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Science does not operate on a 'proof' model, it is a falsification model where the hypothesis that is best supported by mountains of evidence and not falsified are promoted to Scientific Theory status.Here are just a tiny few of the many tens of thousands of studies that support Evolutionary theory - each such paper contains a record of the scientific methodology applied and the scientific evidence produced so it can be challenged or reproduced by other researchers.Theobald, D. L. 2010. A formal test of the theory of universal common ancestry. Nature 465:219-223Adl, S., Leander, B.S., Simpson, A.G.B., Archibald, J.M., Anderson, O.R., Bass, D., Bowser, S.S., Brugerolle, G., Farmer, M.A., Karpov, S., Kolisko, M., Lane, C.E., Lodge, D.J., Mann, D.G., Meisterfeld, R., Mendoza, L., Moestrup, Ø., Mozley-Standridge, S.E., Smirnov, A.V., and Spiegel, F. (2007) Diversity, nomenclature, and taxonomy of protists. Syst. Biol., 56, 684-689.Adl, S.M., Simpson, A.G., Farmer, M.A., Andersen, R.A., Anderson, O.R., Barta, J.R., Bowser, S.S., Brugerolle, G., Fensome, R.A., Fredericq, S., James, T.Y., Karpov, S., Kugrens, P., Krug, J., Lane, C.E., Lewis, L.A., Lodge, J., Lynn, D.H., Mann, D.G., McCourt, R.M., Mendoza, L., Moestrup, O., Mozley-Standridge, S.E., Nerad, T.A., Shearer, C.A., Smirnov, A.V., Spiegel, F.W. and Taylor, M.F. (2005) The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol., 52, 399-451.Adoutte, A., G. Balavoine, N. Lartillot, O. Lespinet, B. Prud'homme, and R. de Rosa. 2000. The new animal phylogeny: Reliability and implications. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 97:4453-4456.Ahmad, S., A. Selvapandiyan, and R. K. Bhatnagar. 1999. A protein-based phylogenetic tree for Gram-positive bacteria derived from hrcA, a unique heat-shock regulatory gene. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 49:1387-1394.Anderson, C. L. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships of the Myxozoa. Pages 341-350 in Evolutionary Relationships among Protozoa (G.H. Coombs, K. Vickerman, M.A. Sleigh, and A. Warren, eds.) Chapman & Hall, London.Anderson, C. L., E. U. Canning, and B. Okamura. 1998. A triploblast origin for Myxozoa? Nature 392:346-347.Andersson, S. G. E., A. Zomorodipour, J. O. Andersson, T. Sicheritz-Ponten, U. C. M. Alsmark, R. M. Podowski, A. K. Naslund, A. S. Eriksson, H. H. Winkler, and C. G. Kurland. 1998. The genome sequence of Rickettsia prowazekii and the origin of mitochondria. Nature 396:133-140.Andersson, S.G. and Kurland, C.G. (1999) Origins of mitochondria and hydrogenosomes. Curr. Opin. Microbiol., 2, 535-541.Aravind, L., R. L. Tatusov, Y. I. Wolf, D. R. Walker, and E. V. Koonin. 1998. Evidence for massive gene exchange between archaeal and bacterial hyperthermophiles. Trends in Genetics 14:442-444.Archibald, J.M. (2005) Jumping genes and shrinking genomes.probing the evolution of eukaryotic photosynthesis with genomics. IUBMB Life, 57, 539-547.Archibald, J.M., Longet, D., Pawlowski, J. and Keeling, P.J. (2002) A novel polyubiquitin structure in Cercozoa and Foraminifera: evidence for a new eukaryotic supergroup. Mol. Biol. Evol., 20, 62-66.Arisue, N., Hasegawa, M., and Hashimoto, T. (2005) Root of the Eukaryota tree as inferred from combined maximum likelihood analyses of multiple molecular sequence data. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 22(3), 409-420.Ayala, F. J., A. Rzhetsky, and F. J. Ayala. 1998. Origin of the metazoan phyla: Molecular clocks confirm paleontological estimates. PProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 95:606-611.Baguñà, J., P. Martinez, J. Paps, and M. Riutort. 2008. Back in time: a new systematic proposal for the Bilateria. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Series B 363(1496):1481-1491Baldauf, S. L. (1999) A search for the origins of animals and fungi: Comparing and combining molecular data. American Naturalist, 154(suppl.), S178-S188.Baldauf, S. L., J. D. Palmer, and W. F. Doolittle. 1996. The root of the universal tree and the origin of eukaryotes based on elongation factor phylogeny. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93:7749-7754.Baldauf, S.L. and Doolittle, W.F. (1997) Origin and evolution of the slime molds (Mycetozoa). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 94, 12007-12012.Baldauf, S.L. and Palmer, J.D. (1993) Animals and fungi are each other's closest relatives: congruent evidence from multiple proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 90, 11558-11562.Baldauf, S.L., Roger, A.J., Wenk-Siefert, I. and Doolittle, W.F. (2000) A kingdom-level phylogeny of eukaryotes based on combined protein data. Science, 290, 972-977.Balows, A., H.G. Träper, M. Dworkin, W. Harder, and K.-H. Schleifer (eds.). 1992. The Prokaryotes. A Handbook on the Biology of Bacteria: Ecophysiology, Isolation, Identification, Applications. Second edition, Volumes I-IV. Springer Verlag, New York.Bapteste, E., Brinkmann, H., Lee, J., Moore, D., Sensen, C., Gordon, P., Durufle, L., Gaasterland, T., Lopez, P., Muller, M. and Philippe, H. (2002) The analysis of 100 genes supports the grouping of three highly divergent amoebae: Dictyostellium, Entamoeba, and Mastigamoeba. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A, 99, 1414-1419.Barns, S. M., C. F. Delwiche, J. D. Palmer, and N. R. Pace. 1996. Perspectives on archaeal diversity, thermophily and monophyly from environmental rRNA sequences. Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences (U.S.A.) 93:9188-9193.Barns, S. M., R. E. Fundyga, M. W. Jeffries and N. R. Pace. 1994. Remarkable archaeal diversity detected in a Yellowstone National Park hot spring environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 91(5): 1609-1613.Bass, D., Moreira, D., Lopez-Garcia, P., Polet, S., Chao, E.E., von der Heyden, S., Pawlowski, J. and Cavalier-Smith, T. (2005) Polyubiquitin insertions and the phylogeny of Cercozoa and Rhizaria. Protist, 156, 149-161.Battistuzzi, F. U. and A. B. Hedges. 2009. A major clade of prokaryotes with ancient adaptations to life on land. Molecular Biology and Evolution 26(2):335-343; doi:10.1093/molbev/msn247Battistuzzi, F. U., A. Feijao, and A. B. Hedges. 2004. A genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land. BMC Evolutionary Biology 4:44-.Becerra, A., L. Delaye, S. Islas, and A. Lazcano. 2007. The very early stages of biological evolution and the nature of the last common ancestor of the three major cell domains. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 38:361-379.Benachenhou, L. N., P. Forterre and B. Labedan. 1993. Evolution of glutamate dehydrogenase genes: Evidence for two paralogous protein families and unusual branching patterns of the archaebacteria in the universal tree of life. Journal Of Molecular Evolution 36(4): 335-346.Benachenhou, L. N., P. Forterre and B. Labedan. 1993. Evolution of glutamate dehydrogenase genes: Evidence for two paralogous protein families and unusual branching patterns of the archaebacteria in the universal tree of life. Journal Of Molecular Evolution 36:335-346.Bern, M. and D. Goldberg. 2005. Automatic selection of representative proteins for bacterial phylogeny. BMC Evolutionary Biology 5:34-.Berney, C. and Pawlowski, J. (2006) A molecular time-scale for eukaryote evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 273(1596), 1867-1872.Boone, D. R., R.W. Castenholz, and G.M. Garrity. 2001. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 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Archean molecular fossils and the early rise of eukaryotes. Science 285:1033-1036.Brown, J. R. , C. J. Douady, M. J. Italia, W. E. Marshall, and M. J. Stanhope. 2001. Universal trees based on large combined protein sequence data sets. Nature Genetics 28:281-285.Brown, J. R. 2001. Genomic and phylogenetic perspectives on the evolution of prokaryotes. Systematic Biology 50:497-512.Brown, J. R. and W. F. Doolittle. 1995. Root of the universal tree of life based on ancient aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase gene duplications. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 92:2441-2445.Brown, J. R. and W. F. Doolittle. 1997. Archaea and the prokaryote-to-eukaryote transition. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 61:456-502.Brusca, R. C. and G. J. Brusca. 2002. Invertebrates. Second Edition. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts.Budd, G. E. 2008. The earliest fossil record of the animals and its significance. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Series B 363(1496):1425-1434.Budin, K. and Philippe, H. (1998) New insights into the phylogeny of eukaryotes based on Ciliate Hsp70 sequences. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 15, 943-956.Burki, F. and Pawlowski, J. (2006) Monophyly of Rhizaria and multigene phylogeny of unicellular bikonts. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 23(10), 1922-1930.Burki, F., Shalchian-Tabrizi, K. and Pawlowski, J. (2008) Phylogenomics reveals a new 'megagroup' including most photosynthetic eukaryotes. Biol. Lett., 4(4), 366-369.Burki, F., Shalchian-Tabrizi, K., Minge, M., Skjaeveland, A., Nikolaev, S.I., Jakobsen, K.S. and Pawlowski, J. (2007) Phylogenomics reshuffles the eukaryotic supergroups. PLoS ONE, 2, e790.Bustard, K. and R. S. Gupta. 1997. The sequences of heat shock protein 40 (DnaJ) homologs provide evidence for a close evolutionary relationship between the Deinococcus-Thermus group and cyanobacteria. 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(1998) Evolutionary relationships of Microsporidia. Pages 77-90 in Evolutionary Relationships among Protozoa (G. H. Coombs, K. Vickerman, M .A. Sleigh, and A. Warren, eds.) Chapman & Hall, London.Carroll, S. B., J. K. Grenier, and S. D. Weatherbee. 2001. From DNA to Diversity. Molecular Genetics and the Evolution of Animal Design. Blackwell Science, Malden, Massachusetts.Castro, H. F., N. H. Williams, and A. Ogram. 2000. Phylogeny of sulfate-reducing bacteria. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 31:1-9.Cavalier-Smith, T. (1987) The origin of fungi and pseudofungi. In Rayner, A.D.M., Brasier, C.M. and Moore, D. (eds.), Evolutionary biology of the fungi. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 339-353.Cavalier-Smith, T. (1993) Kingdom Protozoa and its 18 phyla. Microbiol. Rev., 57, 953-94.Cavalier-Smith, T. (1998) A revised six-kingdom system of life. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc., 73, 203-266.Cavalier-Smith, T. (1999) Principles of protein and lipid targeting in secondary symbiogenesis: euglenoid, dinoflagellate, and sporozoan plastid origins and the eukaryote family tree. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol., 46, 347-366.Cavalier-Smith, T. (2002) The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa. Int. J. Sys. Evol. Microbiol., 52, 297-354.Cavalier-Smith, T. (2003) Protist phylogeny and the high-level classification of Protozoa. Eur. J. Protistol., 39, 338-348.Cavalier-Smith, T. (2004) Chromalveolate diversity and cell megaevolution: interplay of membranes, genomes and cytoskeleton. In Hirt, R.P. and Horner, D. (eds.), Organelles, Genomes and Eukaryotic Evolution. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 71-103.Cavalier-Smith, T. 2002. The neomuran origin of archaebacteria, the negibacterial root of the universal tree and bacterial megaclassification. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionay Microbiology 52:7-76.Cavalier-Smith, T. and Chao, E.E. 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Hard to Cancel Online SubscriptionsWhy can you join or buy almost anything online in a heartbeat but when it comes to canceling, it takes a DNA sample, a tooth extraction, a notarized form, a snail mail letter, or a call during normal business hours when YOU are working. The answer is obvious; if you can’t cancel, they can keep billing you.Shouldn’t there be a law stating that if you joined online, you can cancel online? If you joined in person, you need to cancel in person.Public College TuitionIf you thought the cost of a private college education was outrageous, public education is not all that far behind, with many colleges increasing their fees by as much as 3 percent. While this doesn’t sound like much, this means that a public college like New Jersey City University will set you back $12,000 for a one year, in state, tuition fee.This is simply outrageous when you consider that our tax dollars go to pay for these schools. There should be limits on what a state can charge state residents for public colleges and it shouldn’t be tens of thousands of dollars!Pyramid Scams (AKA MLM)Hopefully, by now, most people are aware that pyramid schemes are illegal. The problem here is that there are many Multi-Level Marketing products out there that are nothing more than pyramid scams with a product. How can you tell the difference?First, the reason MLM hasn’t been made illegal is that there actually ARE legitimate MLM companies. These legit companies get a bad name when scammers use MLM as their own personal pyramid scheme. In short, if you are promised to make money based on sales of the product, it’s a legit business. However, if you are promised money based on the number of people you recruit to become salespersons and the sales you make to these people, it’s a pyramid scheme.GerrymanderingChances are that you have heard the word but don’t really know what it means. In a nutshell, Gerrymandering is the drawing of political boundaries (districts) which gives your political party a distinct advantage. If you have 50 people in a state, with 30 of them being blue and 20 being red, your districts should be divided evenly. However, districts can be divided in such as way that one party is favored.Why isn’t gerrymandering illegal? Because that would be asking the government to police itself, which we all know it won’t do. Hopefully, court cases will be decided soon and demand that computerized software be used to determine districts without party lines.Puppy MillsPuppy mills. Everyone claims to hate them and yet, they are still around. No one wants to think that those cute little furballs with noses just begging to be kissed came from someone who doesn’t give a damn about their health and well-being, but puppy mills operate exactly in that manner.While congress did pass the Animal Welfare Act in 1966, it only applies to “large scale breeders.” This means that you can have 20 breeding dogs and never worry about an inspection. Perhaps part of the problem lies in the definition of what a puppy mill is. Your neighbor with his two breeding pairs of Pug dogs, is he a puppy mill? Rather than wait for congress to get their act together, you can effectively eliminate this industry by refusing to buy dogs in pet stores. Use a rescue center or find a private breeder whose home and conditions you can see for yourself. Oh yes, and NEVER buy dogs out of state off the internet.Letting Children Go Un-vaccinatedThis is going to be very controversial, but it