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According to evolution, where did DNA come from?To answer the question , a bit of backward software engineering will be necessary.The first step is to confirm if it will be possible.According to the J Craig Venter Institute the possibility exist.“Genomic science has greatly enhanced our understanding of the biological world. It is enabling researchers to "read" the genetic code of organisms from all branches of life by sequencing the four letters that make up DNA. Sequencing genomes has now become routine, giving rise to thousands of genomes in the public databases. In essence, scientists are digitizing biology by converting the A, C, T, and G's of the chemical makeup of DNA into 1's and 0's in a computer. But can one reverse the process and start with 1's and 0's in a computer to define the characteristics of a living cell? We set out to answer this question. “and“Using the first synthetic cell, Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0 (built by this same team in 2010), JCVI-syn3.0 was developed through a design, build, and test (DBT) process using genes from JCVI-syn1.0. The new minimal synthetic cell contains only 531,000 base pairs and just 473 genes making it the smallest genome of any self-replicating organism.“and“Writing Biological CodeA biological cell is very much like a computer—the genome is the software that encodes the instructions of the cell and the cellular machinery is the hardware that interprets and runs the genome software. Major advances in DNA technologies have made it possible for biologists to now behave as software engineers and rewrite entire genomes to program new biological operating systems. “” The end resulted in a viable, self-replicating minimal synthetic cell that contained just 473 genes, 35 of which are RNA-coding. In addition, the cell contains a unique 16S gene sequence. ““The Institude was able to assign biological function to the majority of the genes with 41% of them responsible for genome expression information, 18% related to cell membrane structure and function, 17% related to cytosolic metabolism, and 7% preservation of genome information. However, a surprising 149 genes could not be assigned a specific biologichttp://jcvi.org/cms/research/projects/first-self-replicating-synthetic-bacterial-cell/overview/andhttp://www.jcvi.org/cms/research/projects/minimal-cell/overviewThe next step is to determine the stability of the code carrier. The longer the half life of the carrier the safer the code. DNA is not the code, it is only a code carrier, The sequence of adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine forms the genetic code. The more unstable the code carrier molecule , the more the probability that this sequence will be changed, corrupting the code.The 2015 Nobel Chemistry Prize was rewarded to researchers who examined the stability of the DNA molecule.The Chemistry Nobel Prize 2015 was awarded toTomas Lindahl,Paul ModrichandAziz Sancar.The reasons the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences gave for their decision :“The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2015 is awarded to Tomas Lindahl, Paul Modrich and Aziz Sancar for having mapped, at a molecular level, how cells repair damaged DNA and safeguard the genetic information. Their work has provided fundamental knowledge of how a living cell functions and is, for instance, used for the development of new cancer treatments.Each day our DNA is damaged by UV radiation, free radicals and other carcinogenic substances, but even without such external attacks, a DNA molecule is inherently unstable. Thousands of spontaneous changes to a cell’s genome occur on a daily basis. Furthermore, defects can also arise when DNA is copied during cell division, a process that occurs several million times every day in the human body.The reason our genetic material does not disintegrate into complete chemical chaos is that a host of molecular systems continuously monitor and repair DNA. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2015 awards three pioneering scientists who have mapped how several of these repair systems function at a detailed molecular level.In the early 1970s, scientists believed that DNA was an extremely stable molecule, but Tomas Lindahl demonstrated that DNA decays at a rate that ought to have made the development of life on Earth impossible. This insight led him to discover a molecular machinery, base excision repair, which constantly counteracts the collapse of our DNA.”Quote from the press release announcing the Nobel Prize laureates in chemistry 2015https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2015/press.htmlTo determine of origin of our present DNA , the next step is to determinate the minimum requirements to obtain a stable DNA molecule.Research done by Stanley Miller ( Miller -Urey fame) , Lindahl and the J Craig Venter Institute will be useful to determine the minimum requirements. There are many review and research papers available regarding their work but the following will be suffice;1Rates of decompensation of ribose and other sugars :Implications for chemical evolution Procedings.Nationall Academy of Sciences USA 92 91995) – Rosa Larralde , P Robertson and Stanley Miller2Instability and decay of the primary structure of DNA -Tomas Lindahl – Nature vol 363)3 Review The Origin and Early Evolution of Life: Prebiotic Chemistry, the Pre-RNA World, and Time Antonio Lazcano Stanley L MillerCell vol 85http://www.cell.com/cell/issue?pii=S0092-8674(00)X0108-04. http://www.jcvi.org/cms/research/projects/minimal-cell/overview/http://science.sciencemag.org/content/351/6280/aad6253.ful​ljkey=77AGRUAdvXIP2&keytype=ref&siteid=scihttp://www.jcvi.org/cms/press/press-releases/full-text/article/first-minimal-synthetic-bacterial-cell-designed-and-constructed-by-scientists-at-venter-institute-an/Quotes from these papers“A minimal cell is usually defined as a cell in which all genes are essential. This definition is incomplete, because the genetic requirements for survival, and therefore the minimal genome size, depend on the environment in which the cell is grown. The work described here has been conducted in medium that supplies virtually all the small molecules required for life. A minimal genome determined under such permissive conditions should reveal a core set of environment-independent functions that are necessary and sufficient for life. Under less permissive conditions, we expect that additional genes will be required.”\ quote from 4)\“. The team also explored gene order and how that affects cell growth and viability, noting that gene content was more critical to cell viability than gene order. “ / qute from 4 /“All macromolecules ( including sugars ) are inherentunstable” / quote from 2)/“Changing ribose to deoxyribose in an important step in the synthesis of DNA “ /quote from 2 / (enzyme called ribonucleotide reductase is necessary without which DNA will not be synthetized)“A“although deoxyribose increase the stability of the code carriers , the base sugar bonds of ribonucleosides are much less susceptible to hydrolysis than those of deoxyribonuclesides” -. causing a weak spot in DNA's stability “ !