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There are studies which study the association between political affiliation and IQ. However, I was unable to find one that studied the IQ’s of Marxists. Therefore, we must rely on other things. It has been proposed and does bear out that highly intelligent people are more likely to embrace behaviors and political orientations that are novel. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.923.8599&rep=rep1&type=pdf. Liberalism and atheism are associated with higher intelligence. Marxism is even more far to the left given the current default of Western style neoliberal capitalism. It takes significant intellectual firepower to even notice that something has gone awry, and it takes even more not to be duped by right wing demagogues like Trump. From there one might assume that the NPR crowd has it figured out. But this still hangs on to the problem of capitalism. A person who takes it a step further will start reading Chomsky, Cornell West, and Marx. Then the pieces start to fit together. But none of this is easy. You don’t stumble your way there. It is a conscious choice. And you must be brave enough to accept rejection and hate from your loved ones. You must really care about the well being of those outside your “tribe,” to hang on. This is not the doings of a “normal” person. If your religion has prepared you to do academic study, and to reason with language, you would have a big advantage in learning Marxism.Jews as a group have a higher IQ than others. Some studies have shown that the average IQ of Jews range between 107–115.[1][1][1][1] 115 is one standard deviation above the average Caucasian score. The bell curve for Jewish intelligence is also shifted more to the right, meaning there are a disproportionate number of Jews with IQs above 170. Jews are over-represented in Nobel Prize winners.[2][2][2][2]Interestingly, other studies have shown:One study found that Ashkenazi Jews had only mediocre visual-spatial intelligence, about IQ 98, while a 1958 study of yeshiva students found that their verbal IQ (which includes verbal reasoning, comprehension, working memory, and mathematical computation) had a high median of 125.6.[6]Why? A mix of nature and nurture. In many Jewish communities part of becoming an adult member of the community is to be able to read, recite, and understand the Torah. You are expected to make arguments about how the law is interpreted, and how it should work given a variety of circumstances. This same ability could be applied to the profession of law (there are many Jewish lawyers), academia (many Jewish professors), and other verbally heavy IQ professions.If you fail to do this you are going to no longer be able to be a full member of the religious community. This also means that you are less likely to marry a woman who is Jewish. There is significant intermarriage within the Jewish community. Jewish mothers expect their Jewish daughters and sons to marry within the faith. And many do. But verbal intelligence acts as a sorting mechanism and mating is effected. This is a nature and nurture one two.The Bolsheviks were Marxist Leninist revolutionaries. 80% of them were Jews. In fact Hitler’s anti-Semitism was directed against what he called “Judeo-Bolshevism,” which was Jewish communists.[3][3][3][3]Marxism relies heavily on theory. Marx’s Capital is not easy reading. It is the most dense material you can find. Marxism relies on people who are intelligent to read, understand, and support it.Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky, and others wrote extensively. Stalin himself wrote volumes, as did Lenin. These were romantics, but also very intelligent men. When they rose to power they were also practical in implementing their ideas. They acted in a reactive manner to solve problems as they arose.To understand Marxism you must have at least a 115+ IQ. The average IQ of a college professor is 125–135.[4][4][4][4] They teach Marx in college not as ideologues, but the theory because it is part of history. But they have to be able to understand it.Further, the greatest mind in the 20th century was a socialist. Albert Einstein.Einstein’s views on socialismIn 1949, Einstein wrote an article for the magazine Monthly Review explaining his thoughts on socialism. In it, he explains his political positions and why he feels the need to weigh in on a subject that is outside his area of expertise.In the first section of the essay, he acknowledges that he is a man of science and not an expert on economics. He still feels that he is able to offer a few comments on the subject as “socialism is directed towards a social-ethical end. Science, however, cannot create ends and, even less, instill them in human beings; science, at most, can supply the means by which to attain certain ends.” As he doesn’t wish to speak scientifically or be overly technical, he argues that a non-expert can make a few points on the subject and begins to do so.Three fundamental objections to capitalismEinstein had three bones to pick with capitalism. The first is that “Man is, at one and the same time, a solitary being and a social being.” He explains his stance that a person is at once an individual and at the same time rather dependent on society for a great many things. However, despite the necessity of a high functioning society for our wellbeing, he sees capitalism as encouraging a mad drive for personal success at the expense of society and leading us to educate our children in a way that reinforces this behavior.This damages the individual, he argues. It drives us to educate ourselves only to find a job and not to fully develop beyond that. Furthermore, it can leave the individual in a constant state of fear over the risk of losing their livelihood, which leads to Einstein's second objection.“The economic anarchy of capitalist society"His second objection is one of waste and inefficiency. While capitalism strives for efficiency, it cannot always make good use of the total body of labor society has to offer. Einstein sees this as a poor way to organize an economy. He posits that:“There is no provision that all those able and willing to work will always be in a position to find employment; an “army of unemployed” almost always exists. The worker is constantly in fear of losing his job. Since unemployed and poorly paid workers do not provide a profitable market, the production of consumers’ goods is restricted, and great hardship is the consequence. Technological progress frequently results in more unemployment rather than in an easing of the burden of work for all.”While it would be most profitable for society at large if total employment was assured, Einstein suggests that capitalism cannot do this on the grounds that it is more profitable for the owners of the means of production, who are often few in number, to not do so.The unemployed during the Great Depression. For many writers in the middle of the 20th century, memories of the Great Depression lead to an increased interest in alternatives to capitalism. George Grantham Bain Collection (Library of Congress)Lastly, he sees the profit motive as a cause of great suffering. Going so far as to say that, “The economic anarchy of capitalist society as it exists today is, in my opinion, the real source of the evil.” He explains further that:“The profit motive, in conjunction with competition among capitalists, is responsible for an instability in the accumulation and utilization of capital which leads to increasingly severe depressions. Unlimited competition leads to a huge waste of labor, and to that crippling of the social consciousness of individuals which I mentioned before.”What does Einstein propose as a solution?His support of socialism comes from the belief that it will solve the problems he finds in capitalism on the grounds that a socialist economy would not be based on the profit motive and would be more oriented towards filling social needs rather than a capitalist economy.