless of whether a text may appear to be non-literary or literary.ConclusionIn summary, the transactional is an application of literary criticism by suggesting defined, mutual and reciprocal relationships between the readers and the literal texts. Rosenblatt (1983b) has argued that “interaction” conjures a picture of separate objects encountered with one another, but is essentially unchanged. An example relates to billiard balls that bounce off to one another, and therefore offer a misleading or an inadequate label. The interaction will mutually shape the exchange between readers and literal texts. But, the exchange or transaction has an accurate characteristic: It fits the mind to the world and shapes the selection.ReferenceChomsky, N. (1968). Language and mind. New York: Harcourt BraceRosenblatt, L.M. (1985a). The transactional theory of the literary work: Implications for research. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Researching response to literature and the teaching of literature. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Rosenblatt, L.M. (1985b). Viewpoints: Transaction versus interaction—A terminological rescue operation. Research in the Teaching of English, 19, 96–107.Rosenblatt, L.M. (1991). Literary theory. In J. Flood, J.M. Jensen, D. Lapp, & J.R. Squire (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (pp. 57–62). New York: MacmillanGENDER EQUALITY IS NECESSARY FOR ECONOMIC GROWTHInstitutional AffiliationStudent NumberCourse NumberIntroductionGender equality remains a prevalent issue in the modern society. This follows the persistent gap existing in terms of access to opportunities for both women and men. It is a fundamental human right, regardless of one’s religion, race or ethnicity (Antonopoulos, 2016). The following essay discusses the need for gender equality to facilitate economic growth. It begins with a chapter topic discussion on gender equality. The next section provides the role gender equality plays in economic growth from a relevant article and media. Finally, the essay concludes stating how the article and media summary supports the topic of discussion.Chapter Topic DescriptionBudlender (2015) mentions that the issue of equality, and specifically gender equality and its role in economic growth. The author states that it is a very important ethical issue requiring apposite investigation to come up with appropriate solutions on the subject. Even more, the issue is closely linked to human values and the social construction process that is needed for the development of society and the nation as a whole. Budlender (2015) notes that gender equality has been the reason for emergence of social movements that advocate for sensitivity of both gender and their promotion at the national and global levels. More precisely, several organizations have been set up to promote women’s rights. They advocate for a wide range of reforms the will focus to develop and establish women as independent in their social and professional life, besides their relationships with men. Gender equality mandates different roles to be played by policy makers, government and non-governmental institutions to promote political stability, and thus economic growth.Article/Media SummaryOne article (United Nations, 2019) states the participation of women in the present mainstream workforce has increased consistently. Women are largely taking up positions in health care, hospitality, banking and other service sector industries. But, jobs which requiring physical strength are still dominated by men. Inequality is very evident at workplace which denies talented and ambitious women opportunities for self-development and growth. In several occasions, they are denied equal pay or fair pay to men. Furthermore, they corporate environment as well poses challenges to women.The media report by Fox News Channel (2019) also indicates the constant change in the society. Over the years, the traditional roles of men and women have transformed. The conventional gender roles, their contrast and interpretation of modern duties have become subtle. This progression in gender equality depicts that both women and men are equally capable of promoting societal development.ApplicationIt follows that regardless of our background, gender equality is a fundamental human right with impact on the economic growth of a nation. For instance, the article shows that by advancing the gender equality with foster different areas of a healthy nation, from reduction of poverty to promotion of health, and education. More precisely, investing in girl education and increasing their age of marriage returns $5 for every dollar that was spent on them. Even more, by investment in income-generating activities would result into a return of about $7 dollars for any spent dollar.The media narration also proposes that by addressing unconscious biasness and improving implicit associations will create intentional interventions to invisible barriers to equal opportunities. If men and women can work alongside each other they are able to achieve and embrace equality, besides the healthy and respectful relationships. For instance, Hillary Clinton, the former secretary of State and Presidential Contestant as mentioned within the piece, is a clear example of critical role women can play in national debates and political growth.ConclusionGender equality is a global phenomenon. It has impact of both men and women globally. But, the proportion of women affected doubles and goes beyond that of men. With this gender gap, women are not exposed to more opportunities as men especially in the developing countries. But, the situation is seen to be improving. This essay has shown the impact of gender equality on economic growth. The author believes that there is a need to close the gender gap especially in areas such as education, health, and political participation. The consequent effect is promoting political stability and economic growth.ReferenceAntonopoulos, R. (2016). Unpaid Work and the Economy: Gender, Time Use and Poverty in Developing Countries. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Budlender, D. (2015). What do time use studies tell us about unpaid care work? Evidence from seven countries. In Time Use Studies and Unpaid Care Work, D. Budlender, ed. New York: Routledge.Fox News Channel (2019). Tulsi rebukes Hillary Clinton. Retrieved from: Tulsi Gabbard delivers stunning rebuke of Hillary Clinton (Accessed October 19, 2019)United Nations (2019). Gender inequality: The unfinished business of our time. Retrieved from: Gender Equality (Accessed October 19, 2019)Article Review AssignmentStudent NumberCourse NumberTutorDATEPart 1Article title: Continuing the War: White and Black Violence during ReconstructionBy Steven HahnThe exposition is designed to promote critical thinking on American history. This is by providing an elaborative and an analytical narration on important topics on U.S. history that occurred before, during and after the civil war extending to the period of reconstruction. In this collection, the essay by the distinguished American historian, Prof. Hahn, is a primary anthology to introductory history of the U.S., covering chronological subjects that provoke and challenge the thinking of American history . More precisely, the author describes the period between the 19th and 20th centuries by re-assessing the series in a new perspective.The article further exposes violent disruptions that prevailed the South immediately after the American Civil War. During this time, the former master and freed slaves were struggling to control, construct and develop new economic, political and social relationships. But, all sorts of the local incidences would only result to massive violence outbreaks. Then, political violence sprung from the radical reconstruction. Organized groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, and others like the Knights of the White Camelia, the White League in Louisiana emerged with the idea to destroy and obstruct the Reconstruction government. They aimed at intimidating and assassinating white and black Republican officials while using violence to prevent voting rights. This was widely spread in the South. Also, it was mostly attributed to the fact that, there was lack of a central organization and hence, the local groups spread all over the place . Politically speaking, it is also indicated that the groups had a common goal to restore white supremacy. At the time, the blacks who had contract disputes with their employers were victimized by the Klan. For instance, the school teachers were victims of the Klan. Put differently, the use of violence by these groups was to affect political, social and economic life was disrupted by Reconstruction.In conclusion, prior to the civil war, African –Americans would only vote in a handful of the northern states. Furthermore, they were not allowed to hold office (there was virtually no black in public office) . The months that would follow the Union victory (in 1865) saw a far-reaching mobilization of the black communities, with petitions, parades and meetings that called for political, and legal transformations include the right to vote. Particularly, in the first two years of Reconstruction, the Equal Rights Leagues were organized by the blacks throughout the South. These were local and state conventions to demand suffrage and protest discriminatory treatment, besides objecting law inequality.Part 2Article title: American Progressivism in the Wider Atlantic World,By Daniel T. RodgersIn this account, the author, Daniel Rodgers, highlights the progression of politics in America and Europe from 1870 through 1940. The monumental assertion could never be timelier. Its elucidation provides a spirited challenge to modern overview and conventional interpretation of how the American politics evolved. In other words, Rodgers portrays a time in history that may have been forgotten: a period when the governing institution was respected and the installed blueprints borrowed for Europe worked efficiently.But, the author still poses a central challenge. In an attempt to explain and interpret progression of American politics, he portrays American politics as an import from Europe with very little indigenous creation . Arguably, with this interpretive innovation the book ambitions seem to take a methodological departure. As opposed to limiting its scope to describing American progression, it opens up the study to include an array of cosmopolitan intellectuals that have been responsible in forming progressive policies. These include countries like Sweden, Australia, France, England and Germany. The author has a bold insistence that in order to understand the American progressivism, the audience ought to first comprehend the political experimentations and idealism or the transatlantic worlds that shaped it. Consequently, this makes the book’s thesis a rare combination of complexity and clarity, - a thing with a measurable dexterity.In summary, the book can be said to give different dimensional view to the Atlantic ties and the Anglo-American relationships. It is conversant to these formidable ranges of topics while ably putting ideas and not impersonal forces . It shows that the century was a great era to reform not mentioning that the Industrial revolution was of an Atlantic Origin.BibliographyBaratheon, Robert. Account of the Conquest of the Southern Kingdom. New York: Penguin, 2017.Castor, Helen. Blood and Roses: One Family’s Struggle and Triumph during the Tumultuous Wars of the Roses. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2016.Cole, Flynt. “The American Fascination with International Espionage.” In The Rise and Fall of Cold War Popular Culture, edited by Michael Jones, 50-100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.Redstone, Vincent. “Social Condition of England During the Wars of the Roses.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 16 (2015): 159. Social Condition of England during the Wars of the Roses.Car Park System - A Review of Smart Parking System and its TechnologyAbstractDue to the proliferation in the number of vehicles on the road, traffic problems are bound to exist. This is due to the fact that the current transportation infrastructure and car park facility developed are unable to cope with the influx of vehicles on the road. To alleviate the aforementioned problems, the smart parking system has been developed. With the implementation of the smart parking system, patrons can easily locate and secure a vacant parking space at any car park deemed convenient to them. Vehicle ingress and egress are also made more convenient with the implementation of hassle free payment mechanism. With vehicle detection sensors aplenty on the market, the choices made may defer due to the different requirements in addition to the its pros and cons. Subsequently, the various sensor systems used in developing the systems in addition to the recent research and commercial system on the market are examined as vehicle detection plays a crucial role in the smart parking system.I. INTRODUCTIONIn the year 2006, 458,293 new registered vehicles were reported compared to the year 1999 where there were only 296,716 new registered vehicles, which makes it a rough estimate of 54.5% increase in a span of 7 years (Malaysian Ministry of Transportation, 2007). Referring to the aforesaid statistics provided by the Malaysian Ministry of Transportation, the current transportation infrastructure and car park facilities are deemed insufficient in sustaining the influx of vehicles on the road.Therefore, problems such as traffic congestion and insufficient parking space inevitably crops up. In Asia, the situation are made worse by the fact that the roads are significantly narrower compared to the West (Inaba et al., 2001). Various measures have been taken in the attempt to overcome the traffic problems. Although, the problem can be addressed via many methods, the paper focuses on the car park management system introduced, which is the smart parking system. This study will review the evolution of vehicle detection technologies as well as the detection systems developed over the years.II. SMART PARKING SYSTEMThe smart parking system implemented mainly in the Europe, United States and Japan (Shaheen et al., 2005) is developed with the incorporation of advanced technologies and researches from various academic disciplines. With its deployment in the car park, it is hoped that it would solve the aforementioned problems faced by the patrons within the car park.1. Advantages of smart parking system implementationThe smart parking system is considered beneficial for the car park operators, car park patrons as well as in environment conservation (Shaheen et al., 2005; Chinrungrueng et al., 2007). For the car park operators, the information gathered via the implementation of the Smart Parking System can be exploited to predict future parking patterns. Pricing strategies can also be manipulated according to the information obtained to increase the company’s profit. In terms of environment conservation, the level of pollution can be reduced by decreasing vehicle emission (air pollutant) in the air (Shaheen