( quote from 2 )“Added to these problems is the fact that any prebiotic synthesis of ribose or nucleosides would give a racemic mixture, and all template polymerization experiments so far show enantiomeric cross inhibition. “ /quote from 3 /“All the evidence reviewed here suggests that stability of monomers and polymers essential for the origin of life strongly limited the possibility of a slow emergence of life “ / quote from 3/“The instability problem could be overcome if the ribose nucleosides could have formed early, because nucleosides are quite stable owing to the absence of free aldehyde in its sugar. However, there is no efficient prebiotic synthesis of purine ribosides and no prebiotic synthesis of pyrimidine nucleosides at all. Added to these problems is the fact that any prebiotic synthesis of ribose or nucleosides would give a racemic mixture, and all template polymerization experiments so far show enantiomeric cross inhibition. “/ quote from 3/The JCVI-syn3.0 indicates the bare minimum coding memory necessary necessary for a cell to survive., The JCVI -syn-3 was created and survive in optimal laboratory conditions. In the harsh conditions of the old earth's natural environment i , more genes ( genetic memory) were probably required. At least a DNA molecule with 561,530 base is required to maintain cellular life.The next step is to investigate the possibility and efficiency of genetic code execution outside a living cell..Code carriers occur in the following forms outside living cellsViruses ( DNA and RNA viruses)ViroidsNaked DNANaked RNAThere is no indications that extra cellular nucleic acids are active or replicating , outside living cells. The only known exceptions to this rule occur in well controlled strict artificial conditions, in laboratories.There are still no experimental evidence to counteract both Miller's and Lindahl's comments regarding the limitations and instability of a RNA world. All the present support for a RNA world depends on circumstantial evidence . There is still ongoing research in an effort to discover alternative pathways. (PNA, TNA etc)The answer to the question about the origin of DNA , is it origin is slil a mystery.DNA is is a highly complex molecule, and could not have arranged itself spontaneously.Possible ancestors of DNA: nucleic acids under investigation are PNA( thioester peptide nucleic acid) p-RNA ( pyranosylRNA) , and TNA (threose nucleic acid)None of these possible ancestors of the genetic code are natural occurring molecules found in our present world. They are synthetic creations that are investigated as possible links between non living molecules and the living chemistry occurring in cells. The living chemistry is guided by the genetic code that resides on the DNA and partly on the RNA molecules.The origin of the genetic code, of DNA and of RNA are still hidden in mysteries.If the code and early life developed on pRNA,TNA etc,, than shouldn't pRNA , TNA or whatever, have foreknowledge. Foreknowledge of what?. Foreknowledge of DNA’s instability, of DNA ‘s capability of being an excellent code carrier of it contained proofreading protection and with foreknowledge evolve the protective mechanisms. Life would have been impossible without the code protection!All readers are advised to read the review article by Lazcano and Millerhttp://www.cell.com/cell/issue?pii=S0092-8674(00)X0108-A major problem , one mentioned in the comments about the question is vary valid and still not answered. “ The NDT [neo-Darwinian theory] is supposed to explain how the information of life has been built up by evolution.”. The NDT has a basic flaw , noise (mutations) can not their wildest dreams increase information. Ordinarily mutations are nothing but noise. Gene duplication , gene exchange etc is more likely candidates to explain the increasing formation contained on the DNA molecule.The basic unanswered question remains, did the the code proceed life with a build in ( pre-programmed ) ability to evolve .(the worst nightmare if you are an atheist).

Yes the fuck they SHOULD!! Why? Because there’s a huge problem with the death penalty in China! They don’t publish the numbers or reasons or ANYTHING!! Which means that ANYBODY could be sentenced to death for any reason they deem appropriate!! That’s just crazy to me! They can kill political adversaries or political activists and people who protest or disagree with the government on any level, and they ain’t got to tell nobody shit!! Anybody says they are for that shit on any level better get the fuck off that “christian train.” And re-think your position!! To give a government that kind of power. The power to “disappear” people? You gotta be some kind of informant or government controlled rat to think that such a thing would be alright for these militaristic, theocratic thugs. To think that they are using that power equitably or responsibly is fantasy. The problem with the death penalty is that it has a serious flaw which I’ll just call HUMAN ERROR!! Humans are flawed and fallible and in our society our flawed fallible and subjective memories are often used to have people placed on death row. If indeed there were DNA evidence in every case and in every case we could be CERTAIN that a person were 100% guilty, I might not have much of an objection to people like the student eater guy being killed by the state. Having said that, such is NOT the case in over 60% of cases. In 60% of cases there IS NO DNA!! That’s the problem with our system. Aside and apart from the fact that black and brown men who have had mostly less than adequate representation comprise a disproportionate number of cases. And let’s not even talk about corruption. Check this link out. A republican governor who did away with the death penalty and commuted everyone’s sentence to life because of the unbelievable depths of the corruption of their homicide detectives.George RyanFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to navigationJump to searchFor other people named George Ryan, see George Ryan (disambiguation).This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "George Ryan" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR(February 2021)(Learn how and when to remove this template message)George Ryan39th Governor of IllinoisIn officeJanuary 11, 1999 – January 13, 2003LieutenantCorinne WoodPreceded byJim EdgarSucceeded byRod Blagojevich36th Secretary of State of IllinoisIn officeJanuary 14, 1991 – January 11, 1999GovernorJim EdgarPreceded byJim EdgarSucceeded byJesse White42nd Lieutenant Governor of IllinoisIn officeJanuary 10, 1983 – January 14, 1991GovernorJames R. ThompsonPreceded byDave O'NealSucceeded byBob Kustra65th Speaker of the Illinois House of RepresentativesIn officeJanuary 14, 1981 – January 10, 1983GovernorJames R. ThompsonPreceded byWilliam A. RedmondSucceeded byArthur A. TelcserPersonal detailsBornGeorge Homer RyanFebruary 24, 1934 (age 86)Maquoketa, Iowa, U.S.Political partyRepublicanSpouse(s)Lura Lynn Lowe​​(m.1956; died 2011)​Children6EducationFerris State CollegeProfessionPharmarcistbusinessmanMilitary serviceAllegianceUnited StatesBranch/serviceUnited States ArmyYears of service1954–1956[1][2][3][4]George Homer Ryan (born February 24, 1934) is an American former politician who was the Republican 39th Governor of Illinois from 1999 until 2003. Ryan received national attention for his 1999 moratorium on executions in Illinois and for commuting more than 160 death sentences to life sentences in 2003. He was later convicted of federal corruption charges and spent more than five years in federal prison and seven months of home confinement. He was released from federal prison on July 3, 2013.Contents1Early life2Political career3Term as governor3.1Capital punishment4Scandals, trial, and conviction4.1Indictment4.2Defense and appeal4.3Sentencing5Electoral history6References7External linksEarly life[edit]George Homer Ryan was born in Maquoketa, Iowa to Jeannette (née Bowman) and Thomas Ryan, a pharmacist.[5][6] Ryan grew up in Kankakee County, Illinois. After serving in the U.S. Army in Korea, he worked for his father's two drugstores.