“I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child.”After his experience fleeing the Nazis, it is perhaps self-evident that he understood the vital need to assure freedom. He was also opposed to McCarthyism and offered to serve as a character witness when W.E.B Du Bois was accused of being a communist spy. He also worked for civil rights in the United States, was associated with the Princeton chapter of the NAACP, and housed the singer Marian Anderson in his home when she was denied a hotel room in Princeton.Source: Why Albert Einstein was a socialistEvolutionary psychologists have found some interesting findings:Political, religious and sexual behaviors may be reflections of intelligence, a new study finds.Evolutionary psychologist Satoshi Kanazawa at the the London School of Economics and Political Science correlated data on these behaviors with IQ from a large national U.S. sample and found that, on average, people who identified as liberal and atheist had higher IQs. This applied also to sexual exclusivity in men, but not in women. The findings will be published in the March 2010 issue of Social Psychology Quarterly.The IQ differences, while statistically significant, are not stunning -- on the order of 6 to 11 points -- and the data should not be used to stereotype or make assumptions about people, experts say. But they show how certain patterns of identifying with particular ideologies develop, and how some people's behaviors come to be.The reasoning is that sexual exclusivity in men, liberalism and atheism all go against what would be expected given humans' evolutionary past. In other words, none of these traits would have benefited our early human ancestors, but higher intelligence may be associated with them."The adoption of some evolutionarily novel ideas makes some sense in terms of moving the species forward," said George Washington University leadership professor James Bailey, who was not involved in the study. "It also makes perfect sense that more intelligent people -- people with, sort of, more intellectual firepower -- are likely to be the ones to do that."Bailey also said that these preferences may stem from a desire to show superiority or elitism, which also has to do with IQ. In fact, aligning oneself with "unconventional" philosophies such as liberalism or atheism may be "ways to communicate to everyone that you're pretty smart," he said.The study looked at a large sample from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), which began with adolescents in grades 7-12 in the United States during the 1994-95 school year. The participants were interviewed as 18- to 28-year-olds from 2001 to 2002. The study also looked at the General Social Survey, another cross-national data collection source.Kanazawa did not find that higher or lower intelligence predicted sexual exclusivity in women. This makes sense, because having one partner has always been advantageous to women, even thousands of years ago, meaning exclusivity is not a "new" preference.For men, on the other hand, sexual exclusivity goes against the grain evolutionarily. With a goal of spreading genes, early men had multiple mates. Since women had to spend nine months being pregnant, and additional years caring for very young children, it made sense for them to want a steady mate to provide them resources.Religion, the current theory goes, did not help people survive or reproduce necessarily, but goes along the lines of helping people to be paranoid, Kanazawa said. Assuming that, for example, a noise in the distance is a signal of a threat helped early humans to prepare in case of danger."It helps life to be paranoid, and because humans are paranoid, they become more religious, and they see the hands of God everywhere," Kanazawa said.Participants who said they were atheists had an average IQ of 103 in adolescence, while adults who said they were religious averaged 97, the study found. Atheism "allows someone to move forward and speculate on life without any concern for the dogmatic structure of a religion," Bailey said."Historically, anything that's new and different can be seen as a threat in terms of the religious beliefs; almost all religious systems are about permanence," he noted.The study takes the American view of liberal vs. conservative. It defines "liberal" in terms of concern for genetically nonrelated people and support for private resources that help those people. It does not look at other factors that play into American political beliefs, such as abortion, gun control and gay rights."Liberals are more likely to be concerned about total strangers; conservatives are likely to be concerned with people they associate with," he said.Given that human ancestors had a keen interest in the survival of their offspring and nearest kin, the conservative approach -- looking out for the people around you first -- fits with the evolutionary picture more than liberalism, Kanazawa said. "It's unnatural for humans to be concerned about total strangers." he said.The study found that young adults who said they were "very conservative" had an average adolescent IQ of 95, whereas those who said they were "very liberal" averaged 106.It also makes sense that "conservatism" as a worldview of keeping things stable would be a safer approach than venturing toward the unfamiliar, Bailey said.Neither Bailey nor Kanazawa identify themselves as liberal; Bailey is conservative and Kanazawa is "a strong libertarian."Vegetarianism, while not strongly associated with IQ in this study, has been shown to be related to intelligence in previous research, Kanazawa said. This also fits into Bailey's idea that unconventional preferences appeal to people with higher intelligence, and can also be a means of showing superiority.None of this means that the human species is evolving toward a future where these traits are the default, Kanazawa said."More intelligent people don't have more children, so moving away from the trajectory is not going to happen," he said. [5][5][5][5]Why Socialism?by Albert Einstein(May 01, 2009)Topics: Marxism , SocialismPlaces: GlobalAlbert Einstein (1959), charcoal and watercolor drawing by Alexander Dobkin. Dobkin (1908–1975) was an important painter of the mid-twentieth century American realist tradition along with other left-wing artists such as Jack Levine, Robert Gwathmey, Philip Evergood, and Raphael and Moses Soyer. A student and collaborator of the Mexican muralist Jose Clemente Orozco, his work is in the permanent collections of the Butler Art Institute, the Museum of Modern Art, the Brooklyn Museum, the Whitney Museum of American Art, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Library of Congress, and the Smithsonian Institution. (The preceding caption was written by John J. Simon, "Albert Einstein, Radical: A Political Profile," Monthly Review vol. 57, no. 1 [2005].)Albert Einstein is the world-famous physicist. This article was originally published in the first issue of Monthly Review (May 1949). It was subsequently published in May 1998 to commemorate the first issue of MR‘s fiftieth year.