needs to be said. Parents who don’t vaccinate their children should be charged with child abuse, child endangerment, or child neglect. There is a long, long history and scientific evidence showing that vaccinations work. Not only do vaccinations work, but they protect everyone in society.No, we haven’t been brainwashed by mainstream media. We don’t own stock in pharmaceutical companies, we look at facts and scientific data for our answers, not social media, not doctors with questionable backgrounds, and certainly not celebrities.Sketchy SupplementsEverywhere you look online, dietary supplements are being sold as “the real cure that doctors don’t want you to know.” These supplements are NOT regulated by the FDAThe problem here is that companies can list ingredients as “natural” to avoid FDA inspection. This means that companies can make products that contain almost anything deemed “natural” and sell it to the masses. Seriously, arsenic is completely natural, right?Some of these supplements can even lead to serious medical problems like liver damage so severe that some people may require liver transplants.Child CrimeThis is another controversial area that is in serious need of a legislative makeover. While you can’t buy a beer or enlist in the military or even get a driver’s license without parental consent, many states are charging children as young as 10 years old as adults.More than 100 years ago, states established juvenile courts and laws, which focused more on treatment and rehabilitation than simply locking up criminals. Every year, at least 200,000 children under 16 are being charged and tried as adults. This seems very, very wrong. No child is born a killer. These are taught or learned through bad parenting and society. America should not throw children away but should spend time and money finding out where things went wrong and trying to fix them, rather than spend 60 or 70 years paying to keep people locked up.Conversion TherapyBefore modern medicine discovered things like bacteria and mental illness, people firmly believed that sickness came from evil spirits and “bad” blood. We would never dream of going back to the days when we put feces on open wounds to “cleanse” them or tying stones to people to see if they would float to the surface and prove they were a witch.So why is conversion therapy (the idea that you can change someone’s sexual orientation through torture or spiritual interventions) not outlawed? This backwards and ridiculous notion that one can stop being gay after being subjected to electric shock and other forms of torture is laughable and has its roots in religious dogma. Stop torturing people in the name of some god and try loving them the way most gods say that we should.Cannibalism….seriously?We bet you run to Google for this one, but trust us, it’s true; there is no law in the US forbidding cannibalism. At least no federal law. Some states have laws regarding “desecration of a corpse”, but if you didn’t murder the person, you can probably eat them.Why are there virtually no laws regarding this practice? Probably because we can only imagine that someone who would do such as thing either had no choice (think Donner party) or they were completely insane.Adware/MalwareIt’s probably happened to you. You are innocently surfing the internet and click on a site that looks good. You click on the “I agree” so you can see what it’s all about, but it doesn’t offer much so you keep on surfing, only to find that your web browser starts to malfunction by showing you ONLY ads. This comes to you courtesy of adware or malware and it’s perfectly legal.While there are laws against computer invasion, but when you clicked on that “agree” button, it was like opening the front door to a salesperson. Never hit that “agree” button unless you know what you are agreeing to.Parking Over The LineIf you want a case of road rage in the worst way, find me someone who thinks that they are so special, that their care deserves two parking spaces. Everyone in America should be agreeing with me right now, screaming “WHY ISN’T THIS ILLEGAL?!”If it’s any consolation, it is in some cities, but the fines are so minimal ($10 in Grand Rapids Michigan) that it’s hardly worth the time to write the ticket. In most states and towns, there are no real laws forbidding taking up two or more spaces. Of course, if you are using two metered spaces, you need to pay both meters, but some people are apparently willing to do that. Let’s face it folks. Some people are just jerks and as much as you may want to, you can’t make being a jerk illegal.TenureApologies to all the teachers out there, but the idea that teachers basically can’t be fired once they’ve secured tenure is downright bananas.We’ve all had ineffective teachers in our lifetimes, and those teachers should be removed from their positions, but tenure makes it next to impossible to that. Since public schools are funded by tax payers, we should have the right to remove teachers don’t make the grade.Super-PACSPAC is short