Professional Conduct And Boundaries Policy Mar 12: Fill & Download for Free

Carbon taxes cannot help fight climate change because carbon dioxide and fossil fuels are not the driver of the climate. Co2 has almost zero effect on the climate and it cannot be determined whether that minuscule effect is cooling or warming. All we know for sure Canada the tax project will amount to only a drop in the ocean as far any impact on the earth’s environment .This cartoon packs a lot of analysis as the former Premier of Ontario pushes carbon taxes knowing they are only virtue signally without any effect. Little doubt the Ontario public figured they were suffering an unnecessary economic pain and defeated her at the election this year.Carbon taxes are regressive hurting the middle class most and our export industries.Australia tried the carbon tax and abandoned it after it proved a failure. This presentation was relevant in ending the tax.Trudeau in Canada refused to do a cost benefit analysis of a carbon tax as they did in Australia resulting in finding there was no benefit to the environment of the economy and then the public axed the tax at the next election.AUSTRALIAN VOTERS IGNORE CLIMATE HYSTERIA OF THE LEFTNo climate for change: How Scott Morrison used Labor's policies against them as Americans hail 'the Trump effect' after pollsters' catastrophic blunderScott Morrison’s ‘miracle’ election win has been cheered by US conservatives and compared to Donald Trump’s surprise 2016 presidential win.The Coalition won despite 55 Newspolls in a row predicting they would lose – echoing how the US president rose to power against pollsters’ predictions in 2016.The Liberal campaign had emphasized the cost of Labor’s climate change policies – which included reducing carbon emissions by 45 percent by 2030.And while Labor campaigned against the controversial Adani mine, the Coalition focused on the jobs boost of the new development.On Saturday night, former Australian Prime Minister John Howard said Labor’s stance on climate had cost them the election.After Bill Shorten failed to secure votes in Queensland the Liberal Party elder said Labor did not reassure voters about job security.‘When they saw a Labor Party prepared to destroy jobs in the name of climate ideology in relation to the Adani mine, they said: “That’s not for Queensland”‘, he said.On Sunday morning American TV news channel Fox News labeled Mr. Morrison’s win as ‘a stunning victory’.American political activist Pamela Geller meanwhile trumpeted ‘the people are taking back their countries from the totalitarian left’.‘SHOCKING Australia Election Results: Australia’s Conservative Party Seizes Stunning Win: The Trump effect. Polls were wrong…. again,’ Ms. Geller, founder of The Geller Report and president of Stop Islamisation of America, wrote on Twitter.US news site Axios told readers the election result indicates ‘Australia will continue to closely resemble the Trump administration’s positioning on climate change’.‘Climate advocates had said this election would be a referendum on the current leadership’s positions on climate change,’ Ms. Harder wrote.‘The results suggest that either voter don’t care as much about the issue compared to others or they prefer less aggressive measures, as the current leadership is pursuing.’The New York Times described how ‘the conservative victory also adds Australia to a growing list of countries that have shifted rightward through the politics of grievance, including Brazil, Hungary, and Italy.‘Mr. Morrison’s pitch mixed smiles and scaremongering, warning older voters and rural voters in particular that a government of the left would leave them behind and favor condescending elites.’PUBLISHED COMMENTJames Grant Matkin, Vancouver, Canada,Great result showing the Australian public are not duped by the fake climate crisis advanced by media and lefty politicians. Temperatures are declining from low solar activity. Alarmist science demonizing coal and Co2 is wrong. CO2 increase lags, not leads warming, Rise in temperatures and CO2 follow each other closely in climate change. This recent Bohr institute study confirms a 200 year lag, and aligns perfectly with natural warming since the end of the Maunder Minimum and the Little Ice Age.How Scott Morrison Used Labor's Climate Policies Against ThemHow ScoMo used Labor's policies against themThe Greenhouse Effect is Dead - Ned NikolovWe know making fossil fuels more expensive will have an immediate negative effect on the poor and the export industries who will immediately become disadvantaged competing with the majority of nations without a carbon tax.Debunking