—The EditorsIs it advisable for one who is not an expert on economic and social issues to express views on the subject of socialism? I believe for a number of reasons that it is.Let us first consider the question from the point of view of scientific knowledge. It might appear that there are no essential methodological differences between astronomy and economics: scientists in both fields attempt to discover laws of general acceptability for a circumscribed group of phenomena in order to make the interconnection of these phenomena as clearly understandable as possible. But in reality such methodological differences do exist. The discovery of general laws in the field of economics is made difficult by the circumstance that observed economic phenomena are often affected by many factors which are very hard to evaluate separately. In addition, the experience which has accumulated since the beginning of the so-called civilized period of human history has—as is well known—been largely influenced and limited by causes which are by no means exclusively economic in nature. For example, most of the major states of history owed their existence to conquest. The conquering peoples established themselves, legally and economically, as the privileged class of the conquered country. They seized for themselves a monopoly of the land ownership and appointed a priesthood from among their own ranks. The priests, in control of education, made the class division of society into a permanent institution and created a system of values by which the people were thenceforth, to a large extent unconsciously, guided in their social behavior.But historic tradition is, so to speak, of yesterday; nowhere have we really overcome what Thorstein Veblen called “the predatory phase” of human development. The observable economic facts belong to that phase and even such laws as we can derive from them are not applicable to other phases. Since the real purpose of socialism is precisely to overcome and advance beyond the predatory phase of human development, economic science in its present state can throw little light on the socialist society of the future.Second, socialism is directed towards a social-ethical end. Science, however, cannot create ends and, even less, instill them in human beings; science, at most, can supply the means by which to attain certain ends. But the ends themselves are conceived by personalities with lofty ethical ideals and—if these ends are not stillborn, but vital and vigorous—are adopted and carried forward by those many human beings who, half unconsciously, determine the slow evolution of society.For these reasons, we should be on our guard not to overestimate science and scientific methods when it is a question of human problems; and we should not assume that experts are the only ones who have a right to express themselves on questions affecting the organization of society.Innumerable voices have been asserting for some time now that human society is passing through a crisis, that its stability has been gravely shattered. It is characteristic of such a situation that individuals feel indifferent or even hostile toward the group, small or large, to which they belong. In order to illustrate my meaning, let me record here a personal experience. I recently discussed with an intelligent and well-disposed man the threat of another war, which in my opinion would seriously endanger the existence of mankind, and I remarked that only a supra-national organization would offer protection from that danger. Thereupon my visitor, very calmly and coolly, said to me: “Why are you so deeply opposed to the disappearance of the human race?”I am sure that as little as a century ago no one would have so lightly made a statement of this kind. It is the statement of a man who has striven in vain to attain an equilibrium within himself and has more or less lost hope of succeeding. It is the expression of a painful solitude and isolation from which so many people are suffering in these days. What is the cause? Is there a way out?It is easy to raise such questions, but difficult to answer them with any degree of assurance. I must try, however, as best I can, although I am very conscious of the fact that our feelings and strivings are often contradictory and obscure and that they cannot be expressed in easy and simple formulas.Man is, at one and the same time, a solitary being and a social being. As a solitary being, he attempts to protect his own existence and that of those who are closest to him, to satisfy his personal desires, and to develop his innate abilities. As a social being, he seeks to gain the recognition and affection of his fellow human beings, to share in their pleasures, to comfort them in their sorrows, and to improve their conditions of life. Only the existence of these varied, frequently conflicting, strivings accounts for the special character of a man, and their specific combination determines the extent to which an individual can achieve an inner equilibrium and can contribute to the well-being of society. It is quite possible that the relative strength of these two drives is, in the main, fixed by inheritance. But the personality that finally emerges is largely formed by the environment in which a man happens to find himself during his development, by the structure of the society in which he grows up, by the tradition of that society, and by its appraisal of particular types of behavior. The abstract concept “society” means to the individual human being the sum total of his direct and indirect relations to his contemporaries and to all the people of earlier generations. The individual is able to think, feel, strive, and work by himself; but he depends so much upon society—in his physical, intellectual, and emotional existence—that it is impossible to think of him, or to understand him, outside the framework of society. It is “society” which provides man with food, clothing, a home, the tools of work, language, the forms of thought, and most of the content of thought; his life is made possible through the labor and the accomplishments of the many millions past and present who are all hidden behind the small word “society.”It is evident, therefore, that the dependence of the individual upon society is a fact of nature which cannot be abolished—just as in the case of ants and bees. However, while the whole life process of ants and bees is fixed down to the smallest detail by rigid, hereditary instincts, the social pattern and interrelationships of human beings are very variable and susceptible to change. Memory, the capacity to make new combinations, the gift of oral communication have made possible developments among human being which are not dictated by biological necessities. Such developments manifest themselves in traditions, institutions, and organizations; in literature; in scientific and engineering accomplishments; in works of art. This explains how it happens that, in a certain sense, man can influence his life through his own conduct, and that in this process conscious thinking and wanting can play a part.Man acquires at birth, through heredity, a biological constitution which we must consider fixed and unalterable, including the natural urges which are characteristic of the human species. In addition, during his lifetime, he acquires a cultural constitution which he adopts from society through communication and through many other types of influences. It is this cultural constitution which, with the passage of time, is subject to change and which determines to a very large extent the relationship between the individual and society. Modern anthropology has taught us, through comparative investigation of so-called primitive cultures, that the social behavior of human beings may differ greatly, depending upon prevailing cultural patterns and the types of organization which predominate in society. It is on this that those who are striving to improve the lot of man may ground their hopes: human beings are not condemned, because of their