et al., 2005). This can be attributed to the fact that vehicle travel is reduced. As fuel consumption is directly related to vehicle miles travelled, it will be reduces as well.Patrons are also able to benefit from smart parking system as parking space are able to be fully utilized (Kurogo et al., 1995; Sakai et al., 1995) with a safer (Shaheen et al., 2005; Chinrungrueng et al., 2007), optimized and more efficient system implemented (Sakai et al., 1995; Shaheen et al., 2005). The system is made more efficient as vehicle travel time and search time are significantly reduced due to the information provided by the smart parking system. With the information provided, drivers are able to avoid car park that are fully occupied and locate vacant parking spaces with ease elsewhere. The number of vehicles parked illegally by the roadside which leads to traffic congestion is also reduced as it is absorbed into the car parks (Kurogo et al., 1995). Most importantly, traffic congestion can be reduced. All this would eventually lead to convenience for the patrons.2. Categories of smart parking systemThe smart parking system can be divided into five major categories: namely, Parking Guidance and Information System (PGIS), transit based information system, smart payment system, E-parking and automated parking (Shaheen et al., 2005). Further discussion on the implementation and characteristic of each of the smart parking system category together with examples of its implementation around the world will also be provided.3. Parking Guidance and Information System (PGIS)The implementation of Parking Guidance and Information System (PGIS) encompasses two major categories. The PGIS can either include the entire city area or function only within the car park facility (Shaheen et al., 2005). Setting aside the differences, both the PGIS implemented in many major cities in Europe, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States (Kurogo et al., 1995; Sakai et al., 1995; Shaheen et al., 2005; Mouskos et al., 2007) offer similar advantages similar to those of smart parking system as discussed earlier. Both provides information which aids the decision making process of the drivers in reaching their destination location and aids them in locating a vacant parking space within the car park facility. The city wide PGIS is indeed helpful in assisting drivers to car park with vacant parking spaces via the information occupancy status for various car parks around the city as well as other relevant information. On the other hand, guidance in locating the vacant parking space within the car park is ultimately provided by PGIS implemented within the car park.PGIS can be summarized as consisting of 4 major components: namely, information disseminating mechanism, information gathering mechanism, control center and telecommunication networks similar to the components stated by Mouskos et al., 2007. Static/dynamic Variable Message Signs (VMS) have been used in providing drivers with direction either on the road or within the car park. For guidance on the road, various implementation methods can be adopted. For example, the system in Shinjuku and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania segregates the city area into color coded areas for in providing guidance (Kurogo et al., 1995; Shaheen et al., 2005). The PGIS in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania also functions in directing drivers to special attraction in the area. Meanwhile, in Yokohama, Japan, the city is divided into four zones whereby the information specificity increases with each zone that the driver cross to arrive at the destination location. Additional information on traffic flow provided by the Aichi Prefectural Police Headquarters Traffic Control Center and Japan Highway Public Corporation Nagoya Department is also provided by the system implemented in Toyota, Japan (Sakai et al., 1995).Mobile phones can also be used for guidance based on the research conducted by Idna and Tamil (2007) which utilizes Global Positioning System (GPS) for vehicle detection. A map of the driver’s current position based on the GPS data along with the status of three of the nearby car park are sent to their mobile phones based on the patron’s current location. The GPS technology used are discussed in detail by Tamil et al. (2007). Besides that, the parking guidance system developed based on web and GIS technology (Liu et al., 2006) are able to disseminate information to the users via internet, mobile phones and/or PDA. The guidance system can be with the conventional parking management system as well. In order to guide the patrons effectively, the car park map is printed on the parking ticket equipped with Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags for guidance (Idna et al., 2008) so that patrons can locate the assigned parking slot with ease. There are also no worries about forgetting the location of the assigned parking slot during exit.Vehicle detection sensors are commonly installed at entrances, exits and/or individual parking space to detect vehicle occupancy. Indicator lights integrated with sensors are also sometimes installed at every individual parking space within the parking facility. The occupancy status detected by the sensors can either be occupancy of each individual parking space or in terms of vehicles counts in the car park depending on the installation of the sensors. Moving on, the control center gathers and processes the traffic and occupancy information as well as controls the display of information for drivers whereas the telecommunication network facilitates the transfer of information among the other three modules (Mouskos et al., 2007). With the advent of advanced technologies, the implementation of devices such as microcontroller and Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) are incorporated for faster information processing. Not only that, the telecommunication network no longer dependent on conventional electrical wiring but wireless technologies are able to be utilized. Researchers such as Wang and Chen (2004), Bi et al. (2006), Liu et al. (2006), Tang et al. (2006), Idna et al. (2008), Lee et al. (2008) and Seong-Eun et al. (2008) have all used wireless network for data transfer in the implementation of their proposed parking guidance system.4. Transit based information systemThe functionality of transit based information system implemented in countries such as France, Germany, Ireland, Japan, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States (Shaheen et al., 2005) is actually similar to PGIS. The difference exist in the fact the Transit Based Information System concentrates on guiding user to park-and-ride facilities. It provides real-time information on the status of each car park and public transportation such as the schedules and traffic condition to the public. The additional information provided enables the patrons to plan for transit in advance without getting into any inconvenience (Chinrungrueng et al., 2007). Among its benefits includes increase in the utilization of public transportation as the primary means of transportation as they can leave their vehicle in the car park and switch to public transportation with ease. This will indirectly lead to an increase in the transit revenue (Shaheen et al., 2005; Chinrungrueng et al., 2007).No doubt, for the transit based information system to achieve success in its implementation, proper planning must be conducted. This is especially true in selecting the location for the park-and-ride car parks that maximizes transit whereby the concept of catchment area/commutersheds are often used such as indicated by Horner and Groves (2007). In the network flow-based technique introduced, it improves on the conventional spatial model used in determining the park-and-ride facility location by taking into consideration the traffic flow and works in reducing the vehicle miles travelled by maximizing the interception of vehicle during the beginning stage of the journey.There have been many research centered upon using Geographic Information System (GIS). Among them are the research conducted for siting park-and-ride car parks in Columbus, Ohio. Farhan and Murray (2008) incorporated multi-objective spatial optimization model in locating the park-and-ride facilities while considering numerous objectives and constraints as well as taking into consideration the existing system. While research by Farhan and Murray (2008) made no assumption on user demands, Horner and Grubesic (2001) used Principal Component Analysis (PCA) in representing the index of user demands which will be converted to demand points when coupled with information obtained via Geographic Information System (GIS). Subsequently, additional calculation conducted by Horner and Groves (2007) takes into account various other factors which includes: geographical, network, travel time from demand points to the location of the park-and-ride facilities and the constraints of computershed shapes are performed in determining the location and commutershed area for the park-and-ride lots.5. Smart payment systemThe smart payment system is implemented in the effort to overcome the limitation of the conventional payment methods by revamping the payment method via parking meter and introduce new technologies. This is because the conventional method causes delay and inconvenience for the patrons as they have to deal with cash. It also reduces maintenance and staffing requirement for payment handling purposes as well as traffic control (Chinrungrueng et al., 2007). In general, the Smart Payment System implemented in places such as Finland, Italy, London and United States (Hinze, 2000; Shaheen et al., 2005; Jones, 2006; Mouskos et al., 2007) consists of contact method, contactless method and mobile devices. While the contact method involves the use of smart cards, debit cards and credit cards, the contactless method involves the use of contactless cards, mobile devices as well as Automated Vehicle Identification (AVI) tag whereby RFID technologies are utilized (Mouskos et al., 2007). As contact methods requires contact of the cards with parking meter or payment machines in the facility, the latter offers more convenience to the patrons.Parking meters have now been improvised with technologies which revolutionize the payment system via implementing various improvements such as the acceptance of various types of cards such as credit card, debit cards (Shaheen et al., 2005) and smart cards (Hinze, 2000). It also incorporates other technologies such as having solar power source and wireless connectivity. The PhotoViolationMeter (Photo Violation Technologies, n.d.) which caters for various types of payment methods uses ground sensors in detecting vehicle presence. Most importantly, technologies such as WiFi connectivity (Photo Violation Technologies, n.d.), together with its ability in handling payment of fines and taking photos of vehicles which violates parking regulations for evidence are also incorporated (Ebling and De Lara, 2007). Personal parking meters which are essentially placed in the vehicle have also been introduced in Buffalo, New York and Aspen, Colorado after test studies have been conducted (Jones, 2006).The incorporation of RFID technologies in making payments were implemented in commercial systems such as Mobipower Ltd., which utilized RFID-based cellular technology and EZPass system have also developed payment system via RFID for car parks and toll facilities (Mouskos et al., 2007). Similarity between the two systems exists in the requirement for placement of transponder unit in the vehicle. Moving on, the implementation of mobile devices such as mobile phones and PDA are normally seen to incorporate other devices such as parking meters and cards. For some systems such as those implemented in Groningen, Netherlands (Shaheen et al., 2005) and Oulu, Finland (Jones, 2006), prior registration via the internet is required. As mobile phones are utilized, the system implemented in Oulu, Finland also has the capability of sending Short Message Service (SMS) notification to remind the patrons that the time is almost due and allow them to settle the payment for the additional time extension required (Jones, 2006).The main concern hindering the implementation of the Smart Payment System would have to be skepticism on the privacy and security issues. This is due to the fact that confidential data of the patrons such as personal information and probably account information are being dealt with which are highly confidential. With the emergence of various threats, it is justifiable to be worried. In RFID implementation alone, exploits, malwares and worms (Rieback et al., 2006a), as well as attacks such as sniffing, spoofing, replay attack and denial of services are just a fraction of it. Of course, methods have been developed in securing the data and overcoming the threats as is it discovered ranging from the cryptography, detection and evasion as well as temporary deactivation which are constantly improved from the conventional method implemented which dates back to World War II (Rieback et al., 2006b).6. E-parkingE-parking provides an alternative for patrons to enquire the availability and/or reserve a parking space at their desired parking facility to ensure the availability of vacant car park space when they arrive at the parking facility. The system can be accessed via numerous methods such as SMS or through the internet. Some of the additional benefits of using the E-parking system aside from those collectively gained by smart parking system are that it can be extended easily to incorporate the payment mechanism of smart payment system whereby payments by the patrons are made hassle free using the technologies discussed previously. Customized information can also be provided to the patrons either before or during their trip to the car park (Shaheen et al., 2005).In a study by Inaba et al. (2001), reservations can be made through the utilization of mobile phones or any reservation centers convenient to the patrons. On the other hand, the study by Hodel and Cong (2004) revealed options of using the internet via Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) enabled mobile phones, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) and even conventional computer in addition to SMS service for the drivers in accessing the information as well as making reservations. Teodorovic et al. (2006) takes the implementation a step further by incorporating fuzzy logic in decision making whereby the parking reservation request can either accepted or rejected. It also facilitates the enforcement of tariff classes to enable the maximization of revenue for car park operators. The system discussed in (Idna and Tamil, 2007) is one of the systems integrating PGIS with E-parking system, where the patrons are able to reserve parking slots after reviewing the status of the car park and its proximity to the patron’s current location. An example of the message to the patrons is shown in Fig. 1.Fig. 1: Example of parking reservation system messageThus far, numerous systems have been implemented online for city wide implementation, university