[7] He attended Ferris State College of Pharmacy (now Ferris State University) in Big Rapids, Michigan. Eventually, he built his father's pair of pharmacies into a successful family-run chain (profiting from lucrative government-contract business selling prescription drugs to nursing homes) which he sold in 1990.[7][8] Ryan was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1954. He served a 13-month tour in Korea, working in a base pharmacy.[9]On June 10, 1956, Ryan married his high school sweetheart, Lura Lynn Lowe (July 5, 1934 – June 27, 2011), whom he had met in a high school English class. She grew up in Aroma Park, where her family (originally from Germany) had lived since 1834. Her father owned one of the first hybrid seed companies in the United States.[10] The couple had five daughters (including a set of triplets);[8] Julie, Joanne, Jeanette, Lynda and Nancy;[11][12] and one son, George Homer Ryan, Jr.[13][14][15][16]Lura Lowe died of lung cancer at Riverside Hospital in Kankakee on June 27, 2011. Ryan's brother, Tom, was a prominent political figure in Kankakee County.[7] In addition, Ryan's sister Kathleen Dean's former son-in-law, Bruce Clark, is the Kankakee County, Illinois Clerk.[17]Political career[edit]Ryan began his political career by serving on the Kankakee County Board from 1968 to 1973 (his brother Tom J. Ryan was Mayor of Kankakee for 20 years from 1965 to 1985). He was then elected to the Illinois House of Representatives, where he served from 1973 to 1983, including two terms as Minority Leader and one term as Speaker. He then spent 20 years in statewide office, as Lieutenant Governor under Governor James R. Thompson (1983–91), Secretary of State from 1991 to 1999, and as governor from 1999 to 2003. During his first term as Secretary of State, then–State Treasurer Pat Quinn was publicly critical of Ryan. Specifically, he drew attention to special vanity license plates that Ryan's office provided for clout-heavy motorists. This rivalry led Quinn in a failed bid to challenge Ryan in the 1994 general election for Secretary of State.[18][19]Term as governor[edit]This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "George Ryan" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR(February 2021)(Learn how and when to remove this template message)Ryan was elected Governor in 1998, defeating his opponent, Glenn Poshard, by a 51–47% margin. Ryan's running mate was first-term state representative Corinne Wood. Ryan outspent Poshard by a 4-to-1 margin. Poshard, a firm believer in campaign finance reform, placed limits on individual donations and refused to accept donations from corporate or special interests.One of Ryan's pet projects as governor was an extensive repair of the Illinois Highway System called "Illinois FIRST". FIRST was an acronym for "Fund for Infrastructure, Roads, Schools, and Transit". Signed into law in May 1999, the law created a $6.3 billion package for use in school and transportation projects. With various matching funds programs, Illinois FIRST provided $2.2 billion for schools, $4.1 billion for public transportation, another $4.1 billion for roads, and $1.6 billion for other projects. He also improved Illinois's technology infrastructure, creating one of the first cabinet-level Offices of Technology in the country and bringing up Illinois's technology ranking in a national magazine from 48th out of the 50 states when he took office to 1st just two years later. Ryan committed record funding to education, including 51% of all new state revenues during his time in office, in addition to the billions spent through Illinois FIRST that built and improved schools and education infrastructure. In 1999, Ryan sparked controversy by becoming the first sitting U.S. Governor to meet with Cuban President Fidel Castro. Ryan's visit led to a $1 million donation of humanitarian aid, but drew criticism from anti-Castro groups.[20] In 2000, Ryan served as a chair of the Midwestern Governors Association.Capital punishment[edit]Ryan helped to renew the national debate on capital punishment when, as governor, he declared a moratorium on his state's death penalty in 2000.[21]This decision was heavily influenced by lawsuits filed by exonerated prisoners who made false confessions as a result of police torture under the direction of a police commander named Jon Burge.[22] "We have now freed more people than we have put to death under our system," he said. "There is a flaw in the system, without question, and it needs to be studied."[23] At the time, Illinois had executed 12 people since the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1977, with one execution, that of Ripper Crew member Andrew Kokoraleis, occurring early during Ryan's term. Ryan refused to meet with religious leaders and others regarding "a stay of execution" in light of the impending 'moratorium' and other facts relative to the 'flawed' capital punishment system in Illinois; in fact, under Ryan's governorship, 13 people were released from jail after appealing their convictions based on new evidence. Ryan called for a commission to study the issue, while noting, "I still believe the death penalty is a proper response to heinous crimes ... But I believe that it has to be where we don't put innocent people to death."[24]The issue had garnered the attention of the public when a death row inmate, Anthony Porter, who had spent 15 years on death row, was within two days of being executed when his lawyers won a stay on the grounds that he may have been mentally disabled. He was ultimately exonerated with the help of a group of student journalists at Northwestern University who had uncovered evidence that was used to prove his innocence. In 1999, Porter was released, charges were subsequently dropped, and another person, Alstory Simon, confessed and pleaded guilty to the crime of which Porter had been erroneously convicted. Simon himself was later released after serving fifteen years for the crime, after it was proven that he, too, was wrongfully accused.[25]On January 11, 2003, just two days before leaving office, Ryan commuted (to "life" terms) the sentences of everyone on or waiting to be sent to Illinois' death row — a total of 167 convicts — due to his belief that the death penalty could not be administered fairly. He also pardoned four inmates, Aaron Patterson, Madison Hobley and Leroy Orange (all of whom were interrogated by Burge and released), and Stanley Howard. However, Patterson is currently serving 30 years in prison after being arrested for drug trafficking he committed after his release from death row. Howard remains in prison for armed robbery.[26] Ryan declared in his pardon speech that he would have freed Howard if only his attorney had filed a clemency petition; Ryan then strongly urged investigators to examine Howard's alleged robbery case, because it appeared to be as tainted as his murder conviction.[27]These were four of ten death row inmates known as the "Death Row 10," due to widely reported claims that the confessions that they had given in their respective cases had been coerced through torture. Ryan is not the first state governor to have granted blanket commutations to death row inmates during his final days in office. Arkansas Governor Winthrop Rockefeller also commuted the sentence of every death row inmate in that state as he left office after losing his 1970 bid for a third two-year term, as did New Mexico Governor Toney Anaya before he left office in 1986 and Ohio Governor Dick Celeste before he left office in 1990.