for Public Action Committee. These committee’s pool campaign contributions and use them to promote or slam candidates, legislation or even ballot initiatives. While individuals can donate no more than $5,000 to a PAC, Super PACS can raise unlimited amounts of cash from anonymous donors and spend this money however they want. Super Pac’s cannot donate money to a candidate directly, but this doesn’t stop them from endorsing a particular candidate.If you have ever seen a political ad on television promoting one candidate while saying nasty things about another, followed by the words “Paid for by People for Fair Voting” or a similar type of name, you are watching a Super PAC in action. Super PACS can be unions or corporations and you will never know it since they are going by another name. This is a deceptive practice that should be outlawed or at least have laws created that force Super PACS to disclose who they really are.Locking a Minor in Hot VehicleDid you know that leaving a child in an unattended car is illegal in only 3 states? Most other states allow a “grace period” of 5 minutes, but who is watching the timer on that one?Let’s not forget that other states will let you leave children under 6 in a car if they are “supervised” by someone over the age of 12. While it’s true that many children are babysitting by the time they are 13, they aren’t doing so while enclosed in a vehicle.

Yes, there is plenty.Background“ The coerced human experiments and research under National Socialism constitute a reference point in modern bioethics.”“ Yet discussions of consent and the need for safeguards for research subjects to date lack a firm basis in historical evidence. There has been no full evaluation of the numbers of victims of Nazi research, who the victims were, and of the frequency and types of experiments and research. The one partial estimate is restricted to experiments cited at the Nuremberg Medical Trial. This paper gives the first results of a comprehensive evidence-based evaluation of the different categories of victims. In 1945 liberated prisoners from German concentration camps began to collect evidence of the experiments.”“The scientific intelligence officer John Thompson then pointed out not only that 90% of all medical research under National Socialism was criminal, but also the need to evaluate all criminal experiments under National Socialism, and not just those whose perpetrators were available for arrest and prosecution.”“ The Nuremberg Medical Trial of 1946–47 was necessarily selective as to who was available for prosecution, and since then only clusters of victims have been identified.”“ In the early 1980s Günther Schwarberg named a set of child victims: his reconstruction the life histories of the ‘twenty children’ killed after transport from Auschwitz for a tuberculosis immunisation experiment at Neuengamme concentration camp was exemplary.”“ The question arises whether what Schwarberg achieved in microcosm can be achieved for the totality of victims. Our aim is to identify not just clusters of victims but all victims of unethical medical research under National Socialism. The methodology is that of record linkage to reconstruct life histories of the total population of all such research victims. This allows one to place individual survivors and groups of victims within a wider context.““This project on the victims of Nazi medical research represents the fulfilment of Thompson's original scheme of a complete record of all coerced experiments and their victims.”“ Our project identifies for the first time the victims of Nazi coercive research, and reconstructs their life histories as far as possible. Biographical data found in many different archives and collections is linked to compile a full life history, and subjective narratives and administrative data are compared. Results are aggregated here as cohorts because of undertakings as regards anonymisation, given in order to gain access to key sources. All data is verifiable through the project database.”“The criterion for unethical research is whether coercion by researchers was involved, or whether the location was coercive. The project has covered involuntary research in clinical contexts as psychiatric hospitals, incarceration in concentration camps and prisoner of war camps, the ‘euthanasia’ killings of psychiatric patients with subsequent retention of body parts for research, and executions of political victims, when body parts were sent to university anatomical institutes, and persons subjected to anthropological research in coercive and life threatening situations as ghettoes and concentration camps.Without a reliable, evidence-based historical analysis, compensation for surviving victims has involved many problems. Victim numbers have been consistently underestimated from the first compensation scheme in 1951 when the assumption was of only few hundred survivors.”