campuses as well as complexes. Among the examples of companies involved in the development of E-parking system are companies such as ParkingCarma (ParkingCarma, n.d.), Click and Park (Click and Park, n.d.) and City and Suburban Parking Ltd., (City and Suburban Parking Ltd., n.d.). As the E-parking systems implemented online can also be considered as E-commerce applications, it has been proposed that the Unified Modeling Language (UML) is employed in modeling the system’s performance. This can be achieved by converting the class diagram and sequence diagram to an execution diagram via an intermediary actor-event graph and combining it with other necessary information pertinent to the system (Geetha et al., 2007).As observed, there are many different implementation methods that can be enforced by incorporating various technologies. Besides the difference in reservation method, different reservation types can also be enforced such as proposed by Inaba et al. (2001), whereby patrons can chose not to declare the exit time and park for an indefinite amount of time. To gain access in to the car park, printed receipts, permits or passes are utilized by the patrons. More sophisticated implementation proposed which requires the use of smart cards or magnetic cards (Inaba et al., 2001) and Bluetooth (Hodel and Cong (2004)) are also implemented in granting access to the patrons. It can also be implemented together with Smart Payment System payment schemes such as cards (Inaba et al., 2001; Hodel and Cong (2004)), pre and post paid methods as well as m-payment (Hodel and Cong (2004)) are utilized.7. Automated parkingAutomated parking involves the use of computer controlled mechanism, which allows patrons to drive up to the bay, lock the cars and let the machines automatically place the vehicle in the allocated space. This type of car park offers maximum utilization of space as it is machine controlled unlike conventional car park where space is needed for navigation of vehicle within the car park. Among its benefits are that the implementation works great in locations, where there are limited room for expansion due to its structure. Besides that, the Automated Parking System also offers efficiency in car storage as it allows car stacking and the patron does not even need to go into the car park which indirectly provides extra safety measures which covers both the vehicles and patrons (Shaheen et al., 2005).Among the automated parking system reviewed in countries which includes Japan, Canada and United States (Shaheen et al., 2005) as well as the commercial system developed by companies such as automotion parking system (Automotion, n.d.), robotic parking (Robotic Parking, n.d.) and Fata SKYPARKS (Fata SKYPARKS, n.d.), it generally utilizes computer controlled mechanism in placing the vehicles in its storage bay within the parking facility. Automated parking can also be implemented in a conventional car park via additional equipments installed such as developed by Fata SKYPARKS (Fata SKYPARKS, n.d.). There are many variations whereby the automated parking system can be implemented, from the design of the car park structure to the workings of the computer controlled docks/lifts as well as the placement of vehicles whereby user participation are sometimes required.The safety features are geared towards the vehicle whereby it is important to ensure that the vehicle remains safe and undamaged with all the handling by the computer controlled mechanisms. Research by Mathijssen and Pretorius (2007) introduced a three-level software design which includes: Logical Layer (LL), Safety Layer (SL) and Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL) to enforce correct and efficient storage of vehicles in a safe manner. As the car park facility is designed with conveyer belts, rotatable lifts and shuttles, it has to be coordinated to ensure successful and safe placement and retrieval of the vehicle.III. CAR PARK OCCUPANCY DETECTIONThe smart parking system relies heavily on the car park occupancy information as it is not only used in assisting the drivers on the road, but in the management within the car park as well. There is abundance of sensor system that can be installed to provide this crucial piece of information. Having said that, there are many factors which can affect the occupancy detection such as sensor chosen car park type and layout, to name a few.1. Vehicle detection technologyVehicle sensors and detector system can be categorized into two main categories: namely, intrusive and non-intrusive sensors (Mimbela and Klein, 2007). Intrusive sensors are sensors which are typically installed in holes on the road surface, by tunneling under the road surfaces or anchoring to the surface of the road which leads to invasive procedures of installation whereas the latter can be installed easily by mounting the device on the ground or the ceiling of the car park. With the variety of sensors on the market, factors such as the cost, environmental condition, scale of implementation as well as the system design would have to be considered while selecting the sensors.1.1 Intrusive sensorsExamples of intrusive sensors include active infrared sensors, inductive loops, magnetometers, magneto- resistive sensors, pneumatic road tubes, piezoelectric cables and weigh-in-motion sensors. As denoted by its name, intrusive sensors typically requires pavement cut for installation which indirectly decreases pavement life. For installation and maintenance on the road, lane closure would have to be conducted, which would lead to inconvenience of the drivers (Chinrungrueng et al., 2006; Lenz and Edelstein, 2006; Mimbela and Klein, 2007; Mouskos et al., 2007).1.2 Non-intrusive sensorOn the other hand, non-intrusive sensors encompasses microwave radar, passive acoustic array sensors, passive infrared sensor, RFID, ultrasonic and video image processing. Non-intrusive sensors can easily be installed and maintained and does not affect the surface in the process. Unlike intrusive sensors, maintenance and installation for non-intrusive sensors can be conducted without invasive procedures and disruption of traffic (Kastrinaki et al., 2003; Mimbela and Klein, 2007). The description, strength and weaknesses of the various sensor technologies that are currently utilized in vehicle detection as compiled by Mimbela and Klein, 2007 together with other research by Kastrinaki et al., 2003, Cheung et al. (2005), Chinrungrueng et al., 2006, Lenz and Edelstein, 2006, Wolff et al. (2006), Mouskos et al., 2007 and Pala and Inanc (2007) will subsequently be scrutinized. Each of the sensors also has the ability to provide different detection parameters which are also discussed in the aforementioned studies.2. Active infrared sensorsActive infrared sensors detects vehicles by emitting infrared energy and detecting the amount of energy reflected (Mimbela and Klein, 2007; Mouskos et al., 2007). By utilizing the active infrared sensors, multiple lane operations can be conducted. For an accurate measurement of vehicle position, speed and class, multiple beams are transmitted from the sensor. However, the drawback of the sensor would be its sensitivity towards environmental conditions such as fog or blowing snow which affects the operation of the sensors.3. Inductive loop detectorsInductive Loop Detectors (ILDs) are wire loops of various sizes which are exited with signals whose frequencies range from 10 to 50 kHz. The oscillation frequency of the inductive loop is directly controlled by the inductance of the loop which changes with vehicle presence. The sensor system proved to be a mature and well understood technology with large experience base and extensive research conducted. Besides that, its flexibility also allows for the implementation in a large variety of applications. The vehicle detection zone can be easily enlarged by combining the loops together. Compared with other commonly used techniques, ILD provides the best accuracy for count data. In fact, inductive loop sensors became the common standard for obtaining accurate occupancy measurements.While the inductive loop detector has its advantages, it is not without flaw as it is expensive to maintain (Mouskos et al., 2007). Not only does it require multiple detectors to monitor a specific location, the Wire loops subjected to wear and tear due to stresses of traffic and temperature. Detection accuracy would also be compromised when design requires detection of a large variety of vehicle classes. While it is mentioned by Mimbela and Klein, 2007 that it is insensitive to weather condition such as rain, fog and snow, Mouskos et al., 2007 has stated that the sensors are sensitive to element such as water, especially if the pavement is cracked.4. Magnetometer (fluxgate magnetometer)Fluxgate magnetometers works by detecting perturbation (magnetic anomaly) in the earth’s horizontal and vertical magnetic field. Fluxgate magnetometers provide the advantage of being insensitive to weather condition such as snow, rain and fog. It is also more accurate and less susceptible than loops to stresses of traffic. As the technologies for wireless transmissions evolves, wireless RF link are also used to transmit data in some models. Among the disadvantages of using fluxgate magnetometers are the small detection zones in some model which requires multiple units are required for full lane detection as well as the close proximity required for accurate detection (Cheung et al., 2005; Mimbela and Klein, 2007).5. Magnetometer (induction or search coil magnetometer)Induction or search coil magnetometer identifies vehicle signature by measuring the change in the magnetic flux lines caused by the moving vehicle according to Faraday’s Law of induction (Lenz and Edelstein, 2006; Mimbela and Klein, 2007). Like the fluxgate magnetometer, it is insensitive to weather condition such as snow, rain and fog. Besides that, it is less susceptible to stresses of traffic than loops. Special sensor layouts and signal processing software are required to identify stopped vehicles. While it is an intrusive sensor, some models can be installed without the need for pavement cuts.6. Magnetoresistive sensorAs stated by Lenz and Edelstein, 2006, magnetoresistive sensors encompasses: Anisiotropic Magnetoresistance Sensors (AMR), Giant Magnetoresistance Sensors (GMR), Magnetic Tunnel Junction Sensors, Extraordinary Magnetoresistance and Ballistic Magnetoresistance that are simply energized by providing a constant current (Lenz and Edelstein, 2006). The sensors are light and small which makes it versatile in placement (Wolff et al., 2006). Coupled with a wide range of temperature (-55 to 200°) and low cost, it has been widely used for vehicle detection. Wolff et al. (2006) have utilized the AMR sensor in their research for vehicle detection and has noted its sensitivity to position and orientation.7. Piezoelectric sensorsPiezoelectric sensors are made from specially processed material that is able to convert kinetic energy to electrical energy when subjected to vibration or mechanical impact. Vehicle differentiation can also be conducted with extreme precision as additional information is gathered rather than the passing of vehicle alone. Not only that, it also provides a more accurate reading on vehicle speed and classification of vehicles based on weight and axle spacing with almost the same cost as ILD. Among the disadvantages would be the need to use multiple detectors to instrument a location. Besides that, it is also extremely sensitive to high temperature and traffic stress.8. Pneumatic road tubePneumatic road tube detects vehicle via the air pressure created which closes a switch, producing signals when a vehicle pass or stop over the tube. While it offers a low cost solution as well as quick installation and easy maintenance, it has its disadvantages. Pneumatic road sensors are temperature sensitive. Inaccuracies in axle count are also bound to happen when bus and truck numbers are high. In addition, the tubes are prone to vandalism.9. Weight-in-Motion (WIM) sensorsWeight-in-Motion (WIM) sensors are able to detect the weight of the vehicle whereby the data acquired are extremely useful to highway planner, designers and law enforcement agencies. The four technologies used in WIM system are: bending plate, piezoelectric, load cell and capacitance mat. Each of the WIM sensors has its own advantages and disadvantages. While bending plate WIM is more accurate and costly compared to piezoelectric WIM system, it is less accurate compared to load cell WIM systems and are considerable cheaper. Although capacitance mat can be used as portable or permanent, it is the least accurate WIM system. For accuracy, load cell WIM system would be preferable as it is the most accurate WIM system, with the disadvantage of it being the priciest. The cheapest WIM system in use is the piezoelectric system, with a weakness of sensitivity towards weather and speed variation. Its accuracy is behind load cell WIM and bending plate WIM system. Both the piezoelectric and capacitance mat WIM system can be used to monitor up to 4 lanes. All the WIM system requires replacement or refurbishment every 3 to 5 years.10. Microwave radarMicrowave radar sensor transmits energy (1-30 GHz) through an antenna and detects vehicle by the energy reflected back towards the antenna. The two type of microwave radar sensors being implemented are: Continuous Wave Radar (CW) and Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar (FMCW). Microwave radar sensors provide the advantage of being insensitive to inclement weather. It is also able to conduct multiple lane traffic flow data gathering as well as provide direct measurement of vehicle speed. Among its disadvantages is that the Doppler sensors would have to be equipped with auxiliary sensors in attempt to detect stopped vehicle.11. Acoustic sensorsThe acoustic sensors detects vehicle via the acoustic energy or audible sounds produced by the vehicle through microphones installed for vehicle detection. The advantages offered by acoustic sensors are support for multiple lane operation in certain models as well as passive detection. Not only that, it is also insensitive to precipitation. Its sensitivity towards cold temperature which affects data accuracy proved to be a drawback. Certain models are also not recommended with slow moving vehicles in stop and go traffic.12. Passive infrared sensorsPassive infrared sensors identify the occupancy status of a parking space by detecting changes in the energy emitted by the vehicle and the roads (Mimbela and Klein, 2007; Mouskos et al., 2007). While the sensors are able to be implemented in a multizone environment to measure vehicle speed, the sensitivity of the sensor is reduced in heavy rain, snow and dense fog. Besides that, certain models are not recommended for presence detection.13. RFIDThe utilization of RFID as a method for vehicle detection in conducted in Mouskos et al., 2007. It is a universal, useful secure and efficient technology (Pala and Inanc, 2007) which consist of 3 units which are: transceiver, transponder and antenna. The transceiver is used to send and read information from the transponder unit which contains the