the 'population bomb'Monday, December 3, 2018 - 4:24pmMary [email protected] dire warnings are everywhere these days about catastrophic climate change, particularly the perils of overpopulation and the burning of fossil fuels.UTM’s Pierre Desrochers and Joanna Szurmak see it another way. In a new book, Desrochers, an associate professor of geography, and Szurmak, a research services librarian, caution that “population alarmism” and campaigns against carbon will stifle development, innovation and the creativity necessary to solve global problems.Their book “challenges some sacred cows of the environmental movement,” says Szurmak, who complains that assumptions by environmentalists are flawed, while she and Desrochers are “scrupulously honest about our data and our intellectual commitment to the truth.”Their support for the burning of fossil fuels is based on their findings that “the cost of energy rationing is greater than the benefit,” Desrochers says, noting that “there are no real-world alternatives” to carbon use, which is the only way to bring one billion of the world’s people out of grinding poverty. He’s quick to say that he and Szurmak are not pandering to big business or in the pockets of the oil companies. “We’re still waiting for our cheques, which have not materialized,” he quips.Szurmak, who has a graduate degree in electrical engineering, says that they are not climate skeptics or deniers but are “pro-science, pro-creativity and pro-economic development.”University of Toronto MississaugaThe greenhouse gas theory about trace Co2 emissions is false and many research peer reviewed papers expose the errors.Falsification Of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of PhysicsGerhard Gerlich, Ralf D. Tscheuschner(Submitted on 8 Jul 2007 (v1), last revised 4 Mar 2009 (this version, v4))The atmospheric greenhouse effect, an idea that many authors trace back to the traditional works of Fourier (1824), Tyndall (1861), and Arrhenius (1896), and which is still supported in global climatology, essentially describes a fictitious mechanism, in which a planetary atmosphere acts as a heat pump driven by an environment that is radiatively interacting with but radiatively equilibrated to the atmospheric system. According to the second law of thermodynamics such a planetary machine can never exist. Nevertheless, in almost all texts of global climatology and in a widespread secondary literature it is taken for granted that such mechanism is real and stands on a firm scientific foundation. In this paper the popular conjecture is analyzed and the underlying physical principles are clarified. By showing that (a) there are no common physical laws between the warming phenomenon in glass houses and the fictitious atmospheric greenhouse effects, (b) there are no calculations to determine an average surface temperature of a planet, (c) the frequently mentioned difference of 33 degrees Celsius is a meaningless number calculated wrongly, (d) the formulas of cavity radiation are used inappropriately, (e) the assumption of a radiative balance is unphysical, (f) thermal conductivity and friction must not be set to zero, the atmospheric greenhouse conjecture is falsified.Comments: 115 pages, 32 figures, 13 tables (some typos corrected)Subjects: Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics (http://physics.ao-ph)Journal reference: Int.J.Mod.Phys.B23:275-364,2009DOI: 10.1142/S021797920904984XCite as: arXiv:0707.1161 [http://physics.ao-ph](or arXiv:0707.1161v4 [http://physics.ao-ph] for this version)Falsification Of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of PhysicsFULL TEXT PDF https://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.1161.pdfCarbon taxes cannot fight climate change as carbon dioxide and fossil fuels are not the driver of the climate. Solar cycles are far more relevant and impactful. GHGs have almost zero effect (Co2 in particular) and it cannot be determined whether that minuscule effect is cooling or warming. We know making fossil fuels more expensive will have an immediate negative effect on the poor and the export industries who will immediately become disadvantaged with the majority of nations without a carbon tax.The greenhouse gas theory about trace Co2 emissions is false and many research peer reviewed papers expose the errors. Harming the poor and the economy with carbon taxes is a futile plan accomplishing nothing.I am posting three major peer reviewed papers published in respected science journals that demolish the radical unproven GHG theory.Falsification Of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of PhysicsGerhard