biological constitution, to annihilate each other or to be at the mercy of a cruel, self-inflicted fate.If we ask ourselves how the structure of society and the cultural attitude of man should be changed in order to make human life as satisfying as possible, we should constantly be conscious of the fact that there are certain conditions which we are unable to modify. As mentioned before, the biological nature of man is, for all practical purposes, not subject to change. Furthermore, technological and demographic developments of the last few centuries have created conditions which are here to stay. In relatively densely settled populations with the goods which are indispensable to their continued existence, an extreme division of labor and a highly-centralized productive apparatus are absolutely necessary. The time—which, looking back, seems so idyllic—is gone forever when individuals or relatively small groups could be completely self-sufficient. It is only a slight exaggeration to say that mankind constitutes even now a planetary community of production and consumption.I have now reached the point where I may indicate briefly what to me constitutes the essence of the crisis of our time. It concerns the relationship of the individual to society. The individual has become more conscious than ever of his dependence upon society. But he does not experience this dependence as a positive asset, as an organic tie, as a protective force, but rather as a threat to his natural rights, or even to his economic existence. Moreover, his position in society is such that the egotistical drives of his make-up are constantly being accentuated, while his social drives, which are by nature weaker, progressively deteriorate. All human beings, whatever their position in society, are suffering from this process of deterioration. Unknowingly prisoners of their own egotism, they feel insecure, lonely, and deprived of the naive, simple, and unsophisticated enjoyment of life. Man can find meaning in life, short and perilous as it is, only through devoting himself to society.The economic anarchy of capitalist society as it exists today is, in my opinion, the real source of the evil. We see before us a huge community of producers the members of which are unceasingly striving to deprive each other of the fruits of their collective labor—not by force, but on the whole in faithful compliance with legally established rules. In this respect, it is important to realize that the means of production—that is to say, the entire productive capacity that is needed for producing consumer goods as well as additional capital goods—may legally be, and for the most part are, the private property of individuals.For the sake of simplicity, in the discussion that follows I shall call “workers” all those who do not share in the ownership of the means of production—although this does not quite correspond to the customary use of the term. The owner of the means of production is in a position to purchase the labor power of the worker. By using the means of production, the worker produces new goods which become the property of the capitalist. The essential point about this process is the relation between what the worker produces and what he is paid, both measured in terms of real value. Insofar as the labor contract is “free,” what the worker receives is determined not by the real value of the goods he produces, but by his minimum needs and by the capitalists’ requirements for labor power in relation to the number of workers competing for jobs. It is important to understand that even in theory the payment of the worker is not determined by the value of his product.Private capital tends to become concentrated in few hands, partly because of competition among the capitalists, and partly because technological development and the increasing division of labor encourage the formation of larger units of production at the expense of smaller ones. The result of these developments is an oligarchy of private capital the enormous power of which cannot be effectively checked even by a democratically organized political society. This is true since the members of legislative bodies are selected by political parties, largely financed or otherwise influenced by private capitalists who, for all practical purposes, separate the electorate from the legislature. The consequence is that the representatives of the people do not in fact sufficiently protect the interests of the underprivileged sections of the population. Moreover, under existing conditions, private capitalists inevitably control, directly or indirectly, the main sources of information (press, radio, education). It is thus extremely difficult, and indeed in most cases quite impossible, for the individual citizen to come to objective conclusions and to make intelligent use of his political rights.The situation prevailing in an economy based on the private ownership of capital is thus characterized by two main principles: first, means of production (capital) are privately owned and the owners dispose of them as they see fit; second, the labor contract is free. Of course, there is no such thing as a pure capitalist society in this sense. In particular, it should be noted that the workers, through long and bitter political struggles, have succeeded in securing a somewhat improved form of the “free labor contract” for certain categories of workers. But taken as a whole, the present day economy does not differ much from “pure” capitalism.Production is carried on for profit, not for use. There is no provision that all those able and willing to work will always be in a position to find employment; an “army of unemployed” almost always exists. The worker is constantly in fear of losing his job. Since unemployed and poorly paid workers do not provide a profitable market, the production of consumers’ goods is restricted, and great hardship is the consequence. Technological progress frequently results in more unemployment rather than in an easing of the burden of work for all. The profit motive, in conjunction with competition among capitalists, is responsible for an instability in the accumulation and utilization of capital which leads to increasingly severe depressions. Unlimited competition leads to a huge waste of labor, and to that crippling of the social consciousness of individuals which I mentioned before.This crippling of individuals I consider the worst evil of capitalism. Our whole educational system suffers from this evil. An exaggerated competitive attitude is inculcated into the student, who is trained to worship acquisitive success as a preparation for his future career.I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.Nevertheless, it is necessary to remember that a planned economy is not yet socialism. A planned economy as such may be accompanied by the complete enslavement of the individual. The achievement of socialism requires the solution of some extremely difficult socio-political problems: how is it possible, in view of the far-reaching centralization of political and economic power, to prevent bureaucracy from becoming all-powerful and overweening? How can the rights of the individual be protected and therewith a democratic counterweight to the power of bureaucracy be assured?Clarity about the aims and problems of socialism is of greatest significance in our age of transition. Since, under present circumstances, free and unhindered discussion of these problems has come under a powerful taboo, I consider the foundation of this magazine to be an important public service.[6][6][6][6]Footnotes[1] http://Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham's Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People. Grand Central Publishing (published October 24, 2007). ISBN 978-0446580632.