coded information through the antenna. Active transponders are also re-programmable through wireless connection, while passive transponders have an unlimited lifetime. Radio signals eliminates the need for contact, no line of sight operation and are able to penetrate opaque structures. By using RFID sensors, it provides the means for low cost installation and maintenance as well as possible detection at high speed. The complication actually lies with the need to place transponders in every vehicle as well as privacy issues with the patron’s personal details.14. Ultrasonic sensorsUltrasonic sensors transmits pulse waveforms between 25 to 50 kHz to the road by detecting transmitted energy which are reflected back the sensor. Together with a signal processing module, the reflected ultrasonic energies are analyzed to detect occupancy in a roadside controller. Its utilization brings the advantage of detecting vehicles that exceed certain height limit as well as multiple lane operation. The ultrasonic sensors are also easy to install without the need for facility closure. Degraded occupancy measurement on freeways with vehicles traveling at moderate to high speeds due to large pulse repetition period are one of the shortcomings of the sensor. Besides that, temperature changes and extreme air turbulence affects the sensor performance, although temperature compensation has been built into some models.15. Video image processorA Video image processor typically consists of: one or more cameras, software for image interpretation and microprocessor based computer for digitizing and processing. Careful analysis of continuous frames captured by the video image processor can be used in detection of vehicles as it reveals the differences between subsequent frames. The utilization of video image processor provides the ease of management (Kastrinaki et al., 2003) and implementation as it is readily available in most car park facilities with basic surveillance systems. Detection zones are also easily added and modified. Besides that, it can easily adaptable to space of any geometric shape for coverage optimization, with the detection zones easily added and modified (Mouskos et al., 2007). With the wide-area detection provided when information gathered at one camera location are linked to another, it caters for multiple lane detection and reduces the number of cameras needed for monitoring. The detection results garnered can also be verified offline and in real-time without the need for delay (Mouskos et al., 2007).Although, it has many advantages, the CCTV cameras are only cost-effective if many detection zones are required within the field of view of the camera and good lighting available. Inclement weather, shadows, vehicle projection into adjacent lanes, day-to-night transition, vehicle/road contrast and water, salt grime, icicles and cobwebs on camera lens can affect performance, even though temperature compensation and built into some models. Camera motions due to strong winds might also affect some models. The height and layout of the car park facility might also pose a problem as occlusion (Mimbela and Klein, 2007; Mouskos et al., 2007) can occur at certain locations. While the video cameras are unaffected by construction or maintenance of the car park (Mouskos et al., 2007), the camera mounting height (in a side-mounting configuration) required for optimum presence detection and speed measurement are about 50 to 60" would definitely be a problem in car park facilities with low roof.IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF VEHICLE DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES IN SMART PARKING SYSTEMBy further examining the various smart parking system currently deployed as well as the commercial system on the market, it provides a brief idea on its implementation methods and sensor utilization. The different sensor placements as well as the implementation method of the particular system, albeit achieving the same end results of providing guidance to the patrons, are quite different. Information gathered on the various systems would definitely help in improvising and developing a better system.1. PGISUltrasonic sensors were employed in each individual parking space for vehicle detection in the Baltimore-Washington International Airport in the United States and Blagnac Airport in France (Shaheen et al., 2005). Over in the European continent, infrared sensor applications have been applied in Bristol, United Kingdom to identify vacant spaces and transmit the data to a central computer (Shaheen et al., 2005). In NJIT, inductive loops were deployed at the car park entrances and exits detection (Mouskos et al., 2007). It is mainly used in keeping track of the vehicle count in the car park. In the study proposed by the authors on PGIS within the car park, CCTV cameras were used in detecting the occupancy status of each of the parking space (Idna et al., 2008).Moving on to commercial systems, industrial giants such as CODIC (http://www.parkingireland.ie/showart2.htm.), E and D (http://www.enctechgroup.com/xguide.html.), IDENTIPARK (IDENTIPARK, n.d.) and SIEMENS (SIEMENS, n.d.) have developed PGIS using ultrasound sensors for vehicle detection, whereas VehicleSense (VehicleSense, n.d.) are geared towards using magnetic sensors. All the commercial systems mentioned have the sensors placement location in common whereby the sensors are placed at each individual parking space for occupancy detection. It is also used to guide patrons to the respective vacant spaces through the overhead lights incorporated which changes according to the occupancy status. On the other hand, the system developed in Toyota guides patron through VMS to the available vacant space (Sakai et al., 1995).Transit based information system: In the case of transit based information system, ultrasonic sensors and laser scan detectors were installed in Munich whereas inductive loops were deployed in the city of Cologne (Shaheen et al., 2005). The systems in Cologne and Munich, which is implemented city wide, both exploits the use of VMS in providing information to the patrons as well as guidance to car parks with vacant space. The guidance provided by the system in Munich proved to be more extensive whereby it continues to guide patrons to the vacant parking space with guidance system within the car park as well (Shaheen et al., 2005).2. Smart payment system via RFIDCommercial systems such as EZPass as well as those developed by Mobipower Ltd are vastly different in implementation although RFID technologies are utilized. The only similarities are the requirement for the RFID device to be placed in the vehicle. System by Mobipower such as described by Mouskos et al., 2007, requires the patron to activate the RFID unit named Triffiq to start the transaction and deactivate it to indicate end of transaction. Charges will then be displayed although the actual payments are made when monthly bills arrive. On the contrary, EZPass system does not require any activation of the device and immediately deducts the payments from the patron’s account although records of the patron’s transaction are provided periodically.V. IMPLEMENTATION OF VARIOUS VEHICLE DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES IN COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS AND RESEARCHSubsequent discussion focuses on the implementation of various sensors vehicle detection both on the road and in the car park. As the sensors utilized are essentially the same, more focus will be emphasized on the different placements and any associated hardware devices used in conjunction with the sensors. Information on the different methodologies and hardware devices are provided whenever available in providing a brief overview on the various systems reviewed. Apart from the systems discussed a compilation of the commercial systems available on the market as well as those still in research is presented by Mimbela and Klein, 2007 and Kastrinaki et al., 2003.1. Magnetic sensorVarious researches have been conducted by utilizing the magnetic sensors which are typically used for vehicle detection whereby the complete listing of the type of magnetic sensors is provided in the research by Lenz and Edelstein, 2006. In a research by Wolff et al. (2006), passive magnetoresistive sensors were installed both along the walls and on the floor. Microcontrollers were used to handle the communication with a master via connectivity through a RS485 bus so that the data can be transmitted to the PC for processing and displayed on the three VMS installed in the car park.The following research involves the implementation of magnetic sensors in a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) environment. In the D-Systems Project by the Mobile Internet Systems Laboratory, University College York (Benson et al., 2006; Barton et al., 2007), the system consist of a microcontroller and antenna for communication in the communication layer, magnetic sensor in the sensing layer and lastly, 2 AA batteries in the power layer. As the hardware is implemented in a stackable platform whereby it can be easily combined and dismantled, a processing layer consisting of FPGA device were able to be added (Barton et al., 2007).Unlike the D-Systems which concentrates on occupancy detection, implementation by Cheung et al. (2005) explored the functionality of vehicle detection, vehicle speed detection, vehicle classification and re-identification through installation in the car park and on the road. The sensor nodes consist of: microcontroller, magnetic sensors and radio which are powered by 2 AA batteries are implemented in a (WSN) environment. Both are similar in the fact that the sensors are installed at each individual parking space and implemented in a WSN environment. Besides that, the components utilized are similar with the exception of FPGA device utilization.2. Optical sensorIn a research by Chinrungrueng et al. (2006, 2007), optoelectronic sensors which reacts to light are utilized in vehicle detection. Each sensor nodes consist of optical sensor, a microcontroller and radio- frequency transmitter connected in a star-based WSN topology environment (Chinrungrueng et al., 2006). Its implementation differs depending on the power constraints. The sensor nodes can either be scheduled in a round robin fashion to monitor traffic and report during predetermined time or put to sleep and only activated when performing the function of: vehicle detection or communication with the server node. Two sensor heads installed at a certain distance for vehicle detection to overcome the initial weakness in the system whereby it is unable to distinguish vehicles from pedestrians and motorcycles (Chinrungrueng et al., 2007).3. RFIDThe system developed by Pala and Inanc (2007) relied solely on RFID technology in detecting vehicles at the ingress and egress points. Vehicles can enter and exit the car park without the need stop as there is no need for the usage of parking tickets and payments are handled via RFID technology. The authorization on entrance to the car park depends on the registration of the vehicle. This is because the system will search the database for registered vehicle and confirm that it does not have any check-in or check-out records before updating the check-in information into the database and lifting the barrier for vehicle ingress. If the vehicle is not registered, it cannot gain entry to the car park. During egress, system updates the database with the check-out date and time.4. Inductive loop and RFIDIn terms of vehicle detection, the utilization of inductive loop sensors in occupancy detections have been conceptualized whereby inductive loop detectors are installed at each individual parking space (Shim et al., 2006). It further extends the application by incorporating RFID technologies in the implementation whereby a RFID tag is used to provide the vehicle information in a WSN environment using Zigbee communication technology. This is to facilitate the information gathering of the ingress and egress of a particular vehicle. Implementation by Ostojic et al. (2007) differs in the sense that it is used to perceive vehicle presence at the ingress and egress and the RFID tag have to be put in front of the reader for verification at the ingress and egress point.5. Sensor board with multiple sensorsThe sensor board for research conducted by Tang et al. (2006) is employed with a three-layer framework implementation. While the motes are used in gathering data, the gateway in the server layer is used to update information in the server which will be accessed by the client, which is the application on the client computer. It consists of three types of sensors: namely, light, temperature, acoustic sensors. The system is event driven and consists of five major types of events which are timer, car-in, driving status, car-out and field management which triggers the operation and interaction between the modules.Ultrasonic sensors as well as temperature sensors are available in the sensor node equipped together with a microprocessor and wireless communication module for the system developed by Bi et al. (2006). The system also provides guidance via a guiding node which also operates through WSN in obtaining information. Both the implementation by Tang et al. (2006) and Bi et al. (2006) requires the sensor nodes to be placed at every individual parking space for detection.6. Vision basedThe deployment of surveillance system generally faces the challenges of multiscale information gathering, contextual event detection and the deployment of large systems (Hampapur et al., 2005). Vision based system or surveillance systems have been utilized in the detection of both static vehicles and also vehicles in motion. The methods proposed by Hampapur et al. (2005) for object detection which includes adaptive background subtraction and salient motion detection are some of the methods that can be implemented in vehicle detection. As more researches are conducted, a vast variety of image processing algorithms can be manipulated for vehicle detection. The main difference between the vision based systems developed is essentially the image processing algorithm without regards of whether the camera is static or moving.The manipulation of color image for detecting car park occupancies have been conducted using various image processing methods. While Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is widely implemented in vehicle detection, the overall approach is vastly different. Wu et al. (2007) delt with ROI region which are cropped to three parking spaces per patch and uses PCA for feature extraction while incorporating it with preprocessing, color histogram analysis and Support Vector Machine (SVM) for vehicle recognition. Conflict resolution and optimization were also implemented with Markov Random Field. On the other hand, Funck et al. (2004) used PCA in reconstructing the input image via eigenspace reconstruction based on earlier obtained model of empty car park pictures to obtain the differences between the both the images for vehicle classification.Subsequent discussion focuses on the use of different segmentation techniques for vehicle