[citation needed]Ryan won praise from death penalty opponents: as early as 2001, he received the Mario Cuomo Act of Courage Award from Death Penalty Focus, in 2003 the Rose Elizabeth Bird Commitment to Justice Award from the same organization, and in 2005 he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. On the other side of the Atlantic, Robert Badinter, who had successfully introduced the bill abolishing the death penalty in France in 1981 praised Ryan's decision.[28] Many conservatives, though, were opposed to the commutations, some questioning his motives, which came as a federal corruption investigation closed in on the governor and his closest political allies (see below). Conservative columnist Pat Buchanan called Ryan "pathetic", and suggested the governor was attempting to save his public image in hopes of avoiding prison himself. Buchanan noted "Ryan announced his decision to a wildly cheering crowd at the Northwestern University Law School. Families of the victims of the soon-to-be-reprieved killers were not invited."[29]Scandals, trial, and conviction[edit]Ryan's political career was marred by a scandal called "Operation Safe Road", which involved the illegal sale of government licenses, contracts and leases by state employees during his prior service as Secretary of State. In the wake of numerous convictions of his former aides, he chose not to run for reelection in 2002. Seventy-nine former state officials, lobbyists, and others were charged in the investigation, and at least 76 were convicted.[citation needed]The corruption scandal leading to Ryan's downfall began more than a decade earlier during a federal investigation into a deadly crash in Wisconsin. Six children from the Willis family of Chicago, Illinois, were killed; their parents, Rev. Duane and Janet Willis, were severely burned.[30] The investigation revealed a scheme inside Ryan's Secretary of State's office in which unqualified truck drivers obtained licenses through bribes.In March 2003, Scott Fawell, Ryan's former chief of staff and campaign manager, was convicted on federal charges of racketeering and fraud. He was sentenced to six years and six months.[31] Former deputy campaign manager Richard Juliano pleaded guilty to related charges and testified against Fawell at trial. Roger Stanley, a former Republican state representative who was hired by Ryan and testified against Fawell, pleaded guilty to wide-ranging corruption, admitting he paid kickbacks to win state contracts and campaign business, secretly mailed out vicious false attacks on political opponents and helped obtain ghost-payrolling jobs.[32]Indictment[edit]The investigation finally reached the former governor, and in December 2003, Ryan and lobbyist Lawrence Warner were named in a 22-count federal indictment. The charges included racketeering, bribery, extortion, money laundering and tax fraud. The indictment alleged that Ryan steered several state contracts to Warner and other friends; disbursed campaign funds to relatives and to pay personal expenses; and obstructed justice by attempting to end the state investigation of the license-for-bribes scandal. He was charged with lying to investigators and accepting cash, gifts and loans in return for his official actions as governor. On September 19, 2005, the case went to trial.[33]Fawell, under pressure from prosecutors, became a key witness against Ryan and Warner. He agreed to a plea deal that cut the prison time for himself and his fiancée, Andrea Coutretsis. Fawell was a controversial witness, not hiding his disdain for prosecutors from the witness stand. According to CBS Chicago political editor Mike Flannery, insiders claimed that Fawell had been "much like a son" to Ryan throughout their careers. At Ryan's trial, Fawell acknowledged that the prosecution had his "head in a vise", and that he found his cooperation with the government against Ryan "the most distasteful thing I've ever done".[31] Nonetheless, he spent several days on the witness stand testifying against Ryan and Warner. Once a tough-talking political strategist, Fawell wept on the witness stand as he acknowledged that his motivation for testifying was to spare Coutretsis a long prison sentence for her role in the conspiracy. The jury was twice sent out of the courtroom so that he could wipe tears from his eyes and regain his composure.Ryan's daughters and a son-in-law, Michael Fairman, were implicated by testimony during the trial. Stipulations agreed upon by the defense and prosecution and submitted to the court included admissions that all five of Ryan's daughters received illegal payments from the Ryan campaign. In addition to Lynda Fairman, who received funds beyond those her husband Michael testified he had received, the stipulations included admissions from the rest of Ryan's daughters that they did little or no work in return for the payments.[34][35] In addition, Fawell testified that Ryan's mother's housekeeper was illegally paid from campaign funds, and that Ryan's adopted sister, Nancy Ferguson, received campaign funds without performing campaign work.[11][34] The prosecution took nearly four months to present their case, as a parade of other witnesses (including Juliano) followed Fawell.On April 17, 2006, the jury found Ryan and Warner guilty on all counts.[36] However, when ruling on post-trial motions, the judge dismissed two counts against Ryan for lack of proof.[37] Ryan said that he would appeal the verdict, largely due to the issues with the jury.Patrick Fitzgerald, the federal prosecutor, noted, "Mr. Ryan steered contracts worth millions of dollars to friends and took payments and vacations in return. When he was a sitting governor, he lied to the FBI about this conduct and then he went out and did it again." He charged that one of the most egregious aspects of the corruption was Ryan's action after learning that bribes were being paid for licenses. Instead of ending the practice he tried to end the investigation that had uncovered it, Fitzgerald said, calling the moment "a low-water mark for public service".[38]On September 6, 2006, Ryan was sentenced to six and a half years in prison.[39] He was ordered to go to prison on January 4, 2007, but the appellate court granted an appeal bond, allowing him to remain free pending the outcome of the appeal.[40] His conviction was affirmed by the Court of Appeals of the Seventh Circuit on August 21, 2007,[41] and review by the entire Seventh Circuit was denied on October 25, 2007.[42] The Seventh Circuit then rejected Ryan's bid to remain free while he asked the U.S. Supreme Court to hear his case; the opinion called the evidence of Ryan's guilt "overwhelming".[43] The Supreme Court rejected an extension of his bail, and Ryan reported to the Federal Prison Camp in Oxford, Wisconsin, on November 7, 2007.[44][45] He was transferred on February 29, 2008, to a medium security facility in Terre Haute, Indiana, after Oxford changed its level of medical care and stopped housing inmates over 70 years old.[46] He was listed as Federal Inmate Number 16627-424 and was released on July 3, 2013.[47]Defense and appeal[edit]Ryan's defense was provided pro bono by Winston & Strawn, a law firm managed by former governor Jim Thompson. The defense cost the firm $10 million through mid-November 2005.[48] Estimates of the cost to the firm as of September 2006 ranged as high as $20 million. Ryan served as Thompson's lieutenant governor from 1983 to 1991. After the United States Supreme Court declined to hear Ryan's appeal, Thompson indicated that he would ask then President George W. Bush to commute Ryan's sentence to time served.