[1] http://Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham's Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People. Grand Central Publishing (published October 24, 2007). ISBN 978-0446580632.[1] http://Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham's Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People. Grand Central Publishing (published October 24, 2007). ISBN 978-0446580632.[1] http://Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham's Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People. Grand Central Publishing (published October 24, 2007). ISBN 978-0446580632.[2] http://Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham's Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People. Grand Central Publishing (published October 24, 2007). ISBN 978-0446580632.[2] http://Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham's Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People. Grand Central Publishing (published October 24, 2007). ISBN 978-0446580632.[2] http://Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham's Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People. Grand Central Publishing (published October 24, 2007). ISBN 978-0446580632.[2] http://Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham's Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People. Grand Central Publishing (published October 24, 2007). ISBN 978-0446580632.[3] H-Net Reviews[3] H-Net Reviews[3] H-Net Reviews[3] H-Net Reviews[4] http://www.religjournal.com/pdf/ijrr10001.pdf[4] http://www.religjournal.com/pdf/ijrr10001.pdf[4] http://www.religjournal.com/pdf/ijrr10001.pdf[4] http://www.religjournal.com/pdf/ijrr10001.pdf[5] Liberalism, atheism, male sexual exclusivity linked to IQ[5] Liberalism, atheism, male sexual exclusivity linked to IQ[5] Liberalism, atheism, male sexual exclusivity linked to IQ[5] Liberalism, atheism, male sexual exclusivity linked to IQ[6] Monthly Review | Why Socialism?[6] Monthly Review | Why Socialism?[6] Monthly Review | Why Socialism?[6] Monthly Review | Why Socialism?

A CompendiumofContemporary Instructional Models, Practices & Theories©Hal PortnerJanuary, 2016Model, Practiceor TheoryDescriptionCommentaryTypical Instructional TechniquesTeacher FocusedDirect Instruction: Teacher explains or demonstratesDrill and Practice: Repetition to hone a skill or memorize informationLecture: Teacher provides information to students in a one-way verbal presentationDialogue OrientedQuestion and Answer: Requires reflection as information is exchanged in response to a questionDiscussion: An exchange of opinions and perspectivesStudent FocusedMental Modeling: Assists students in managing their own learning by modeling a problem-solving techniqueDiscovery Learning: Uses students’ personal experiences as the foundation for building concepts·Inquiry: Allows students to generate the questions that they will then investigate and answerThe models, practices and theories that follow are those that have evolved from these “traditional” ones or been further developed during the latter decades of the 20th century through the first one and a half of the 21st.Model, Practiceor TheoryDescriptionCommentaryAsynchronous LearningAsynchronous learning is a general term used to describe forms of education, instruction, and learning that do not occur in the same place or at the same time. The term is most commonly applied to various forms of digital and online learning in which students learn from instruction—such as prerecorded video lessons or game-based learning tasks that students complete on their own—that is not being delivered in person or in real time.Asynchronous learning, or teaching and learning that occurs when the interaction between the instructor and students is not constrained by time and place, can cause feelings of isolation, resulting in disappointment and low retention rates in online classes. This can especially occur in online college or university courses when the instructor relies mostly on lecture.Authentic LearningAuthentic learning refers to a wide variety of educational and instructional techniques focused on connecting what students are taught in school to real-world issues, problems, and applications. The basic idea is that students are more likely to be interested in what they are learning, more motivated to learn new concepts and skills, and better prepared to succeed in college, careers, and adulthood if what they are learning mirrors real-life contexts, equips them with practical and useful skills, and addresses topics that are relevant and applicable to their lives outside of school.Educational researchers such asHerrington, Oliver, & Reeves (2003) have found that students involved in authentic learning are motivated to persevere despite initial disorientation or frustration, as long as the exercise simulates what really counts—the social structure and culture that gives the discipline its meaning and relevance.Developmental psychologist Jerome Bruner* reminds us that there is a tremendous difference between learning about physics and learning to be a physicist. Isolated facts and formulae do not take on meaning and relevance until learners discover what these tools can do for them.*As cited in Van Oers, B., & Wardekker, K. (1999). On becoming an authentic learner: Semiotic activity in the early grades. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(2), 229–249.Herrington, J., Oliver R., & Reeves, T. C. (2003). Patterns of engagement in authentic online learning environments. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 19(1), 59–71. Retrieved April 24, 2007, from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/herrington.htmlBackward DesignBackward design, also called backward planning or backward mapping, is a process that educators use to design learning experiences and instructional techniques to achieve specific learning goals. Backward design begins with the objectives of a unit or course—what students are expected to learn and be able to do—and then proceeds “backward” to create lessons that achieve those desired goals.The concept contends that you can’t start planning how you’re going to teach until you know exactly what you want your students to learn. If teaching is considered a means to an end, having a clear goal helps educators to focus planning and guide purposeful action toward the intended results.The Backward Design process proceeds in three phases, as follows:I. Identify desired results.First, you establish your learning goals for the course. What should students know, understand and be able to do? And how do you prioritize and narrow down the content you want to teach so it fits within the limited framework of the course?II. Determine acceptable evidence.In the second phase of Backward Design, you think about how you will decide if students are starting to master the knowledge and skills you want them to gain. What will you accept as evidence that students are making progress toward the learning goals of the course?III. Plan learning experiences & instruction.Finally, after you have decided what results you want and how you will know you’ve achieved them, then you start planning how you’re going to teach.Blended LearningBlended Learning is a formal education program in which a student learns at least in part through the online delivery of content and instruction, with some element of student control over time, place, path, and/or pace, and at least in part at a supervised brick-and mortar location away from. Compared to high-access environments, blended learning includes an intentional shift