detection in determining occupancy status of the car park space. In the research by Idna et al. (2005), if a certain percentage of the pixels are detected to belong to the floor after segmentation via thresholding, it will be classified as vacant. Character recognition using chain code and database are implemented for character recognition of the parking space number via the numbers painted on the floor. A three-layer Bayesian hierarchical detection framework which encompasses observation layer, labeling layer and semantic layer has also been introduced (Huang et al., 2008). Here the entire row of car park space is extracted as ROI that will eventually be segmented to obtain the occupancy status for each individual car park space.The Car Park Occupancy Information System (COIS) uses a bi-stream (Bong et al., 2008) detection to overcome false detection caused by shadows. Color images were initially used (Bong et al., 2006), whereby image subtraction which was subsequently converted into binary form. Later on, grayscale image was used from the beginning (Bong et al., 2008) whereby the conversion of the image to binary form depends solely on the bit-7 of image pixels. Although, the methods are different, segmentation via thresholding is essentially performed on the image. Calculation with an accumulator is performed next with a threshold value set to determine the occupancy status. The second processing stream utilizes Sobel edge detection to eliminate false reading by shadows, with median filter were added later on (Bong et al., 2008).Although, SVM classification has been implemented in Wu et al. (2007), a method incorporating image homography was proposed by Lopez Sastre et al. (2007). By altering the viewpoint of the car park camera to top- view before performing feature extraction using Gabor filter and classification via SVM, the region-of-interest extraction process will be made easier and misclassification due to occlusion can be minimized.As noticed, different algorithm provides different advantages for the systems developed. PCA are often used to overcome the problem of illumination variance in the images captured and SVM are robust enough in dealing with occlusion. But more recent techniques which involve using Bayesian probability such as implemented by are Huang et al. (2008) robust enough to handle both the problem of occlusion and illumination invariance.VI. CONCLUSIONIn this study, the various types of smart parking system and has been presented. From the various examples of the implementation of the smart parking system being presented, its efficiency in alleviating the traffic problem that arises especially in the city area where traffic congestion and the insufficient parking spaces are undeniable. It does so by directing patrons and optimizing the use of parking spaces.With the study on all the sensor technologies used in detecting vehicles, which are one of the most crucial parts of the smart parking system, the pros and cons of each sensor technologies can be analyzed. Although, there are certain disadvantages in the implementation of visual based system in vehicle detection as described earlier, the advantages far outweighs its disadvantages.ReferencesBarton, J., J. Buckley, B. O’Flynn, S.C. O’Mathuna and J.P. Benson et al., 2007. The D-systems project-wireless sensor networks for car-park management. Proceedings of the 65th Vehicular Technology Conference, April 22-25, 2007, VTC2007-Spring, pp: 170-173.Benson, J.P., T. O'Donovan, P. O'Sullivan, U. Roedig and C. Sreenan et al., 2006. Car park management using wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the 31st Conference on Local Computer Networks, November 14-16, 2006, Tampa, FL., USA., pp: 588-595.Bi, Y.Z., L.M. Sun, H.S. Zhu, T.X. Yan and Z.J. Luo, 2006. A parking management system based on wireless sensor network. Acta Automatica Sin., 32: 877-968.Bong, D.B.L., K.C. Ting and K.C. Lai, 2008. Integrated approach in the design of car-park occupancy information system. IAENG Int. J. Comput. 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De Lara, 2007. New products. IEEE Pervasive Comput., 6: 11-13.Farhan, B. and A.T. Murray, 2008. Siting park-and-ride facilities using a multi-objective spatial optimization model. Comput. Operat. Res., 35: 445-456.Funck, S., N. Mohler and W. Oertel, 2004. Determining car-park occupancy from single images. Proceedings of the Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, June 14-17, 2004, Dresden, Germany, pp: 325-328.Geetha, D.E., C.R.M. Reddy, T.V.S. Kumar and K.R. Kanth, 2007. Performance modeling and evaluation of e-commerce systems using UML 2.0. Proceedings of the 8th ACIS International Conference on Software Engineering, Artificial Intelligence, Networking and Parallel/Distributed Computing, (SNPD 2007), July 30-August 1 2007, Washington, DC., USA., pp: 1135-1140.Hampapur, A., L. Brown, J. Connell, A. Ekin and N. Haas et al., 2005. Smart video surveillance: Exploring the concept of multiscale spatiotemporal tracking. IEEE Signal Process. Mag., 22: 38-51.Hinze, D., 2000. Italians drive for smart card parking in major cities. Card Technol. Today, 2: 6-7.Hodel, T.B. and S. Cong, 2004. PSOS, parking space optimization service. Proceedings of the 4th Swiss Transport Research Conference, March 25-26, 2004, Monte Verita, Ascona, pp: 1-22.Horner, M.W. and S. Groves, 2007. Network flow-based strategies for identifying rail park-and-ride facility locations. Soc. Econ. Plann. Sci., 41: 255-268.Horner, M.W. and T.H. Grubesic, 2001. A GIS-based planning approach to locating urban rail terminals. Transportation, 28: 55-77.Huang, C.C., S.J. Wang, Y.J. Chang and T. Chen, 2008. A bayesian hierarchical detection framework for parking space detection Proceedings of the International Conference on Acoustic, Signal and Image Processing, March 31-April 4, 2008, Las Vegas, NV., pp: 2097-2100.Idris, M.Y.I. and E.M. Tamil, 2007. Parking information system using GPS and shortest path algorithm. Proceedings of the SCORED 2007, May 14-15, 2007, University of Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia, pp: 1-7.Idris, M.Y.I., N.M. Noor, Z. Razak and M.N. Ridzuan, 2005. Parking system using chain code and a-star algorithm. Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Systems, ICIS2005, December 1-3, 2005, Sunway Lagoon Resort Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, pp: 1-5.Idris, M.Y.I., Y.L. Yong, E.M. Tamil and N.Z Haron, 2008. Parking guidance system using RFID and image processing techniques in WSN environment. Proceedings of the 4th International Colloquium on Signal Processing and its Applications, March 7-9, 2008, Royale Bintang Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, pp: 1-6.Inaba, K., M. Shibui, T. Naganawa, M. Ogiwara and N. Yoshikai, 2001. Intelligent Parking Reservation Service on the Internet. Proceedings of the SAINT-W, Symposium on Applications and the Internet-Workshops, January 8-12, 2001, San Diego, CA, USA., pp: 159-164.Jones, W.D., 2006. Parking 2.0. IEEE Spectrum, 43: 20-20.Kastrinaki, V., M. Zervakis and K. Kalaitzakis, 2003. A survey of video processing techniques for traffic applications. Image Vision Comput., 21: 359-381.Kurogo, H., K. Takada and H. Akiyama, 1995. Concept of a parking guidance system and its effects in the Shinjuku area-configuration, performance and future improvement of system. Proceedings of the Vehicle Navigation and Information Systems Conference, 1995. In conjunction with the Pacific Rim TransTech Conference. 6th International VNIS. A Ride into the Future, July 30-August 2, 1995, Seattle, WA., USA., pp: 67-74.Lee, S., D. Yoon and A. Ghosh, 2008. Intelligent parking lot application using wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Collaborative Technologies and Systems, May 19-23, 2008, Irvine, CA., pp: 48-57.Lenz, J.E. and A.S. Edelstein, 2006. A review of magnetic sensors. IEEE Sensors J., 6: 631-649.Liu, Q., H. Lu, B. Zou and Q. Li, 2006. Design and development of parking guidance information system based on web and gis technology. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on ITS Telecommunications, June 21-23, 2006, Chengdu, pp: 1263-1266.Lopez Sastre, R.J., P. Gil Jimenez, F.J. Acevedo and S. Maldonado Bascon, 2007. Computer algebra algorithms applied to computer vision in a parking management system. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, June 4-7, 2007, Vigo, pp: 1675-1680.Mathijssen Aad, A. and P. Johannes, 2007. Verified design of an automated parking garage. Lecture Notes Comput. Sci., 4346: 165-180.Mimbela, L.Y. and L.A. Klein, 2007. A summary of vehicle detection and surveillance technologies used in intelligent transportation systems. New Mexico State University, Tech. Report, 2007. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ohim/tvtw/vdstits.pdf.Mouskos, K.C., M. Boile and N. Parker, 2007. Technical solutions to overcrowded park and ride facilities. University Transportation Research Center-Region 2. City College of New York. Final Report, FHWA-NJ-2007-01. http://www.nj.gov/transportation/refdata/research/reports/FHWA-NJ-2007-011.pdf.Ostojic, G., S. Stankovski, M. Lazarevic and V. Jovanovic, 2007. Implementation of RFID technology in parking lot access control system. Proceedings of the 1st Annual RFID Eurasia, September 5-6, 2007, Istanbul, pp: 1-5.Pala, Z. and N. Inanc, 2007. Smart parking applications using RFID technology. Proceedings of the 1st Annual RFID Eurasia, September 5-6, 2007, Istanbul, pp: 1-3.Rieback, M.R., B. Crispo and A.S. Tanenbaum, 2006. The evolution of RFID security. IEEE Pervasive Comput., 5: 62-69.Rieback, M.R., P.N.D. Simpson, B. Crispo and A.S. Tanenbaum, 2006. RFID malware: Design principles and examples. Pervasive Mobile Comput., 2: 405-426.Sakai, A., K. Mizuno, T. Sugimoto and T. Okuda, 1995. Parking guidance and information systems. Proceedings of the Vehicle Navigation and Information Systems Conference in Conjunction with the Pacific Rim TransTech Conference, 6th International VNIS. A Ride into the Future, July 30-August 2, 1995, IEEE, Xplore, pp: 478-485.Seong-Eun, Y., C. Poh Kit, K. Taehong, K. Jonggu and K. Daeyoung et al., 2008. PGS: Parking guidance system based on wireless sensor network. Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Wireless Pervasive Computing, May 7-9, 2008, IEEE Xplore, pp: 218-222.Shaheen, S.A., C.J. Rodier and A.M. Eaken, 2005. Smart parking management field test: A bay area rapid transit (bart) district parking demonstration. http://pubs.its.ucdavis.edu/download_pdf.php?id=44.Shim, S., S. Park and S. Hong, 2006. Parking management system using zigbee. Int. J. Comput. Sci. Network Security, 6: 131-137.Tamil, E.M., D. Salleh and M.Y. Idna, 2007. CaTSys 1.0-a mobile vehicle tracking system with GPS technology. Proceedings of the SCORED 2007, May 14-15, 2007, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia, pp: 1-11.Tang, V.W.S., Y. Zheng and J.N. Cao, 2006. An intelligent car park management system based on wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Pervasive Computing and Applications, August 3-5, 2006, Urumqi, pp: 65-70.Teodorovic, D. and P. Lucic, 2006. Intelligent parking systems. Eur. J. Operat. Res., 175: 1666-1681.Wang, Y.K. and S.H. Chen, 2005. A robust vehicle detection approach. Proceedings of the Conference on Advanced Video and Signal Based Surveillance, September 15-16, 2005, Taiwan, pp: 117-122.Wolff, J., J. Heuer, T. Haibin, G. Weinmann, M. Voit and S. Hartmann, 2006. Parking monitor system based on magnetic field senso. Proceedings of the Intelligent Transportation System Conference, September 17-20, 2006, Toronto, Ont., pp: 1275-1279.Wu, Q., C.C. Huang, S.Y. Wang, W.C. Chiu and T.H. Chen, 2007. Robust parking space detection considering inter-space correlation. Proceedings of the International Conference on Multimedia and Expo, July 2-5, 2007, Beijing, pp: 659-662.Safety and Satisfaction of the Patient(s)NameInstitutionSafety and Satisfaction of the Patient(s)IntroductionThe measurement and understanding of the roles of the caregiver, family experience, and patient safety afford offers an opportunity for the improvement and reflection of the nursing care and patient outcomes. Hence, the hospitals should offer safe patienthealth care that can fulfill or exceed the expectations of patientclientss. Patient safety and satisfaction can be ensured by providing services like family and patient-centered care. Open communication among the healthcare professional also could facilitate better patient outcomes. The hospitals should, therefore, provide safer patient care that not only meets but exceeds the patient’s expectation to ensure service quality. Ethical values such as family and patient-centered care and similar practices like open communication among the staff members contribute to both patient satisfaction and safety. TheUnderstanding following essay discusses different concepts of patient safety and comfort isare very important in ensuring a healthy by going through the following questions.society.Question One: How can patient safety measures lead to cost-saving.Patient safety measures are acknowledged as one of the effective methods to save costs. According to the report by the Department of Health (2015), shows tThe benefits of the nationwide efforts aimed at safer patient care vindicate this argument. The patient safety measures, for instance, in mentioned in the provisions of the Affordable Care Act, has seen close to 150,000 fewer patients’ mortality as a result of the hospital-acquired conditions. Even more, it has saved more than $28 billion in terms of health care costs from 2012-2017. Similar measures,The implementationobseravationobservation of (patient safety measures,) have made ensured that more than 5million fewer patients have had hospital-acquired conditions within the same duration. This is a 31% decline in the reported rates of adverse events reported through in the same period. (Department of Health, 2015). A hospital-acquired condition is one which that is developed by inthe a patient while receiving treatment in the a health care hospitalsetting for something else. In general, the ,hospital-acquired conditions involve pressure injuries, bloodstream infections, UTIs, and adverse drug events, among others. The decline in these incidences is with alignment with one of the primary goals of the Affordable Care Act, and its object of of improving patient safety and imprenhancing oving the quality of patient care. For example, just by a reduction in adverse-events, the country has been able to prevent approximately 10, 000 deaths, which alone have saved the nation about $ 3.2 billion (Department of Health, 2015).. Patient safety measures can act as tools that are used to build better healthcare systems for protecting the makingpatients, and improving their satisfaction while saving costs and lives.Question Two: Briefly define the Joint Commission’s role in healthcare.It is a non-profit, private entity that was established in the year 1951 to assess and evaluate facilities that may voluntarily pursue accreditation. To date, tThe commission has been involved in the evaluation and accreditation of more than 25, 000 facilities around the UUnited States, tillto