[49] United States Senator Dick Durbin wrote a letter to Bush dated December 1, 2008, asking him to commute Ryan's sentence, citing Ryan's age and his wife's frail health, saying, "This action would not pardon him of his crimes or remove the record of his conviction, but it would allow him to return to his wife and family for their remaining years."[50] Bush did not commute Ryan's sentence.After his conviction Ryan's annual $197,037 state pension was suspended under state law. Ryan's attorneys litigated the pension matter all the way to the Illinois Supreme Court, which ruled on February 19, 2010, that state law "plainly mandates that none of the benefits provided for under the system shall be paid to Ryan".[51] Ryan was paid $635,000 in pension benefits during the three years between his retirement and his political corruption conviction, plus a refund of the $235,500 in personal contributions he made during his 30 years in public office.[52][53]Sentencing[edit]In 2010, Ryan requested early release, partly because his wife had terminal cancer and was given only six months to live, and partly on the grounds that some of his convictions should be vacated in light of a Supreme Court ruling that was alleged to have affected their legitimacy. On December 21, 2010, U.S. District Court Judge Rebecca Pallmeyer denied Ryan's request.[citation needed]On January 5, 2011, Ryan was taken from his prison cell in Terre Haute, Indiana, to a hospital in Kankakee to visit his dying wife. He was present when she died five months after that visit.[4][54] Ryan entered a Salvation Army halfway house in Chicago on January 30, 2013. Less than three hours later, he was released back to his home in Kankakee where he remained on home confinement until July 3, 2013.[55]Electoral history[edit]1998 – Illinois Governor[56]George Ryan (R) 51%Glenn Poshard (D) 47.5%Lawrence Redmond (Reform) 1.5%1994 – Illinois Secretary of State[57]George Ryan (R) 61.5%Patrick Quinn (D) 38.5%1990 – Illinois Secretary of State[58]George Ryan (R) 53.5%Jerome Cosentino (D) 46.5%References[edit]^ "George Ryan". Biography in Context (fee, Fairfax County Public Library). Detroit, MI: Gale. 1999. Gale Document Number: GALE|K1650000189. Retrieved June 27, 2011. Gale Biography in Context.^ "George Homer Ryan". The Complete Marquis Who's Who (fee, Fairfax County Public Library). Marquis Who's Who. 2010. Gale Document Number: GALE|K2013022832. Retrieved June 27, 2011. Gale Biography in Context^ Roberts, Roxanne; Argetsinger, Amy (June 29, 2011). "The Reliable Source: From the mansion to the Big House". Washington Post. p. C2. Retrieved June 29, 2011. Ryan was recently released temporarily to be with his terminally ill wife, who died of lung cancer Monday^ Jump up to:a b Schlikerman, Becky; Annie Sweeney; Rick Pearson; Ray Long (June 28, 2011). "George Ryan, released from prison, at wife's side when she died". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved June 29, 2011.^ Library, CNN. "George Ryan Fast Facts".^ Merriner, James L. (September 8, 2008). The Man Who Emptied Death Row: Governor George Ryan and the Politics of Crime. SIU Press. ISBN 9780809328659 – via Google Books.^ Jump up to:a b c Arden, Patrick (January 16, 2003). "The redemption of Gov. Ryan". Salon magazine online. Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved June 27, 2011.^ Jump up to:a b "The Nobel Peace Prize For Governor George H. Ryan of Illinois". Stop Capital Punishment Now!. Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved June 27, 2011.^ Goudie, Chuck (November 12, 2007). "On Veterans Day, George Ryan again is taking orders". Daily Herald. Arlington Heights, IL: Paddock Publications, Inc. Archived from the original on March 25, 2012. Retrieved June 29, 2011.^ "Lura Lynn Lowe Ryan". Legacy.com | Where Life Stories Live On.^ Jump up to:a b "Fawell: Ryan's family, friends got cash". Chicago Sun-Times. October 7, 2005. Retrieved September 6, 2006.^ "Family Members on Payroll". Chicago Tribune. January 19, 2006. Archived from the original on November 15, 2007. Retrieved September 6, 2006.^ Warren, Ellen (September 29, 2005). "Cast of characters stars in drama made in Illinois". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved September 6, 2006.^ "Ryan Guilty". Chicago Sun-Times. April 17, 2006. Retrieved September 6, 2006.^ "Michael Sneed's lunch with George Ryan". Chicago Sun-Times. April 18, 2006. Retrieved September 6, 2006.^ Korecki, Natasha; McKinney, Dave; Janssen, Kim (June 29, 2011). "Lura Lynn dies with husband, ex-Gov. George Ryan, at her side". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved June 29,2011.^ "Lobbyist's Ex-Girlfriend Tells of Ryan Junkets". Chicago Sun-Times. January 10, 2006. Retrieved September 6, 2006.^ Hawthorne, Michael (December 10, 2008). "Pat Quinn waiting in the wings". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 30, 2009.^ "Biographical information on Quinn". WTOP. Associated Press. January 29, 2009. Retrieved January 30, 2009.[permanent dead link]^ "US governor on Cuba mission". BBC News. October 24, 1999.^ Johnson, Dirk (May 21, 2000). "No Executions in Illinois Until System Is Repaired". The New York Times. Retrieved December 22, 2009.^ Sobol, Rosemary; Gorner, Jeremy; Heinzmann, David (19 September 2018). "Disgraced ex-Chicago police Cmdr. Jon Burge, accused of presiding over decades of brutality and torture, has died". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 11 January 2019.^ "A Chilling Look at the Death Penalty". Washington Post. July 26, 2004.^ "Campaign 2000: Insurgents Bradley, McCain Target Independents as N.H. Primary Approaches; Bush Expressing High Hopes; Gore Emphasizing High Road". Inside Politics. CNN. January 31, 2000.^ "Alstory Simon, freed from prison after wrongful conviction, spends his time in Greater Cleveland working to free others". Cleveland OH Local News, Breaking News, Sports & Weather. Retrieved January 11, 2019.^ Warden, Rob. "Stanley Howard – The Supreme Court found the evidence "overwhelming", but Governor Ryan found otherwise". Chicago, IL: Northwestern School of Law Bluhm Legal Clinic, Center on Wrongful Convictions. Retrieved June 27, 2011.^ "Free Stanley Howard". Archived from the original on July 11, 2011. Retrieved June 27, 2011.^ "La conscience du gouverneur Ryan", Le Nouvel Observateur, January 16, 2003, p. 39.^ Buchanan, Pat (January 25, 2003). "Moral Corruption in Illinois". The American Cause. Retrieved June 27, 2011.^ Former Illinois Gov. George Ryan Heading to Prison NPR, November 6, 2007.^ Jump up to:a b 'Most distasteful thing I've ever done' nears for Fawell, Chicago Tribune, September 28, 2005.^ http://www.chicagotribune Archived July 19, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, May 9, 2003, Stanley guilty in kickback, payroll scam Former legislator admits mail fraud, money laundering by Matt O'Connor and Ray Gibson, [1]^ Reports, From Times Wire (September 19, 2005). "Corruption Trial of Ex-Governor to Begin". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved May 9, 2016.^ Jump up to:a b Election Funds Went to Relatives Chicago Tribune, October 7, 2005, accessed September 6, 2006.^ Korecki, Natasha (January 19, 2006). "Ryan daughter tells of no-work job". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on December 17, 2008. Retrieved September 6,2006.^ Guilty on all charges.[dead link] Chicago Sun-Times, April 18, 2006.^ "Ryan judge explains why she dismissed 2 charges". Chicago Tribune. September 8, 2006. Archived from the original on November 15, 2007.^ Ex-Governor of Illinois Is Convicted on All Charges New York Times, April 17, 2006, accessed September 6, 2006.^ Ryan gets 6½ years in prison Chicago Sun-Times, September 6, 2006, accessed same date.