to online instructional delivery for a portion of the day in order to boost learning and operating productivity.Expanding digital and online offerings can begin to alleviate significant inequities that exist within our public school system today. Some students have access to high quality teachers and a diverse array of courses and schools. Others lack access because they live in communities that struggle to attract talent or find the resources to provide the variety of options that a wealthier or larger district can offer.On a cautionary note, Technology shouldn't be something else teachers add to their already full plate. Instead, they should use technology to replace and improve what they already do. For example, a teacher who traditionally creates a handout with a series of comprehension questions could, instead, post a discussion question online using a discussion board or discussion platform.Bloom’s taxonomyBloom’s taxonomy is a classification system used to define and distinguish different levels of human cognition—i.e., thinking, learning, and understanding. Educators have typically used Bloom’s taxonomy to inform or guide the development of assessments (tests and other evaluations of student learning), curriculum (units, lessons, projects, and other learning activities), and instructional methods such as questioning strategies.The original elements of Bloom’s Taxonomy were:Knowledge “involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting.”Comprehension “refers to a type of understanding or apprehension such that the individual knows what is being communicated and can make use of the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications.”Application refers to the “use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations.”Analysis represents the “breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between ideas expressed are made explicit.”Synthesis involves the “putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole.”Evaluation engenders “judgments about the value of material and methods for given purposes.”Bloom’s taxonomy was originally published in 1956 by a team of cognitive psychologists at the University of Chicago. It is named after the committee’s chairman, Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999).In 2001, another team of scholars—led by Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom’s, and David Krathwohl, a Bloom colleague who served on the academic team that developed the original taxonomy—released a revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy called A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. The “Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy,” as it is commonly called, was intentionally designed to be more useful to educators and to reflect the common ways in which it had come to be used in schools.In the revised version, three categories were renamed and all the categories were expressed as verbs rather than nouns. Knowledge was changed to Remembering, Comprehension became Understanding, and Synthesis was renamed Creating. In addition, Creating became the highest level in the classification system, switching places with Evaluating. The revised version is now Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating, and Creating, in that order.Brain-Based LearningBrain-based learning refers to teaching methods, lesson designs, and school programs that are based on the latest scientific research about how the brain learns, including such factors as cognitive development—how students learn differently as they age, grow, and mature socially, emotionally, and cognitively. Brain-based learning is motivated by the general belief that learning can be accelerated and improved if educators base how and what they teach on the science of learning, rather than on past educational practices, established conventions, or assumptions about the learning process.One of the key tenets of brain-based education is that attention follows emotion, and both music and art often tap into the emotional areas and thus are natural conduits for remembering and connecting information. Educators are teaching learning strategies, helping students find out the best ways to not just learn content, but how to learn. Ideas like remembering facts when they are set to music. This practice has been employed since the days of oral storytelling, but teachers are reviving it to help students in modern classrooms. For example, recent studies show that adults learn new languages more easily when they are set to a beat.Community-Based LearningCommunity-based learning refers to a wide variety of instructional methods and programs that educators use to connect what is being taught in schools to their surrounding communities, including local institutions, history, literature, cultural heritage, and natural environments. Community-based learning is also motivated by the belief that all communities have intrinsic educational assets and resources that educators can use to enhance learning experiences for students. Synonyms include community-based education, place-based learning, and place-based education, among other terms.There are several types of Community-Based Learning. Four of the most common strategies are:Community Integration - This brings the community into the classroom and the classroom into the community.Service Learning - This is similar to volunteering, but it integrates meaningful community service with reflection.Community Participation - This allows students to actively participate in community awareness projects.Community-based Research - This is often used at the university level, and is a partnership of students and community members, often led by a faculty member or teacher, who collaboratively engage in research with the purpose of solving a community problem or effecting social change.CompetencyeducationThe main difference in Competency Education from the traditional timebased system is the focus on students learning to specific competencies; the amount of time and types of resourcesvary as needed. Competency Education is a system of education, often referred to as proficiency or mastery based, in which students advance upon mastery. Competencies include explicit, measurable, transferable learning objectives that empower students. Assessment is meaningful and serves as a positive learning experience for students. Students receive timely, differentiated support based on their individual learning needs. Learning outcomes include the application and creation of knowledge, along with the development of important skills and dispositions.Competency education is rooted incore concepts and lessons learnedfrom other reforms that have developedover the past 50 years – Bloom’sinstructional approaches, EssentialSchools, standards-based education,and youth development, among others.The development of competencyeducation is decades long. Technologyis unleashing it by generating demandfor online and blended learning.Cooperative LearningCooperative Learning, sometimes called small-group learning, is an instructional strategy in which small groups of students work together on a common task. In some cases, each group member is individually accountable for part of the task; in other cases, group members work together without formal role assignments.Cooperative learning changes students' and teachers' roles in classrooms. The ownership of teaching and learning is shared by groups of students, and is no longer the sole responsibility of the teacher. The authority of setting goals, assessing learning, and facilitating learning is shared by all.Critical ThinkingCritical thinking is a term used by educators to describe forms of learning, thought, and