“ The assumption was that most experiments were fatal. This project's use of several thousand compensation records in countries where victims lived (as Poland) or migrated to (as Israel), or were collected by the United Nations or the German government has corrected this impression. The availability of person-related evidence from the International Tracing Service at Bad Arolsen further helps to determine whether a victim survived. Major repositories of documents like the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and the Yad Vashem archives, court records in war crimes proceedings, and oral history collections notably the Shoah Foundation have been consulted. Record linkage of named records is essential for the project, and shows how a single person could be the victim of research on multiple occasions. Father Leon Michałowski, born 22 March 1909 in Wąbrzeźno, was subjected to malaria in August 1942 and then to freezing experiments in October 1942 (Figure 1).”Figure 1“Malaria card of Father Bruno Stachowski from Claus Schilling's research at Dachau. Approximately 1000 cards were kept back from destruction by the prisoner assistant Eugène Ost. International Tracing Service, source number 1079406301.”“A further issue relates to the methods and organisation of the research. From the 1950s the experiments were viewed as ‘pseudo-science’, in effect marginalising them from mainstream science under National Socialism. For the purpose of this study, the experiments have been viewed as part of mainstream German medical research, as this renders rationales and supportive networks historically intelligible. It is clear that prestigious research institutions such as the Kaiser Wilhelm Society and funding agencies such as the German Research Fund were involved.”“ It has been argued more recently that some experiments were cutting edge science.”“ Another view is that the approach and methods were scientific albeit of varying quality. For the purpose of this study, the experiments have been viewed as part of mainstream German medical research, as this renders rationales and supportive networks intelligible.”“Defining what constitutes research is problematic. For example, a listing of operations in a concentration camp may be nothing more than a clinical record, may have been undertaken by young surgeons seeking to improve their skills, or may indeed have involved research. As stated above, only confirmed data of research has been utilised in the project's category of a verified instance of unethical research. The only exception is the corpses sent to anatomical institutes for research purposes.”“Separating these out often does not appear possible, but the project includes anatomical research on body parts and brains as separate categories.”“The project has graded victim evidence into two categories, so that there should be a set of verifiable and proven victims established as incontestable evidence of having been a victim. The unexpectedly high numbers of identified experiment victims makes this necessary. The two categories are:“1.those who were identified as confirmed victims through a reliable source such as experimental records kept at the time.2.those who have claimed to have been experimented on, but confirmation could not so far be obtained.““The project did not set out to adjudicate on the authenticity of victims’ claims. In Warsaw ca. 3600 compensation files of victims of human experiments were viewed, while there are a further 10,000 files representing claims deemed unsuccessful. It is sometimes unclear whether extensive injuries were retrospectively defined to have resulted from an experiment to meet the criteria of the compensation scheme offered by the Federal Republic of Germany in various forms since 1951, or whether experimentation had taken place in a hitherto unknown location. The project discounted claims of abuse when no experiment or research was involved, or when victims having misunderstood compensation schemes for experiments being about ‘experiences’. It is hoped that further research will provide confirmation of experiments in disputed locations like the concentration camps of Stutthof and Theresienstadt.““While Yugoslav victims were abused for experiments in German concentration camps, claims for experiments in the former Yugoslavia and Northern Norway have not so far been confirmed. The grading of victims’ claims into the verified and as yet unverified enable the project to establish verifiable minimum numbers, while indicating the possibility of higher numbers being confirmed by further research.”Project findings“The project is able to present results on: how many victims were killed in the course of the experiment, how many died from the consequences of the experiment or were killed as potential evidence of Nazi criminality, and how many survived? The project has covered experiments, as the most notorious experiments taken to the point of death and supported by the SS in concentration camps, as well as dispersed experiments in a variety of clinical contexts, particularly on psychiatric patients. Some sets of experiments and locations, not least