^ Federal appeals court says Ryan can stay free on bail Archived November 30, 2006, at the Wayback Machine Chicago Sun-Times, November 29, 2006, accessed same date.^ "Ex-Gov. Ryan's guilty verdict stands despite jury controversy". Chicago Tribune. August 21, 2007. Archived from the original on January 19, 2013. Retrieved August 21,2007.^ Higgins, Michael; Coen, Jeff (October 25, 2007). "Ryan loses appeal". Chicago Tribune.^ Higgins, Michael (November 1, 2007). "Ryan down to last appeal". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on November 12, 2007.^ "U.S. Supreme Court turns down Ryan request to remain free". Chicago Tribune. November 6, 2007.^ Conlon, Michael (November 7, 2007). "Former Illinois Governor Ryan enters prison". Reuters.^ Jason Meisner, Ex-Gov. Ryan switches prisons, Chicago Tribune, February 29, 2008.^ "Inmate locator: George Ryan". Federal Bureau of Prisons. Retrieved June 27, 2011.^ A Christmas card defense Archived November 15, 2007, at the Wayback MachineChicago Tribune, February 3, 2006, accessed June 24, 2018.^ Ex-Gov. to Bush: Let Ryan go Archived May 31, 2008, at the Wayback MachineChicago Sun-Times, May 28, 2008.^ Durbin, Richard J. (December 1, 2008). "Durbin Releases Letter on Commutation for Governor Ryan". Retrieved December 23, 2008.^ Anonymous. "Ryan-must forfeit State Pension". USA TODAY: Latest World and US News - USATODAY.com. Archived from the original on September 8, 2012. Retrieved February 12, 2012.^ "State Supreme Court denies pension for George Ryan – Chicago Breaking News". http://Archive.chicagobreakingnews.com. February 19, 2010. Archived from the original on January 18, 2012. Retrieved February 12, 2012.^ "Illinois Supreme Court Opinion". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved February 12, 2012.^ Schlikerman, Becky; Sweeney, Annie; Pearson, Rick; Long, Ray (June 28, 2011). "George Ryan, released from prison, at wife's side when she died". Chicago Tribune.^ Leventis, Angie; Sweeney, Annie (January 30, 2013). "George Ryan home after spending just hours at halfway house". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 30, 2013.^ "Ballots Cast". http://Elections.illinois.gov. November 3, 1998. Archived from the originalon March 4, 2016. Retrieved April 4, 2015.^ "1994 Secretary of State General Election Results – Illinois". http://Uselectionatlas.org. Retrieved April 4, 2015.^ "1990 Secretary of State General Election Results – Illinois". http://Uselectionatlas.org. Retrieved April 4, 2015.NBC NewsExternal links[edit]CNN.com: "'Blanket commutation' empties Illinois death row", January 11, 2003.Biography from site supporting his nomination for a Nobel Peace PrizeChicago Sun-Times archive on The George Ryan TriangleAnd if that’s not enough for you I have statistics from the Innocence Project for you that have (through new ways of testing evidence…DNA evidence and otherwise) worked to have over 200 people freed from death row.DNA Exonerations in the United StatesFast facts:1989: The first DNA exoneration took place375 DNA exonerees to date37: States where exonerations have been won14: Average number of years served5,284: Total number of years served26.6: Average age at the time of wrongful conviction43: Average age at exoneration21 of 375 people served time on death row44 of 375 pled guilty to crimes they did not commit69%: Involved eyewitness misidentification and of these:34% of these misidentification cases involved an in-person lineup52% involved a misidentification from a photo array7% involved a misidentification from a mugshot book16% involved a misidentification from a show-up procedure5% involved a misidentification from a one-on-one photo procedure27% involved a misidentification through the use of a composite sketch11% involved a voice misidentification2% involved a misidentification through hypnosis54% involved an in-court misidentification29% involved a misidentification through some other procedure (e.g., mistakenly “recognizing” someone on the street and reporting them to law enforcement)77% of the misidentification cases involved multiple procedures84% of the misidentification cases involved a misidentification by a surviving victim42% involved a cross-racial misidentification32% involved multiple misidentifications of the same person by different witnesses18% involved a failure to identify the exoneree in at least one procedure43%: Involved misapplication of forensic science29%: Involved false confessions49% of the false confessors were 21 years old or younger at the time of arrest31% of the false confessors were 18 years old or younger at the time of arrest9% of the false confessors had mental health or mental capacity issues, known at trial17%: Involved informants268: DNA exonerees compensated190: DNA exonerations worked on by the Innocence Project165: Actual assailants identified. Those actual perpetrators went on to be convicted of 154 additional violent crimes, including 83 sexual assaults, 36 murders, and 35 other violent crimes while the innocent sat behind bars for their earlier offenses.Demographics of the 375:225 (60%) African American117 (31%) Caucasian29 (8%) Latinx2 (1%) Asian American1 (<1%) Native American1 (<1%) Self-identified “Other”Other facts:130 DNA exonerees were wrongfully convicted for murders; 40 (31%) of these cases involved eyewitness misidentifications and 81 (62%) involved false confessions [as of July 9, 2018]102 DNA exonerations involved false confessions; the real perp was identified in 76 (75%) of these cases. These 38 real perps went on to commit 48 additional crimes for which they were convicted, including 25 murders, 14 rapes, and 9 other violent crimes [as of July 24, 2018]180 of the DNA exonerees (50%) had the real perpetrator(s) identified in their cases [as of August 22, 2018]137 of the DNA exonerees had the real perpetrator(s) identified through a cold database hit [as of October 19, 2018]At least 43 (52%) of the 83 DNA exonerees who falsely confessed included non-public facts in their confessions [as of July 29, 2020]23 (22%) of the 104 people whose cases involved false confessions had exculpatory DNA evidence available at the time of trial but were still wrongfully convicted [as of July 29, 2020]83 (61%) of the 137 DNA exonerees who were wrongfully convicted for murder had false confessions involved in their cases (33 confessed themselves, 20 had co-defendants who confessed, and another 30 confessed themselves and had co-defendants who confessed) [as of July 29, 2020]How DNA makes a difference in the criminal justice systemSince 1989, there have been tens of thousands of cases where prime suspects were identified and pursued—until DNA testing (prior to conviction) proved that they were wrongly accused.In more than 25% of cases in a National Institute of Justice study, suspects were excluded once DNA testing was conducted during the criminal investigation (the study, conducted in 1995, included 10,060 cases where testing was performed by FBI labs).An Innocence Project review of our closed cases from 2004 – June 2015 revealed that 29% of cases were closed because of lost or destroyed evidence.ContactAboutDonateWays to GiveCareersFinancialsPrivacy PolicyLegalThe Innocence Project is affiliated with Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law, Yeshiva University.You really think that they’re doing things any differently in New York than they were in Chicago? Only if you’re so privileged you cannot see the forest for the trees.Lastly, I would add that the death penalty is akin to “gang-banging” on a societal level. This is not what we should teach our children. Correct me if I’m wrong but teaching our children that it’s okay to kill killers…to show that killing is wrong…is like the most asinine, backwards shit you could ever do. Come on man. Bottom line is we can’t be for killing based on the flawed, subjective views of 12 people who you can be sure will not be my “peers,” and who are prone to making these horrible mistakes REGULARLY!! If you’re FOR such a flawed system it not only shows how privileged you are, it shows what raw killers we can all become. Crazy!