analysis that go beyond the memorization and recall of information and facts. In common usage, critical thinking is an umbrella term that may be applied to many different forms of learning acquisition or to a wide variety of thought processes. In its most basic expression, critical thinking occurs when students are analyzing, evaluating, interpreting, or synthesizing information and applying creative thought to form an argument, solve a problem, or reach a conclusion.Critical thinking includes a complex combination of skills.Critical thinkers are by nature skeptical. They approach texts with the same skepticism and suspicion as they approach spoken remarks.Critical thinkers are active, not passive. They ask questions and analyze. They consciously apply tactics and strategies to uncover meaning or assure their understanding.Critical thinkers do not take an egotistical view of the world. They are open to new ideas and perspectives. They are willing to challenge their beliefs and investigate competing evidence.Critical thinking enables us to recognize a wide range of subjective analyses of otherwise objective data, and to evaluate how well each analysis might meet our needs. Facts may be facts, but how we interpret them may vary.By contrast, passive, non-critical thinkers take a simplistic view of the world.They see things in black and white, as either-or, rather than recognizing a variety of possible understanding.They see questions as yes or no with no subtleties.They fail to see linkages and complexities.They fail to recognize related elements.Non-critical thinkers take an egotistical view of the worldThey take their facts as the only relevant ones.They take their own perspective as the only sensible one.They take their goal as the only valid one.Evidence-basedEvidence-based, although technically not an educational theory, is a widely used adjective in education. It refers to any concept or strategy that is derived from or informed by objective evidence—most commonly, educational research or metrics of school, teacher, and student performance. Among the most common applications are evidence-based decisions, evidence-based school improvement, and evidence-based instruction. The related modifiers data-based, research-based, and scientifically based are also widely used when the evidence in question consists largely or entirely of data, academic research, or scientific findings.The use of objective evidence in education reform has grown increasingly common in recent decades, and a wide variety of research and data are now regularly used to identity strengths and weaknesses in schools, guide the design of academic programming, or hold schools and teachers accountable for producing better educational results, for example. From tracking standardized-test scores and graduation rates to using student information systems, sophisticated databases, and other new educational technologies, today’s educators are more likely to use educational data, in one form or another, on a regular basis.Flipped ClassroomThe flipped classroom is a pedagogical model in which the typical lecture and homework elements of a course are reversed. Short video or podcast lectures are viewed or listened to by students at home before the class session, while in-class time is devoted to exercises, projects, or discussions. The video lecture is often seen as the key ingredient in the flipped approach, such lectures being either created by the instructor and posted online or selected from an online repositoryFor students to be successful on their own, videos used in the flipped-classroom model must include a variety of approaches in the same way a face-to-face lesson would, and they must also have good sound and image quality so that students can follow along easily. These videos must also match the curriculum, standards and the labs or activities the students will complete in class.Teachers describe how students can now move at their own pace, how they can review what they need when they need to, and how the teacher is then freed up to work one-on-one with students on the content they most need support with.Game-Based LearningGAME-BASED LEARNING is based on the notion that game structure mirrors the learning process. In many games, students explore ideas and try out solutions. When they learn the skills required at one level, they move up. Failure to complete tasks is reframed as part of the path towards learning how to conquer a level.Digital games are now becoming more common in classrooms. In a recent survey by the Joan Ganz Cooney Center, half of 505 K-8 teachers said they use digital games with their students two or more days a week, and 18 percent use them daily. Educators are using commercial games like Minecraft, World of Warcraft and SimCity for education.Inquiry-Based InstructionInquiry-based instruction is a teaching method that engages the curiosity of students to enhance the development of critical thinking skills. As learners encounter problems they do not understand, they formulate questions, explore problems, observe, and apply new information in seeking a better understanding of the world. The natural process the learners follow when seeking answers and deeper understanding closely follows the generally accepted scientific method. Often, the answers proposed by learners lead to even more questions—much like the outcomes of research.It is common for Inquiry-Based lessons to follow an "Explain-before-Explore" model, which includes reviewing previous work, introducing a new concept, modeling that concept, and then student practice with the concept in a controlled, prescriptive exercise. An "Explore-before-Explain" instructional model allows students to grapple with the ideas and skills within a concept before the concept is thoroughly discussed and described.Maker MovementThe Maker Movement is based on the notion that The best way to activate a classroom is for the students to make something.The Maker Education Initiative’s mission is “to create more opportunities for all young people to develop confidence, creativity, and interest in science, technology, engineering, math, art, and learning as a whole through making.” “Making" draws upon new technological materials, learning through firsthand experience, and the basic human impulse to create. It offers the potential to make classrooms more sensitive to each child's creative capacity and provides opportunity for them to engage in authentic problem solving.Mastery TeachingAlthough there are several iterations of the term Mastery Teaching, the most definitive is that attributed to Dr. Madeline Hunter (1982). Hunter’s research showed effective teachers have a methodology when planning and presenting a lesson. Hunter found that no matter what the teacher’s style, grade level, subject matter, or economic background of the students a properly taught lesson contained eight elements that enhanced and maximized learning. She labeled these eight elements:1. Anticipatory Set - an activity or prompt that focuses the students‟ attention before the actual lesson begins.2. Objective and Purpose - why students need to learn the objective, what they will be able to do once they have met the criterion, and how they will demonstrate learning as a result.3. Input - the vocabulary, skills and concepts the teacher will impart to the students, the information the students need to know in order to be successful.4. ModelingThe teacher shows or demonstrates in a concrete way exactly what the finished product looks like.5. Checking for Understanding - the teacher uses a variety of questioning strategies to determine the extent of student learning and to reflect on the pace of the lesson.6. Guided