those sponsored by German pharmaceutical companies remain shadowy, and require more detailed research possibly on the basis of further disclosure of documents held in company archives. The extent of involvement of German pharmaceutical companies like that of IG-Farben (using the branded product names of ‘Bayer’, ‘Hoechst’ and ‘Behringwerke’) remains contentious. The company supplied Helmuth Vetter with samples for experiments at Auschwitz and Mauthausen. Similarly problematic is the extent that Schering-Kahlbaum supported Clauberg's uses of X-ray contrast fluids and a substance to seal the fallopian tubes at Auschwitz. Initially, Clauberg asked for deliveries to his clinic at Königshütte (so making the experiments appear as taking place in a consensual clinical context), but later on to Auschwitz. The extent that the company's senior staff knew that their employee and Clauberg's pharmaceutical assistant Johannes Goebel worked at Auschwitz is contentious (Figure 2).”Figure 2Carl Clauberg and Horst Schumann at Block 10 in Auschwitz. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum W/S #67417.“The occurrence of unethical research provides insight into the structure of Nazi medical research. The project traced how Nazi coercive research began in the context of eugenic research in the mid-1930s. After numbers of experiments dipped in 1940 due to military call-up of medical researchers, the research rapidly intensified both in terms of numbers of experiments and victims, and in terms of severity for victims. This can be seen from 1942 with the notorious and often fatal experiments on low pressure, exposure to freezing temperatures, and infectious diseases when research could be taken to the point of death. Pharmacological experiments on therapies for tetanus, typhus and typhoid were spurred by the realisation that Allied military medical research on infectious diseases was outstripping German military medical expertise. From November 1942 racial priorities came increasingly to the fore, as exemplified by Schumann's X-ray sterilisation experiments on Jews in Auschwitz.”“Victims were a highly international group. The above table (Table 1) shows numbers of nationalities, using nationality as in 1938. The table indicates the distribution of nationalities. The largest national group, that of Polish victims, includes both Roman Catholics and Jews. There were high numbers of German and Austrian victims, in part as a result of the experiments and dissections that accompanied the killing of psychiatric patients. While there were other large groups, there are also smaller national groups, as Swiss, British and Irish, all highly remarkable in how their citizens became caught up in the experimentation. We find victims include a Swiss conscientious objector used for malaria experiments at Dachau, and British commandos captured in Norway used for amphetamine and high performance experiments on the shoe track at Sachsenhausen, and subsequently executed.”Table 1Nationality (as at March 1938).Statistics on gender indicate a proportion of male to female of approximately 2:1 (Table 2). One possible reason is the high number of military experiments as related to infectious diseases. Another is that more men than women were held in concentration camps, so that there was a higher male availability in the predominately male camps. In Ravensbrück the situation was reversed with the large female camp and a small male compound (Figure 3).Figure 3“Clandestine photograph of a mutilated leg of the Polish political prisoner Bogumiła Babińska-Dobrowska at Ravensbrück concentration camp. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of Anna Hassa Jarosky and Peter Hassa W/S ...”Table 2Gender.“While for most nationalities male victims were the majority, in the case of certain national groups, female victims were in the majority. This is the case for victim groups from the Netherlands (in the case of sterilisation at Auschwitz), and Greece (for the Jewish skeleton collection). Children were often victims of experiments in psychiatric clinics. Later in the war, Roma and Jewish children were targeted for research by Mengele in Auschwitz.““The statistics show the age distribution was the same for men and women. While there was a very wide age spectrum, the peak is of victims born in 1921, so in their early twenties at the time of the experiment (Figure 4). Several hundred Jewish children were held by Mengele for twin research, and batches of Jewish children were dispatched for hepatitis and tuberculosis research, and body parts of small children were retained by psychiatric researchers.”Figure 4Age of victims at the start of experiment.“Ethnicity and religion have been recorded, as for the definitively confirmed experiment victims (Table 3). Here, one is thrown back on the categories imposed by the Nazis. Thus a victim of the Jewish skeleton collection for the anatomy department at Strasbourg was baptised Protestant.