Just a small pesky problem called weight.Airplanes are not ships, you know.They need just enough strength, but they need to be lightweight at the same time.In the modern era, back in the days of the Convair B-58 Hustler in 1958, people began literally gluing airplanes together—bonding metal to metal in smooth, continuous seams with super-strength adhesive, usually applied with both heat and pressure.A number of big jets use this technique today, including some of Boeing's commercial series.The Europeans were using it much earlier.Like a good weld, a good bond is stronger than the material it joins. And unlike riveting, bonded stresses are distributed evenly along the length and width of the entire bond, rather than being localized around each and every tiny rivet hole.Wooden-fuselage construction for transport planes came to an abrupt end on Mar 31, 1931. The death of Notre Dame coach Knute Rockne in the crash of TWA Flight 599 on March 31, 1931, resulted in more than just the death of the football legend and seven others; it was a pivotal moment in early airline and aviation safety.The flight, which originated in Kansas City, Missouri and was destined for Los Angeles was operated on this route by a Fokker F.10 Trimotor, a three-engined monoplane made out of laminated wood like most airliners of the era. Despite initial reports that strong winds or icing may have caused the crash, the root cause was far more insidious.▲A Fokker F.10 Trimotor, a three-engined monoplane made out of laminated wood like most airliners of the era.Unknown to the airline, moisture had seeped into the structure of one of the airplane's wings and had begun to weaken the glue that held the wing spars together. Eventually, over Chase County Kansas, one spar failed entirely – causing the wing to flutter uncontrollably and then break off of the airplane completely, forcing the plane to crash with the loss of all eight souls aboard: two crew, six passengers.Following the death of such a high profile American, the accident was investigated with a thoroughness that would become the hallmark of all aviation accidents in the US to follow.Previously, the Department of Commerce (who investigated plane crashes before the creation of the Civil Aeronautics Board, and later the NTSB) did not release investigation results to the public, however, that changed in the wake of the public outcry over the Rockne crash. Additionally, the crash sounded the death knell for wooden-framed airliners in the US, and manufacturers moved towards all-metal craft, which then led to huge advancements in aircraft design and safety.A brief comeback was made by wood-and-glue planes in the war years of WWII, but they had much better synthetic adhesives, and were not built in quantity.▲The all-wood Curtiss CaravanGlue is used even today — the epoxy used in carbon fibre construction is nothing but glue — but, since you started the discussion with “nails”, we will have to go back a hundred years.For one thing they will pull out of the wood much easier that' the others, and for another thing they will rust while the cement coated nails will not.A great many builders are prejudiced against wooden fuselage construction.It is true that a wooden fuselage will not stand a crash as well as a steel tube structure, but as far as flying characteristics are concerned a wooden fuselage will often perform much better.Wood, if properly used, develops great strength and is much lighter, and weight is a very important item in light plane construction.One of the main disadvantages of wooden construction, aside from its failure in a crash, is the fact that it must be bolted and glued.The average light-plane builder is not familiar with the proper methods of gluing joints and a great many failures are caused by improper gluing.Another common cause of failures is the piercing of a structural member at an important point to take a bolt, and this weakens it materially.However, you will find that a properly fabricated wooden fuselage will give you great satisfaction.Your wing ribs are all built up from wood and unless you understand the proper method your ribs will not stand up.There are three principal types of glue.These are Casein glue, Blood Albumen glue, and Animal glue.This is a glue prepared from sour milk.It is practically waterproof and will give excellent results if mixed and used properly.Blood Albumen glue is absolutely waterproof.This glue must be applied hot, however, and under extreme pressure, and for this reason it is unsuited to the amateur builder.This glue is used chiefly in the manufacture of aircraft plywood.Animal glue is a cheap type of glue which is very soluble in water and must be applied hot.Casein glue comes in a powdered form and is mixed with water to prepare it for use.There are several brands of Casein glue on the market and they are all good.One is made by a prominent glue manufacturer, and while it is a bit high priced, it is an excellent glue.This particular glue is mixed with equal quantities of water by volume.Thus, if you are using one tablespoon of glue you should use one tablespoon of water.The water should he added to the glue slowly and mixed at the same time.The mixture changes front a creamy mass to a stiff dough which is very dry.This dough is then allowed to stand for approximately twenty minutes to a half hour and at the end of that time you will find that the glue has changed back to a smooth creamy mass of just the proper consistency for use.You should never, under any circumstances, add any water to this glue while it is in its doughy form.Another glue is mixed with water in the same manner except that the proportions of glue to water are very much different.This glue should be mixed smoothly with a motor mixer for twenty minutes.If it is mixed fast you are likely to whip air into it which destroys the strength of the glue.The glue should never be allowed to get lumpy.After this glue has been thoroughly mixed it should be allowed to stand for half an hour and is then ready for use.Whenever you buy glue you will find the directions for mixing it on the package and you should follow these instructions to the letter.Some of the directions may sound a bit foolish to you, but you will find that the manufacturer knows his glue a lot better than you do.All glue should be applied under pressure, but you will find that very little pressure is required for Casein glue.Other types of glue, such as Blood Albumen, should be applied at approximately five hundred pounds to the square inch.This is a bit beyond the reach of the average home builder.In making up wooden ribs the standard Warren Truss rib is the best.This is the style specified in ninety percent of the plans.There are other forms of ribs which are highly satisfactory, such as a double cap strip with a plywood web, but the Warren Truss is the easiest to build.Several builders have asked about the use of cement coated nails.If you expect your ship to stand up for a long time and give you some real service, cement coated nails should be used by all means.Ordinary brads or tacks are not good enough.For one thing they will pull out of the wood much easier that' the others, and for another thing they will rust while the cement coated nails will not.No matter whether you are using a wooden fuselage or not, the proper mixing and application of glue is of prime importance to the amateur builder.To really learn what was it like to construct aircraft in those days, we must take a—Tour of an Aircraft Factory - 1931“Now, Jim,” I began, “I want you to get a picture of the whole and then we'll get the details.