Practice - students practice the new learning under direct teacher supervision.7. Independent Practice – students practice on their own based on learning that has occurred during the previous steps.8. Closure - final check for understanding used at the end of a class period.Hunter, M. (1982), Mastery Teaching. Thousand Oaks, CA: CorwinWithin each element of Lesson Design, there are many sub-skills, methods, and techniques – each demanding training, practice, and review in order to attain mastery of the Hunter model. Those eight instructional elements are not a recipe to be followed step by step in every lesson, they are elements to be considered when planning instruction, regardless of what form that instruction takes. If we agree with Hunter that teaching is decision making, use of the elements becomes much clearer. As teachers prepare to instruct, they need to consider many factors, the content, their students‟ previous knowledge and learning styles, their own teaching styles, and so on. A thorough understanding of anticipatory set, of modeling, or of any of the other elements allows the teacher to select those strategies that will best enable students to reach the objective of the lesson.Multiple IntelligencesThe Theory of Multiple Intelligences is a theory of intelligence that differentiates it into specific (primarily sensory) "modalities", rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability.This model was proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner has identified seven distinct intelligences. This theory has emerged from recent cognitive research and "documents the extent to which students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different ways," According to this theory, "we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains."Problem-Based LearningProblem-based learning (PBL) is an approach that challenges students to learn through engagement in a real problem. It is a format that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem-solvers confronted with an ill-structured situation that simulates the kind of problems they are likely to face as future managers in complex organizations.Problem-based learning is experiential in that students experience what it is like to think as a practitioner. How do biologists think? What distinguishes the way a criminologist might address a problem as opposed to the way a mathematician might? How might these two specialists work together on a problem, a question more germane as disciplines become ever more inter-disciplinary? It is also a question of great concern to employers. Three major complaints from employers about college graduates are graduates’ poor written and verbal skills, their inability to problem-solve, and their difficulties working collaboratively with other professionals. PBL can address all three areas.Project-Based LearningProject-based learning refers to any programmatic or instructional approach that utilizes multifaceted projects as a central organizing strategy for educating students. It is a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an engaging and complex question, problem, or challenge.When engaged in project-based learning, students will typically be assigned a project or series of projects that require them to use diverse skills—such as researching, writing, interviewing, collaborating, or public speaking—to produce various work products, such as research papers, scientific studies, public-policy proposals, multimedia presentations, video documentaries, art installations, or musical and theatrical performances, for example.ScaffoldingScaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process. The term itself offers the relevant descriptive metaphor: teachers provide successive levels of temporary support that help students reach higher levels of comprehension and skill acquisition that they would not be able to achieve without assistance. Like physical scaffolding, the supportive strategies are incrementally removed when they are no longer needed, and the teacher gradually shifts more responsibility over the learning process to the student.Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s work has led to the development of two key concepts for learning and teaching: the Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding. Vygotsky coined the term ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ to refer to the zone where children move towards independence. This zone changes as students move past their present level of development towards new areas of knowledge. The concept of ZPD has been expanded, modified, and scaffolding was developed by other sociocultural theorists applying Vygotsky's ZPD to educational contexts. Scaffolding is a process through which a teacher or more competent peer gives aid to the student in her/his ZPD as necessary, and tapers off this aid as it becomes unnecessary.STEM & STEAMWithin certain education and policy circles the acronym STEM (i.e., science, technology, engineering, math) has become a common term, used frequently to be inclusive when referring to a broad area of scholarship and enterprise we deem particularly connected, i.e., those listed four subjects. Although STEM is not to be considered here as an educational practice, model or theory in itself, it is included because with the addition of the letter ‘A’, it becomes STEAM and thus recognizes the use and value of the visual and performing arts in instruction.As pointed out above, one of the key tenets of brain-based education is that attention follows emotion, and both music and art often tap into the emotional areas and thus are natural conduits for remembering and connecting information. In addition, the hands-on learning experiences the arts employ engage more of the senses and use multiple pathways to store, therefore more ways to recall information. This is why we remember what we experience much better than what we hear, see or read (Wilson, 2013). For an example of how academics can be taught through the arts, see http://www.rockademix.orgWilson, L. O., (3013) An Overview of Brain Based Learning. Accessed 12/11/2013 from http://www4.uwsp.edu/education/lwilson/brain/bboverview.htm­21st Century SkillsThe term 21st century skills refers to a broad set of knowledge, skills, work habits, and character traits that are believed—by educators, school reformers, college professors, employers, and others—to be critically important to success in today’s world, particularly in collegiate programs and contemporary careers and workplaces.21st century skills are generally considered “soft Skills”. An overview of the knowledge, skills, work habits, and character traits commonly associated with 21st century skills include:Critical thinking, problem solving, reasoning, analysis, interpretation, synthesizing informationResearch skills and practices, interrogative questioningCreativity, artistry, curiosity, imagination, innovation, personal expressionPerseverance, self-direction, planning, self-discipline, adaptability, initiativeOral and written communication, public speaking and presenting, listeningLeadership, teamwork, collaboration, cooperation, facility in using virtual workspacesInformation and communication technology (ITC) literacy, media and internet literacy, data interpretation and analysis, computer programmingCivic, ethical, and social-justice literacyEconomic and financial literacy, entrepreneurialismGlobal awareness, multicultural literacy, humanitarianismScientific literacy and reasoning, the scientific methodEnvironmental and conservation literacy, ecosystems understandingHealth and wellness literacy, including nutrition, diet, exercise, and public health and safety