date.S. Up to date, tThe commission organization has accredited more than 5,000 hospitals around the Ucountry.S., not mentioning and more than 10, 000 healthcare organizations and home care facilities which that offer ambulatory care, laboratory facilities, and and long-term care services (Espinosa, 2015). Through its role of evaluation and accreditation, it the commission can create health plans and vital networks which that help in research and transformative patient care. The Joint Commission Presidents head the board and the governance of the commission with is overseen by representatives from the American Medical Association, American Hospital Association, American Dental Association, and American College of Surgeons, American College of Physicians, Nursing Association, and six members of the public.Many state governments insist that their health care organizations should have an accreditation from the commission as in matters pertainingof to MmedicaidMedicaid reimbursement and licensing condition (Espinosa, 2015). Furthermore, the CMS, ( Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services), is acquainted wcooperates with and recognizes surveys done by the commission, which implies that accredited organizations accredited by the commission can take part in any federal MmedicareMedicare program. But,However, any organization that has not been surveyed by this commission can choose CMS surveys as one of theirhe requirements in for the participation of in the Medicare program (Espinosa, 2015). Put differently, the role of this commission is setting standards, which form the principles in acordingaccording to which the healthcare organizations operate to enhance their performance and ensure patient satisfaction. Precisely, these standards are aimed at ensuring patient safety and quality outcomes. Most importantly, these standards are developed through interactions made amongby government agencies, healthcare providers, and consumers through a comprehensive process including presentation to experts, preparation of preparing drafts, and conversing consultation with the advisors.Question Three: Reflect on your future role in healthcare and how you will contribute to patient safety.As a future health care provider, the nurse-associated duties will revolve around reducing patient safety concerns like missed care, patient handoffs, infections, falls, and medication errors. Specifically, this will cabn be achieved through the following: by following the necessary professional goals and ethics.It is sSupporting the culture of patient safety is, hence, is very crucial for better patient outcome .outcomes. This will can be achieved by complying with the behaviors and values demonstrating ensuring sustained and collective commitment, which emphasizeing on safety over competing goals. Such a culture is one that is based on trust, and it will offering the necessary resources that may help in nurse staffing, the display ofing transparency, and will may helpfacilitate learning from previous errors. Secondly, it is through excellent communication is another aspect that can contribute significantly to patient safety (Espinosa, 2015). As a health care provider, one of the my duties will involve speaking up in case something unsafe may isbe bound to occur or has happened. For instance, if a patient may may requirebe in need ofs assistance or equipment is not working. Also, as a nurse, one a professional canmay bring an issue forward through shared governance, by meeting upinforming with the nurse leader, or the management (Espinosa, 2015). Thirdly, it may be merely following the checklists and performing primary care, but isuch duties aret is important in ensuring the well-being of the patient. A nurse should not skip negelectneglect tasks like turning patients or giving oral care. According to a study by Kohn (2016), the risk of pneumonia can be reduced through oral care. Furthermore, a patient can develop decubitus ulcers if not turned. LastlyAnother important aspect inof ensuring patient safety, it is by ensuring better engagementing with the patient. Activities that may help engage with the patient may include asking him/ or her about individual goals, listening to their questions, especially those related to care. As an example, the nurse may can plan toa engage in a more user-friendly administration medication record and give it to the patient every day.Question Four: Role of a CNO regarding Ppatient Ss afetyThe purpose of a CNO is one that requires a clear understanding of patient care procedures and policies. The individual must be able to have display excellent organization and leadership skills in order to perform effectively and support the goals of healthcare.As a CNO, in order to promote patient safety, then a practitioner should one ought to be able to carry out the followinga set of responsibilities entrusted with her or him. First, :To start with are a professional should understand the relevance of the administrative roles of in maintaining patient safety. A CNO should be able to carry out a wide range of administrative duties that ensure patient safety. Actually, some of these duties involve taking assuming the place dutiesresponsibilitiespowers of the CEO or the chief administrator of the hospital (Molven, 2014). This Such responsibilities involve is the by planning and overseeing of the daily activities of the hospital. For example, a CNO has to play an important role in the overall by the organization of the various activities pertaining to the day-to-day functioning of the institution. A CNO ation, giving directsion and coordinatesion of these activities such and ensures that they comply with the policies and government regulations and as well as the standards set by the board of trustees. In this process, the CNO evaluates, shortlists, and hires the nurses or educates the existing ones on the best health practices. In other instances, the a CNO will plan budgets for purchasing equipment and staffing that will set decide the rate quality of services to guarantee quality better care, patient safety, and satisfaction.In addition, theThe CNO must also undertake leadership roles to assure patient safety. The government expects the CNO as to be the part of the management team to have set the high standards that can be followed by other members of staff. He The professionalor She should be an inspiration that who encourages others to uphold best practices on how to handle the patients efficiently. For example, a the CNO is required to set up a very conducive environment that will help the other nursing staff to adopt strategies that enhance collaboration. Collaboration is essential because it promotes quality outcomes, including the safety of patients. In this case, the duty of the CNO will go surpass thebeyond responsibilities of a nursing professional, as he or she has to offering service as a trainer, representative, and a spokesperson at seminars and conferences. The chief nurse can as should thoroughly review other nurses’ certifications, which will guarantee that they comply with the professional guidelines.s including patient safety.Another point is that theA CNO also performs advisory roles with regards toin patient safety. The CNO must act as the Cchief adviser. This In this role, the chief nurse is by helpsing the facility to run smoothly while by ensuringobserving the maintenanceadherence to of patient safety measures and healthcare standards. One way of doing this is by uUndertaking extensive research, preparing reports, and evaluatingon of these results, and citing as the best approach that the hospital can take in streamlining operations can ensure the smooth functioning of the institution.. The CNO will also advise hospital management in the manner of undertaking on the recruitment of nurses. A CNO in the public sector provides advisory services to the federal and state governments, which that may help to streamlineeing the regulations of patient safety.Also, the CNO liaises with the physicians. Typically, several hospitals have problems of in keeping maintaining a perfect working relationships between of the nurses and the physicians. This dramatically hampers patient safety. A CNO will act as the link of among hospital administrators, nurses, and physicians (Molven, 2014). This ensures that LPNs and RNs provide the needed necessary support to the physicians in all departments. These may include patient observation based on doctors’ instructions, and patient information retrieval, and as well as giving accurate diagnostic tools. Part of this will be rReviewing the hospital policies and making changes, if necessary, are also part of this responsibility.Lastly, it is pProviding day-to-day nursing duties is also another important role of the professional. The CNO has a mandate by the administration to maintain the patient and clinical care standards. This Hence, CNO has to ensure the is by providing safety to of the patients and their accessibility to the needed necessary medical care. The CNO may achieve this by working closely to with the different stakeholders and the hospital management in order to acquire the right resources and infrastructure (Molven, 2014). He or She willThe role also demands to offering the as well offer the best management insight that improves the facility’s quality of care. In other words, the chief nursing officer formulates and implements nursing strategies, something that requires extensive knowledge of patient policies, staff rules, and nursing procedures.ReferencesDepartment of Health. (2015). Building a safer NHS for patients. Implementing an organisationorganization with a memory (2015).. London: The Stationery Office. Retrieved from http://158.132.155.107/posh97/private/GSP/NHS.pdf.Espinosa, J. A. (2015). Reducing errors made by emergency physicians in interpreting radiographs: lLongitudinal study. BMJ;, 320:, 737-740. Retrieved from Reducing errors made by emergency physicians in interpreting radiographs: longitudinal study.Kohn, L.T. (2016). To err is human: Building a safer health system. Washington DC: National Academy PressMolven, O. (2014). Compulsory reporting of accidents and injuries in somatic hospitals. Is the existing system adequate for quality assurance? Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen,112(24):3095-9. Retrieved from [Compulsory reporting of accidents and injuries in somatic hospitals. Is the existing system adequate for quality assurance?].NUTRITION RESEARCH PAPERInstitutional AffiliationStudent NumberCourse NumberNUTRITION RESEARCH PAPERNo one disputes that fact that milk is essential when a baby born. In fact, milk as a diet is the best nutrition that newborn babies should be offered. One report by the American Academy of Pediatrics (2015) has indicated that for newborn babies, until 1 to 2 years of age, should be breastfed continuously. But, to breastfeed to that age is often difficult. This can be attributed to the fact that mothers need to return to work, and the children will also go off to day care or preschool. While the author continues to note importance of milk consumption, more evidence continues to surface showing that at certain point in adults’ life, its consumption may not be helpful; actually, it is detrimental! This comes in spite the move by United State Department of Agriculture recommendation and advocacy on milk consumption in among adults, suggesting 3 cups a day (Dugdill, 2017).To start with, one reason for drinking milk has been that it protects against hip fracture. However, no evidence exists to support this claims. In the year 2015, a research was conducted by the Journal of Bone and Mineral Research (2018). The study was done six times and constituted close to 200, 000 women. In this research, - a published meta-analysis of the impact of milk consumption on hip fracture among the middle-aged and older adults, showed no association between drinking milk and lowering the rate of fractures. A follow up study by Drewnowski (2018), which was done on 61,000 women and 45,000 men in Sweden, with 40 years and above had similar results. Milk consumption in adults has no protection for men, and actually, increases the risk of fractures among women (Drewnowski, 2018). Even though the second study was not a randomized controlled trial, but that cannot assume the causality in that case. There is no link of these associated benefits to milk consumption. A significant associate is more harm and death to both sexes (Dugdill, 2017).Secondly, milk has been fortified to vitamin D in the United States. Many believe that it lends numerous drink bone-friendly properties (Rehm, Drewnowski, Monsivais, 2017).). The evidence that supports this assumption is very sketchy as well. While it remains true that vitamin D is needed for bone health and calcium absorption, this does not mean that people should consume more of it. Colemen-Jensen et al. (2016) published a meta-analysis that was a thorough examination of the impact of Vitamin D supplementation on the density on bone mineral among the middle-age and older adults. It showed that, to a very measurable extent, extra vitamin D does not improve bones of the forearm, hip or spine. It results to a statistically significant, but much less clinically meaningful, increase in the density of bones which are the top of the thighbone. Put differently, there is no effect of vitamin D on the overall mineral bone density of the body.Lastly, milk is not a low-calorie beverage. Consumption of non-fat milk, three cups a day, implies that an additional 250 calories have been consumed. The whole milk or low fat has even more calories (World Bank, 2017). In this era, especially where there is marginalization of other calories beverage following rampant obesity concerns, it is very odd that milk has continued to get a pass.In conclusion, everything including milk is perfectly good in moderate quantities. But what else would one put on cereal? It is unthinkable to have cookies without milk. Nothing will be wrong to take a periodic glass because one likes milk. Nevertheless, no evidence exists to support that adults need it. No evidence is there to show that it is doing them much good.ReferenceAmerican Academy of Pediatrics. (2017). Low-Fat Milk Consumption among Children and Adolescents in the United States, 2007–2017; NCHS Data Brief; National Center for Health Statistics: Hyattsville, MD, USA, 2017; pp. 1–8. Retrieved from: Trends in Food and Beverage Consumption Among Infants and Toddlers: 2005–2012 (Accessed October 23, 2019)Colemen-Jensen, A., Rabbitt, M.P., Gregory, C.A., Singh, A. (2016). Household Food Security in the United States in 2015; ERS Rep No. 215; Department of Agriculture: Washington, DC: USA. Retrieved from https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/84973/err-237.pdf (Accessed October 23, 2019)Dugdill, B.T. (2017). The village milk system – an alternative, low-cost milk collecting and in-pouch pasteurising system. Poster paper presented at the FAO e-mail conference on Milk Collection and Processing in Developed Countries, 29 May to 28 July 2015. Available at: http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/themes/documents/LPS/DAIRY/ecs/Proceedings/econf-proc-english.pdf (Accessed October 23, 2019)Drewnowski, A. (2018). The contribution of milk and milk products to micronutrient density and affordability of the US diet. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2011, 30, 422S–428S. Retrieved from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07315724.2011.10719986?scroll=top&needAccess=true&journalCode=uacn20 (Accessed October 23, 2019)Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. (2018). The next food revolution. Food, Agriculture and the Environment Discussion International Food Policy Research Institute: Washington, DCRehm, C.D, Drewnowski, A., Monsivais, P. (2017). Potential population-level nutritional impact of replacing whole and reduced-fat milk with low-fat and skim milk among US children aged 2–19 years. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2015, 47, 61–68. Retrieved from: Does milk matter: Is children's intake affected by the type or amount of milk served at a meal? (Accessed October 23, 2019)World Bank. (2017b). Determinants of human nutrition and the pathways linking agriculture and nutrition. In From agriculture to nutrition; pathways, synergies and outcomes, pp. 9–14. Report no. 40916–GLB. Washington, DC, World Bank. Available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTARD/Resources/Final.pdf. Accessed 25 October 2012.Part 2:Biblical Theology PlanStudent NumberCourse NumberTutorDATEIntroductionA strong correlation exists between actions, faith and beliefs. That is, an individual’s actions will naturally follow their belief and their belief determines their level of faith. At its heart, Christianity attempts to develop people’s faith by sharing of belief. Put differently, a person belief will set the framework for their methodology and content of any Christian ministry. An individual must therefore engage with clear beliefs because these beliefs work or affect the ministry. The following paper discusses chosen theological concepts, spiritual formation and how this can be applied for the ministry contexts.Theological termsMetaphysicsChristian ministry depends on metaphysics, which is concerned with the nature of reality and individual being . In the context of this position paper, metaphysics refers to the topics dealing with the human being and nature of existence. The assumption made by the author is that there exist two spheres of existence: the spiritual and physical. Even more, the author assumes that both spheres may be discovered through physical senses and reason. But, it is worth noting that such knowledge relies on physical senses or reason. Consequently, the existence of truth, God and spiritual reality is taken into consideration as described in the scripture.Biblical TheologyCentral to the Christian ministry and Biblical Theology is the underlying belief on God’s existence and the entire message in which Christianity is predicated is on the idea that God exists. In that case, a person’s belief on who God is, affects their communication of the message of a particular ministry. Also, God’s existence is uncaused first cause, and is for that reason eternal. Nothing exists in the spiritual or physical spheres that exist if not God. God’s eternity demands that his existence stands out of time with nor beginning or end. With all the intelligence, self-awareness, rationality and creativity; God is a person. He is also omnipotent and he is capable of doing all that is able to be done. His omnipresent nature implies that He has existence in all spaces of reality at every time. God is omniscient, which means he knows all that can be known. The author in this context attributes God’s omnipotence to intentional lack of knowledge. Furthermore, God is holy, unique, perfect, self-complete, and separate from creations and sin (Gen. 1:1, 22:12; Dt. 32:4, 33:27; Ps. 139:7; 2 Sam. 22:31; Mt. 5:48; Acts 15:17-18; Heb. 4:13; 1 Jn. 4:8, 16; Rev. 1:8). His holiness dictates what he can or cannot do. Everything he does is away from evil and He is good. He is faithful in love and therefore He is love. He is able to demonstrate mercy, faithfulness, grace and personal revelation. God is triune which means He is one God in unity of purpose and will yet exists in three eternal entities: the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.HarmatiologyThis is the doctrine of sin . It offers Christianity answer to evil and its existence. Harmatiology seeks to explain why our physical world experience suffering including death. Conceptually, sin is the antithesis of God and thus entails anything not made of God. Following the fact that all God’s commandments are relational decrees of loving God and mankind; any action or thought without these motivations is therefore considered sin. Despite the fact that no any sin is greater than another, there are two categorizations of sin: sins of omission and sins of commission. Lastly, all creations have fallen into the state of depravity since the beginning and fall of mankind. The act of rebellion against God by the first man and woman is what introduced sin in nature. Ever since, sin has become a very influential force in all creations that are in a desperate attempt for redemption (Gen. 1:26-31, 3:16-19, 6:5-7; Rom. 1:18-32).EpistemologyIn the Christian ministry, epistemology asserts what predicates the truth. It studies knowledge and truth. Human beings will know truth through reason, senses and revelation. By definition, truth is something that confirms actuality and how it corresponds to the reality . Jesus is the way and foundation to all truth. While God possesses all truth, it must be noted that He does not reveal all truth and a balance between skeptical epistemology and dogmatic theology ought to be maintained. The intent of the author in this exposition is to maintain such a balance.AxiologyIn a broad sense, axiology studies the values . This essay focuses on aesthetics and moral values. In the assertion proposed by this theological position paper, is that values may be objectively expressed and measured. God has the definition of beauty, good and what is valuable and these makes the highest measure of these things. The Christian ministry should be performed such that everything that is highlighted is attributed to God. The author expresses God’s power, beauty and goodness within created realities.HermeneuticsIn biblical context, this studies methods and principles which seek to interpret the biblical text. God has commanded all believers to beware and be involved in hermeneutics (2nd Timothy 2:15). The key goal of hermeneutics is to allow believers to understand, interpret and apply biblical texts. One important law of biblical hermeneutics is that biblical translation should be literal. It should be understood in the plain, normal manner unless the passages have intentional figures of speech of symbolism employed. For the Bible says what it means. As an example, when Christ fed the “five thousand people” according to Mark 8:19, the hermeneutics law insists that the value was five thousand literally. Attempting to spiritualize or deny miracle workings of the savior is doing injustice besides ignoring the key goal of the language used to communicate.Often the interpreters will make a mistake to try and read the scriptures and come up with esoteric meanings that may not be truly within the text as if the passages have a hidden spiritual truth that ought to be decrypted. But, the objective of Biblical hermeneutics is keeping believers faithful to the intentional meaning of the scriptures in which case the verses should take literal meaning.Ministry PraxisEducational AssumptionsGod chose and will continue to choose educating people. The author believes that all human creation is capable of learning. This is because learning has impact on values and believes. Education in its fullest will point man to the need for fundamental receptivity and openness of the truth. The author maintains that education is indispensable when it comes to the Christian ministry.The Role of Preaching for EducationThe responsibility of a preacher or a teaching pastor is educating the believer to understand and practically apply the scriptures in their day to day lives. The teaching must be founded on exegetical principals. Most important for the preacher is to know that the Bible was written by people in different situations and time, and it’s incumbent on the preacher to teach such backgrounds to the congregation in order to improve their understanding. In addition, the congregational orthodoxy must be upheld so as to not lead to biblical contradiction or prompting changes in the guidance of the Holy Spirit . Hence, teaching foundational, solid doctrine is critical. The doctrine might or might not consist of the traditional creeds of Christianity.Spiritual formation of the BelieverUniversally, the believer’s spiritual formation is the church’s responsibility. However, this should be a primary function of the local congregation. Fellow Christians ought to be directed by the scriptures to teach and mentor other believers who may be spiritually less mature. The narrator does not deny the role Holy Spirit does to mature the believers, but also insists on the additional role to be played by the church in education, and mentorship of the fellow congregants.Leadership MinistryPersonal Character of LeadersThe church leader ought to imitate Christ. This is because a failure in leadership has consequences for individual believers and the corporate congregation. As such, leaders must be humble, wise and full of integrity. They must also be honest, putting their word beyond and above reproach. Additionally, a leader must be quick to forgive and slow to anger. They must possess mindfulness beyond humility in their hearts and walk in the image of God, -submitting to His authority and that of the Holy Scripture.Servant LeadershipThe fullness of imitating Christ comes by servant leadership . This leadership style is by meeting the people’s needs with disregard to their cultural or social class. It is a leadership style that flows out of love and puts others benefits in front of oneself . Love is an overarching principle declared by the scriptures and therefore it is the key principal virtue for Christian leaders.ConclusionChristian ministry is based on the truth. God has elected himself so that his truth may be revealed through His creations, human and angelic agents, the Bible, Jesus Christ and the guidance of the Holy Spirit. None of named principles takes precedence over another as God is the master who determines the method of revelation. But each form used for revelation is enough to justify the condemnation of the sinner against the creator (Jn. 1:14, 16-18; Rom. 1:18-20; Ps. 19:1-6; 1 Pt. 1:10-12, 20; 2 Pt. 1:20-21; Heb. 1:1-2)A general revelation of God is creations, which is perceivable to all mankind. The existence, order and aesthetics of all creations speak of the God as creative, intellect, omniscience and omnipotent. All these four attributes are perceivable through creations. For example, God is cosmological meaning He is the first cause; He is teleological meaning He is the designer; He is anthropological which means He is a person; and lastly, He is relational which implies He gives the moral laws.To provide special messages God used revelation. The messages were either human (prophets) or angelic in nature. Even though, these messengers may be present today to offer direct revelation, majority of the revelations are preserved in the Holy Scriptures. Even more, the Bible is inerrant when it comes to authoritative matters, and original autographs in matters of salvation and faith. Its authorship was inspired by God through the Holy Spirit.In conclusion, just like all pieces of literature, scriptures must be understood in the historical and literal context. Readers should endeavor to understand the author’s context, to what audience was the scriptures written and intended meaning for the notations. Nonetheless, the scriptures antiquity makes these undertaking a bit difficult as the possible historical context and meaning may not be comprehensible.BibliographyAquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica, 5 volumes. New York: Penguin, 2017.Augustine. Confessions. Henry Chadwick, trans. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.Augustine. The City of God. Leicester: IVP, 2014.Calvin, John. Institutes of Christian Religion, Philadelphia: Westminster, 2015Gonzalez, Justo. The Story of Christianity. Arvada:Prince Press, 1999; originally published in two volumes by Harper SanFrancisco, 1984/85. Overview of the first five centuries of Christian history.Lynch, Joseph. The Medieval Church: A Brief History. Pearson: Longman, 2016.Part 1:Application of theological terms in ministry contextsStudent NumberCourse NumberTutorDATEApplication of theological terms in ministry context1. AxiologyThe term axiology denotes the value theory that is a typical indication of the criteria, kinds, nature and status of value judgments and the attempt to resolve such disputes as to whether the values are objective or subjective. Despite the significance of moral values as aesthetic and religious ones, “axiological ethics” will determine the right and wrong actions based on the consequences, and ends normally identical to theological ethics.2. Biblical theologyIn ministry, Biblical theology studies the Bible doctrines while arranging them in an historical background and chronological order. Contrary to systematic theology, that categorizes doctrines based on specific topics, biblical theology unfolds God’s revelation and its progression through history. In addition, it may seek to express and isolate theological teachings on specific portions of the scripture for instance, the Pentateuch, or the theology existing in John’s writing etc. or it may solely focus on specific periods of time, like the theology contained in unified kingdom years.3. EpistemologyEpistemology is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature and scope of human knowledge . Epistemology asks the questions on how knowledge is acquired, what knowledge encompasses and what exactly do people know. Furthermore, it addresses the statements of belief. Knowledge entails the belief, and one’s knowledge may never conflict with the individual’s statement of belief . Conversely, to have knowledge about a belief is not necessarily an endorsement of its truth. For example, a coherent statement would “Someone knows about Islam, but he/she does not believe in it.”4. HamartiologyBiblical Hamartiology studies sin. It tries to explain where sin originated, its impact on humanity and its end result following death. The word sin essentially means “missing the mark”. All man has missed God’s mark in righteousness (Romans 3:23). Consequently, the aim of Hamartioloy is to explicate on missing the mark, on why we do so, why and the consequences.5. HermeneuticsIn ministry Biblical hermeneutic deals with the methods and principles used in the interpretation of Biblical text. 2nd Timothy 2:25 instructs that Christians be aware and not be involved in hermeneutics. Its application is by presenting oneself in Godly approved ways and correctly handling God’s