“This center aisle, is the Assembly Line.“On this side, is the Woodworking Department, then the Covering and Upholstering down there, followed by the Dope Room and Spray Room.“Over on the other side, we have first the Welding Department, then the Machine Shop, and last the Sheet Metal Department. Sandwiched in between each Department is an area reserved for experimental work.“Now, let's start here in the Woodworking Department.“First we come to the storage racks. Here we keep our lumber and plywood. Most of our spruce comes from the mills all ready cut to the correct cross-sectional area, just as you see it here.“Isn't that beautiful stuff ?” I asked as I picked up the end of a spar flange. “Just look at it. Close grained, straight, no pitch marks or pockets. In short, it is perfect lumber. Every bit of it must conform to government specifications.”“What's that about the government?” asked Jim.“Everything that has to do with an aircraft airplane is under strict government supervision,” I explained. “The Department of Commerce has been given supervisory authority over things aeronautical to a degree that is unparalleled in any other industry. Uncle Sam's sure on the job when it comes to making airplanes safe. The Approved Type Certificate is a guarantee to every purchaser that the airplane so certified is one hundred per cent O.K.“While we're here,” I went on, “I want you to notice this plywood. We use birch and mahogany in three and five ply of various thicknesses. This is known as the blood-albumen process plywood. That is a term that applies to the way the layers of wood are glued together. I might also add that it is the best and most expensive kind made. We use nothing else.“Now to get into the actual work. Over here, Jim, is the rib building, then the spar building. Alongside of those two activities is the wing assembly, and at the other end of the department is the miscellaneous wing work and the miscellaneous parts. We'll look at each division in the order named.“This is what is called the cut-out type of rib,” I explained as I led Jim over to the rib-workers' benches. “There is a steel pattern or template cut for each rib,—this being necessary, of course, because in a tapered wing, each rib is of a different size.“These templates are traced on sheets of plywood and then by nailing a half a dozen sheets or so together and feeding through a band saw, we saw out a bunch of duplicates of each template. Large holes are then drilled through the webbing as the duplicates are now called, in order to reduce weight. After this, the nails are pulled out and the webs are ready for rib assembly.“The first job is putting on the cap-strips. Spruce strips are soaked in hot water for several hours and then they are glued and nailed along the outside edges of the webs. After the cap-strips are on, stiffeners are put in between, also glued to the webbing. After the rib is dry, it is finished off on a disc sander.”“What are those two large holes for?” asked Jim.“For the spars to slide through,” I answered. “I forgot to mention that. When the lightening holes are drilled, these large rectangular holes are also cut out. We use a jig saw for that operation.”“WHAT kind of glue is this?” was Jim's next question.“Casein,” I replied. It is a by-product of milk and comes in powdered form. All that is necessary is to mix it with water at room temperature and it makes the finest glue you ever saw.“To get best results, it is necessary to weigh the glue and water and also check the mixing time against the clock. Any slight variations reduce the strength. Also it is not good after a batch is four or five hours old. A fresh batch should be mixed at the end of that time. If one were making furniture, it wouldn't make much difference, but for aircraft work, it is important.”“Yes, I suppose glue is what holds most of a wing together,” offered Jim.“You said it,” was my prompt rejoinder. “The nails that you see used in making those ribs are primarily for the purpose of retaining the pressure of the final blow of the hammer. Pressure is essential if the glue is going to do its work. On spar work, which we will look at now, we use clamps in addition to the nails. Let's go over here to the spar jigs.”“Jigs!—what are they, may I ask?”“A jig,” I explained, 'is a device made of wood or steel which insures exact duplication of parts made or worked on in it. We use two spar jigs, as the dimensions of the front and rear spar are different. Front spars are invariably deeper and thicker than rear spars.“This is what is known as the box type of spar, tapered. The four main parts of it are the spruce flanges, which form the top and the bottom of the box and then the sides which are of plywood webbing. I want you to notice the plywood, Jim. It is quite different from the sheets we were looking at on the racks. This stuff here is two ply and comes in long narrow strips instead of sheets. Also the grain runs at forty-five degrees instead of cross-wise and lengthwise, it is made especially for spar construction.“At the root or thick end of the spar we use several layers of this plywood. That is because the strain on the spar increases rapidly at this point. We also fill in between the flanges with spruce at this point until the spar is almost solid here. That is partly because of the strain already mentioned and partly because of the large amount of wood that will be drilled out of the flanges for bolting on the wing fittings.”“What are these little up-and-down pieces between the flanges for?” asked Jim.“Those are what we call bulkheads,” I answered. Wherever a rib crosses the spar we put one in. They stiffen the plywood and at the same time provide material to which the glue-blocks can be nailed. Glue-blocks fasten the ribs to the spars.”“I see,” said Jim. “Glue-blocks are cut from that triangular stock that I saw over in the rack, are they?”“Correct. Now let's take a look at the wing assembly.“Here again the jig proves its value. These two sloping platforms support and hold the spars in the exact position desired when mounted on the airplane. The steel structure in the centre is a duplicate of that part of the fuselage to which the wings are bolted. The spars drop into their respective positions, the ribs are slipped on and then the internal bracing is installed.“Every third rib is called a compression rib and as you see divide the wing up into five bays,—as they are called. Running diagonally across these bays are what we call tie rods. By drawing up on these we can exert an enormous tension. The compression ribs are stiffened up with spruce members to offset this tension.“The result is a wing that is rigidly held in place as it encounters the various air loads while in flight. With no external bracing used, we are entirely dependent upon the assembly of our spars and drag bracing. Believe me, we don't allow production costs to be held down at this point.“Under actual test, it has been found that our wing will stand over fifteen times the normal air load it will encounter in flight. If you don’t believe me, you can call up the University where it was tested, when we get back to my office.”“I'll take your word for it,” said Bill.