““Generally, the Nazis used the generic and stigmatising term of ‘Zigeuner’ or gypsy rather than the self-identifying terms of ‘Sinti’ and ‘Roma’.Table 3Ethnicity.“In addition to the experiment victims are Roma and Sinti victims of large scale anthropological investigations of Ritter, Justin, and Ehrhardt, amounting to at least a further 21,498 persons (Figure 5).”Figure 5“A gypsy used for seawater experiments in Dachau to test methods of making seawater drinkable, ca. July–September 1944. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration, College Park W/S #78688.““If however one takes the year 1943 we find a higher proportion of Jewish victims, in part because of the intensification of experiments on Jews (particularly on women and children) at Auschwitz and Auschwitz-Birkenau. This would again indicate that there was an intensification of racial research (Table 4).”Table 4Religion.“Victim number indicates how from 1942 onwards there was an overall intensification of research (Figure 6).”Figure 6“Start year of experiments.““The life history approach allows appraisal of both experiments and victim numbers over time. The period 1933–39 shows sporadic experimentation in the context of racial hygiene. Mixed race adolescents were sterilised and evaluated by anthropologists. The concerns of racial hygiene with mental illness explain why psychiatrists and neurologists conducted experiments in psychiatric institutions. The psychiatrist Georg Schaltenbrand pointed out that his neurological research subjects were transferred to other institutions, many as we now know to be killed. This interrupted his research on the transmissibility of multiple sclerosis. The numbers of brains and body parts increased. From 1942 onwards there was an overall intensification of research.”“The chart (Figure 7) shows when experiments started, but not the distribution of victims over time.”Figure 7Victims by start year of each experiment.“The largest series of experiments were for infectious diseases. Malaria research at Dachau between 1942 and 1945 had 1091 confirmed victims, and after infection different combinations of drugs were tested. These experiments by Schilling began in 1942 and remarkably Schilling tried to continue the research after the liberation of the camp.”He pleaded at his trial to be allowed to continue the research, albeit on volunteers. The highest numbers were in 1943. The momentum continued even though the war was clearly lost. Other large groups included the twins researched on by Mengele, and to date 618 individuals are known (Figure 8).”Figure 8“Twins Frank (lt) and Otto (rt) Klein attend a world gathering of survivors of Dr. Joseph Mengele's medical experiments at Auschwitz. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum W/S #05586.”“The overall findings provide an accurate basis for analysis of experiments to date. First, nearly a quarter of confirmed victims were either killed to obtain their organs for research, or died as a result of experiments taking the research subject to the point of death (notoriously, the experiments on freezing and low pressure at Dachau). The euthanasia killings and executions were sources of bodies for research, and the extent that this happened and research conducted before and after the end of the war is still being documented. Of the fully documented victims died 781 died before the end of the war as a result of the experiments: research subjects were weakened by the strain of the experiment such as a deliberate infection or severe cold, or they were deliberately killed because it was feared that they would testify against the perpetrators (Table 5).“Table 5Fatalities.“While, most subjects survived, amounting to 24,010 persons, many had severe physical disabilities with life-long consequences.“Conclusion“The analysis presented here shows that several types of unethical medical research occurred under National Socialism. Not only were large numbers of victims affected, but also overall, numbers of surviving victims were far higher than anticipated. The survivors were often seriously disabled and handicapped for the remainder of their lives. The experiments gained in numbers with the war and the implementation of the Holocaust, and were sustained at a high level of intensity despite imminent defeat.““One issue arising is that body parts of deceased victims were retained by medical research and teaching institutes, notably for anatomy and brain research. While there was meant to be full disclosure of specimens deriving from euthanasia victims and executed persons by 1990, specimens continue to be identified.”“ The complex data is to be further augmented and refined, the history of specimens retained for research during and after WW2 is being documented, and the narratives of survivors analysed in order to understand more fully the consequences of coerced research. This research provides a basis in historical evidence for discussions of the ethics of coerced medical research.“Attribution:The victims of unethical human experiments and coerced research under National Socialism