word. Hermeneutics helps to understand interpret and properly apply the bible. Even more, hermeneutics emphasizes that the bible should be interpreted literally (in a plain, normal way) unless the passage employs symbolism or figure of speech.6. MetaphysicsThe ministry uses the phrase spiritual metaphysics to denote or refer to use of mental and spiritual efforts to achieve physical outcomes. This may also imply the gray area between spiritual and physical. This type of metaphysics is closely linked to New Age beliefs, and there exists no widely accepted or clear definition of the term. Moreover, spiritual metaphysics is not attached to any explicit religious perspectives even though most of their contexts suggest pantheistic worldviews. Put differently, metaphysics deploys philosophical views relating to the ultimate reality: what existence is like and what exists, in their most fundamental sense.BibliographyGrentz, J. Stanley. Pocket Dictionary of Theological Terms. New York: Penguin, 1999.Illness Narrative Type 2 DiabetesNameInstitutionIllness Narrative Type 2 DiabetesIntroductionType 2 diabetes is one of the chronic diseases. It is a heterogeneous disorder that varies in prevalence among the different ethnic groups. For instance, in the U.S. the most affected populations include the Native Americans, more precisely the Asian Americans, Hispanic-Americans and desert South westerners (America Diabetes Association, 2018). The illness is characterized by higher levels of blood sugar. It is also referred to as adult-onset diabetes or type 2 diabetes mellitus. This is because it was previously prone to commence at the middle and late adulthood stages of life. But, presently, the illness continues to affect more and more teenagers and children. The following paper is an illness narrative following an interview with a patient, Mr, Mike (62 years old and obese), who has been diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. The paper looks at various elements and concludes by comparing the patient experience and the clinical description.PathophysiologyThe main pathophysiological features of the disease as discussed with the patient following the interview include increased insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion which jointly will result to the development of the condition. In recent times, the patient was alerted by his doctor it that with time, the functional pancreatic cell mass will decrease therefore making the ailment a progressive disease. This confirms the studies carried out by Caramori, Luiza & Michael (2017) which showed that some individuals like the Japanese possess several genes that are susceptible to diabetes (350 genes in total). Nevertheless, several environmental factors on top of these genetic factors all play a role in the onset of the disease. Consequently, the numbers of patients are likely to increase to reflect the recent changes in lifestyle (Caramori et al., 2017).The patient mentioned about impaired secretion of insulin which from my analysis results from lowered glucose responsiveness particularly the decrease in postprandial-phase secretion; a very critical pathophysiological condition. Particularly, this if left untreated, glucolipotoxicity will cause a decline in functional cell mass. This has linked the patient treatment of diabetes by securing quality of life and lifespan which can be done by preventing progression of vascular complications.EtiologyThe type 2 diabetes characteristic is insulin resistance and progressive decrease of the pancreatic β cell insulin production. During very initial stages, the patient did not need (something he claims his doctor advised) insulin because up to date there is no an autoimmune-mediated damage of the pancreatic β cell.More specifically, insulin resistance is whereby there is a production of insulin but it is not used. The given quantity of insulin has no anticipated results. Being an obese diabetic patient it could be that chronic inflammation which is closely linked to obesity has affected the proper functioning of insulin receptors on the cells in the muscles, liver etc. The decrease in number of insulin receptors consequently inactivates insulin receptors or affects signaling pathways of insulin. On the same, when functional pancreatic β cell decline progressively is most likely due to a decrease in the cell mass β resulting for apoptosis. The condition with this patient (65 years old and obese) is attributed to insulin resistance itself, genetic susceptibility or aging. But, what the author has come to notice is that the type 2 diabetes etiology is very complex and involves both the lifestyles and genetic factors.The genetic factor is where susceptible genes play a definite role in developing the condition. According to Maritim (2014), this contribution seems to be very small. The effect occurs due to the common gene variants which create type 2 diabetes pre-dispositions that are close to 5-10% (p.89). Therefore, unlike some of the inherited diseases, being homozygous for this particular susceptibility is not a guarantee case of type-2 diabetes unless the crucial environmental factors come into play like in this case. Mike is the only diabetic patient in his family. In addition are the demographic or lifestyle factors. Maritim (2014) has stressed that obesity is one major risk of developing type 2 diabetes, and therefore, the risk increases with obesity. Particularly, excess adipose tissue is a state of chronic inflammation. Insulin resistance will result from this inflammation in the adipose tissue or any other organ. Also, other risk factors for the development of type 2 diabetes include metabolic syndrome, sedentary lifestyle and age which could also apply to Mike.PathogenesisOrdinarily, the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes is the development of insulin resistance which is attributed to compensatory hyperinsulinemia. For Mike, this is what followed the gradual impairment of the beta-cell which would then result into hyperglycemia and a reduction in insulin secretion. Hyperglycemia will cause extra inhibition of insulin secretion and even more glucose toxicity (insulin resistance) further accentuating hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia has a general sign of tiredness and fatigues something that Mike mentioned. Hence, type 2 diabetes development is a consequence of two abnormalities: deficient secretion of insulin and impaired insulin action. Sadly, both impairments are worsened by hyperglycemia. Insulin resistance can be compensated by normal beta cells. In that case, type 2 diabetes does not occur in absence of β-cell abnormalities (Klaus & Andrea, 2015).Morphologic ChangesA patient may not be able to narrate the morphological changes. But, generally the pancreas contains endocrine and exocrine compartment, with the former made up of the pancreatic islet in it endocrine (ε, F, δ, α and β cells) together with enormous neural and vascular supply. Within the islet, the morphological organization of these cells is critical for a normal functioning of the endocrine. But, with the condition of type 1 and 2 diabetes, numerous morphological changes take place in the pancreas. Mainly, it is the loss of β cells. The loss of beta cells will as well takes place in cystic fibrosis-related diabetes, which therefore implies that the exocrine abnormalities of the pancreas to a very big extent will affect the islet. In type 3 diabetes, the etiology linked to β-cell demise is even more complex. Inflammation, amyloid depositions are some of the underlying mechanisms of losing beta-cells.Clinical ManifestationsType 2 diabetes symptoms have a very gradual appearance (Klaus & Andrea, 2015). In fact, Mike stated that he did not notice these symptoms during the early stages of the disease. But, with time he had these signs and symptoms, which include the following:• Increased thirst and frequent urination: this is because when there is an excess buildup of glucose builds up in the bloodstream, the body responses by extraction more fluid from tissue cells. Consequently, the individual will fell more thirsty and drink more water and urinate more• Increased hunger: the illness makes the body cell unable to access enough glucose for energy. Therefore, the organs and muscles will have very low energy and the patient will feel more hungry that normal• Weight loss: Without insulin, the human body cannot burn fat because they require more energy and instead protein in used. This will cause weight loss. Mike has lost more than 15 Kgs.• Fatigue: With the lack of glucose the body will become tired. Fatigue interferes with day to day life endeavors. He cannot walk for long distances or run.• Blurred vision: Excess blood glucose could result in pulling fluid from the eye lenses which causes swelling and temporary blurred vision. Mike cannot read with dim light or without glasses sometimes.• Sores and infection: The disease causes poor blood circulation which makes it even longer for the patient to recover from infections. There could also be other nutritional deficits. His wounds take time to heal like the one in his shoulder when he fell off the bathtub.DiagnosisThere are a number of tests that can be done to a person to determine whether they have any form of diabetes. The test that was done to Mike was Glycated hemoglobin (A1C). This test indicates the average level of blood sugar in a person. According to this test, normal blood sugar levels should always be lower than 5.7 percent. If the reading is between 5.7 and 6.4, then pediabetes attention is needed. Mikes scored initial 6.4 then 6.5. A level of 6.5 and above is an indication that the condition of the patient is critical and immediate attention is required (American Diabetes Association, 2017). The American Diabetes Association always advises that routine screening is necessary for type 2 diabetes for patients who are 45 years and above (Klaus & Andrea, 2015). This is mandatory for a patient in this category, and they are obese. However, if the diagnosis of the patient yields normal results, then it is necessary to repeat the test after three years, though it is not mandatory. A healthy lifestyle is advisable to reduce the risks of developing diabetes.Clinical CourseMike visits the hospital frequently on weekly basis. Two months ago he said he was bedridden. A patient suffering from type 2 diabetes that have been presented to the hospital with have higher burden of comorbidity. They will therefore require longer hospital stays, because they are at risk of subsequent readmission. Modern treatment regiments include intense therapy which has worked well with Mike. But, a careful evaluation of what best future strategy of treatment should be undertaken like in the case of Mike. This is to take account of the patient’s comorbidities including the renal function.Summary-- Interviewee Experience with the Clinical DescriptionsIn summary, the individual personal experience after being diagnosed with type 2 diabetes is a challenge. Most general reaction to the diagnosis was the concerns about the future and anticipated life changes. For one, this follows the anticipated multifactorial treatment and cardiovascular risk that the patient was to encounter. The reason for this is that Type 2 diabetes’s clinical course is intense therapy. Intensive feeling also came with the anticipated lifestyle changes such as inability to undertake some of the daily life tasks such as driving and reading because the disease affected various organ systems.ReferencesAmerican Diabetes Association. (2018). Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes care 27.suppl 1: s5-s10. Accessed at: Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes MellitusCaramori, M., Luiza, N. & Michael, K.M. (2017). Diabetes and nephropathy.Current opinion in nephrology and hypertension. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1.4: S119-S213. Accessed at: [Full text] Diabetic nephropathy – complications and treatment | IJNRDKlaus, C, & Andrea, K. (2015). Role of physical activity in diabetes management and prevention.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 108.4: S19-S23. Accessed at: https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/handle/2123/12569/9781920899851_Chapter_16.pdf;jsessionid=B9661E491F23E2BD7AD551C4FBEBEE1E?sequence=3Maritim, A. C. (2014). Diabetes, oxidative stress, and antioxidants: A review. Journal of biochemical and molecular toxicology 17.1: 24-38. Accessed at: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8789/be54f9980364005a13ccd80190451e8a3a48.pdfStudent NameTutorCourse NumberDatePolitical Ethics AssignmentPart 1The results indicate that the author is a centrist or an opportunity democrat. This implies that the narrator prefers to hold “middle ground” on issues relating to personal behavior, the economy and government control. Depending on the issues, a centrist or opportunity democrat may favor interventions by the government, or support the citizens’ freedom of choice. In my opinion, I agree with the results from the quiz because I have always prided myself with keeping an open mind. I lean towards the left-wing politics always opposing the social hierarchy. I oppose “political extremism” and will always emphasize on “practical” solutions to our problemsPart 2Public opinion is an aggregate of individual beliefs or attitudes held by adult population. It is a complex collection of different view of people and sums up all these views. The author chose this topic because it expresses the thinking, wants and desires of the population majority. The collective opinion can therefore be used to define the state or society thinking.In one issue relating to public opinion is on Immigration and borders security. Statistics by PollingReport.com indicate that 57% of Americans approve allowing refugees to come into the country (PollingReport.com para. 2). Even interesting, a similar figure (58.7%) has been reported by RealClear Politics (RealClear Politics para. 4). The two sources hold nonpartisan positions. On the contrary, Fox News Channel indicates that more than 70% of Americans do not support accepting immigrants (Fox News Channel para. 6). The television new channel has been widely identified with conservative idealism practicing biased reporting that favors the Republican Party, including Donald Trump administration, George W. Bush etc. while slandering Democratic party views. In the author’s opinion, such a mainstream channel would not be a good tool to learn American politics.Work CitedPollingReport.com. Immigration and Border Security. (2019) Retrieved from: Immigration (Accessed October 18, 2019)RealClear Politics . Trump: The Same People Who Want Us To Fight Endless Wars Want Us To Open Our Borders. (2019). Retrieved from: Trump: The Same People Who Want Us To Fight Endless Wars Want Us To Open Our Borders (Accessed October 18, 2019)Fox News Channel. Immigrants; The American Disaster. (2019). Retrieved from: Trump's Doral resort to host next G-7 summit, as White House defends choice (Accessed October 18, 2019)Last edited 1 hour ago by ElijourContent is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted.Terms of UsePrivacyDesktop