Gerlich, Ralf D. Tscheuschner(Submitted on 8 Jul 2007 (v1), last revised 4 Mar 2009 (this version, v4))The atmospheric greenhouse effect, an idea that many authors trace back to the traditional works of Fourier (1824), Tyndall (1861), and Arrhenius (1896), and which is still supported in global climatology, essentially describes a fictitious mechanism, in which a planetary atmosphere acts as a heat pump driven by an environment that is radiatively interacting with but radiatively equilibrated to the atmospheric system. According to the second law of thermodynamics such a planetary machine can never exist. Nevertheless, in almost all texts of global climatology and in a widespread secondary literature it is taken for granted that such mechanism is real and stands on a firm scientific foundation. In this paper the popular conjecture is analyzed and the underlying physical principles are clarified. By showing that (a) there are no common physical laws between the warming phenomenon in glass houses and the fictitious atmospheric greenhouse effects, (b) there are no calculations to determine an average surface temperature of a planet, (c) the frequently mentioned difference of 33 degrees Celsius is a meaningless number calculated wrongly, (d) the formulas of cavity radiation are used inappropriately, (e) the assumption of a radiative balance is unphysical, (f) thermal conductivity and friction must not be set to zero, the atmospheric greenhouse conjecture is falsified.Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics (http://physics.ao-ph)Journal reference: Int.J.Mod.Phys.B23:275-364,2009DOI: 10.1142/S021797920904984XCite as: arXiv:0707.1161 [http://physics.ao-ph](or arXiv:0707.1161v4 [http://physics.ao-ph] for this version)Falsification Of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of PhysicsFULL TEXT PDF https://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.1161.pdfRole of greenhouse gases in climate changeRole of greenhouse gases in climate changeMartin Hertzberg, Alan Siddons, Hans SchreuderFirst Published April 26, 2017 Research Articlehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X17706177Article informationHertzberg et al., 2017“This study examines the concept of ‘greenhouse gases’ and various definitions of the phenomenon known as the ‘Atmospheric Radiative Greenhouse Effect’. The six most quoted descriptions are as follows: (a) radiation trapped between the Earth’s surface and its atmosphere; (b) the insulating blanket of the atmosphere that keeps the Earth warm; (c) back radiation from the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface; (d) Infra Red absorbing gases that hinder radiative cooling and keep the surface warmer than it would otherwise be – known as ‘otherwise radiation’; (e) differences between actual surface temperatures of the Earth (as also observed on Venus) and those based on calculations; (f) any gas that absorbs infrared radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface towards free space. It is shown that none of the above descriptions can withstand the rigours of scientific scrutiny when the fundamental laws of physics and thermodynamics are applied to them.”GREENHOUSE IS FAKE METAPHOR OF THE OPEN ATMOSPHEREThis article on the Climate Greenhouse Theory is long and very detailed for Quora readers, but the issue is so important and the past science so shoddy that it is worth taking the time to consider it. Also Ali presents and alternative to the discredited GHG theory.Review Article Open AccessThe Refutation of the Climate Greenhouse Theory and a Proposal for a Hopeful AlternativeThomas Allmendinger*Glattbrugg/Zürich, Switzerland*Corresponding Author:Thomas AllmendingerCH-8152 Glattbrugg/ZürichSwitzerlandTel: +41 44 810 17 33E mail: [email protected] date: March 14, 2017; Accepted date: April 12, 2017; Published date: April 18, 2017Citation: Thomas Allmendinger (2017) The Refutation of the Climate Greenhouse Theory and a Proposal for a Hopeful Alternative. Environ Pollut Climate Change 1:123.Copyright: © 2017 Thomas Allmendinger. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.Visit for more related articles at Environment Pollution and Climate ChangeView PDF Download PDFAbstractIn view of the global acceptance and the political relevance of the climate greenhouse theory–or rather philosophyit appeared necessary to deliver a synoptic presentation enabling a detailed exemplary refutation. It focuses the foundations of the theory assuming that a theory cannot be correct when its foundations are not correct. Thus, above all, a critical historical review is made. As a spin-off of this study, the Lambert-Beer law is questioned suggesting an alternative approach. Moreover, the Stefan-Boltzmann law is relativized revealing the different characters of the two temperature terms. But in particular, the author’s recently published own work is quoted revealing novel measurement methods and yielding several crucial arguments, while finally an empiric proof is presented.The cardinal error in the usual greenhouse theory consists in the assumption that photometric or spectroscopic IR-measurements allow conclusions about the thermal behaviour of gases, i.e., of the atmosphere. They trace back to John Tyndall who developed such a photometric method already in the 19th century. However, direct thermal measurement methods have never been applied so far. Apart from this, at least twenty crucial errors are revealed which suggest abandoning the theory as a whole.In spite of its obvious deficiencies, this theory has so far been an obstacle to take promising precautions for mitigating the climate change. They would consist in a general brightening of the Earth surface, and in additional measures being related to this. However, the novel effects which were found by the author, particularly the absorption of incident solar-light by the atmosphere as well as its absorption capability of thermal radiation, cannot be influenced by human acts. But their discovery may contribute to a better understanding of the atmospheric processes.KeywordsAlbedo; Measuring Methods; Stefan-Boltzmann Law; IRabsorption by gasesIntroductionReferring to speculations of others, in particular of M. Fourier [1] who, already in 1827, compared the Earth atmosphere with the glass of a «hothouse», John Tyndall delivered since 1861 basic experimental results about the absorption of thermal radiation by several gases [2-4]. The observation that carbon-dioxide was absorptive, in contrast to pure air, initiated the atmospheric greenhouse theory. Within his apparatus (Figure 1), so-called Leslie-cubes served as radiation sources exhibiting a temperature of 100°C, and delivering a wide wavelength range of infrared radiation (which today is called «medium IR-radiation», ranging from 3 to 50 μm). Analogously, he carried out experiments with organic fluids [5], too, but using this time an electrically heated platinum wire as a heat source. The intensity of the thermal radiation was detected, after passing a tube containing the analysed gas by means of a thermopile which was connected to a reference cube. The ends of the tube were capped with slabs of rock salt crystal which is transparent for thermal radiation in the relevant wavelength range, unlike glass. In principle, this photometric method represents a precursor of modern IR-spectroscopy, but which is mainly used at liquids. However, it did not allow a distinct wavelength-specific analysis of the tested substances, but solely delivered a general absorption value.About twenty years later, S. P. Langley (in 1880 ff.) made spectroscopic investigations about the light-absorption by the Earth’s atmosphere, also in Moonlight. He concluded “that when air was altogether absent, the temperature of the earth under direct sunshine would be excessively low” [6]. In principle, this perception still represents the modern greenhouse theory, even if one should suppose, on the contrary, that the temperature of the Earth surface would be higher in the absence of the atmosphere due to its absorption power, and not lower.Further twenty years later (just at the end of the 19th century), Svante Arrhenius revisited the topic. After having referred to the work of Langley [7], and later to the one of Tyndall, he made own absorption experiments with carbon-dioxide using an apparatus similar to the one of Tyndall [8] which principally validated the results of Tyndall. However, he could take into account Stefan’s radiation law which meanwhile had been established [9], whilst Planck’s quantum theory, and in particular his distribution law, was published later, namely in 1900 [10].At that time, the climatic topic was not at all in the public eye. It acted an only marginal part even in professional physics. The term «environmental protection» did not yet exist in the vocabulary. Solely meteorology but not climatology was of interest because of the weather-forecasting. But after the Second World War the topic was revisited, particularly by Gilbert N. Plass [11-16] referring to Arrhenius. Meanwhile, spectroscopy had been developed and spread out for analytic purposes, using monochromatic light. Thereby, IR-spectroscopy turned out to be especially suitable for the structural analysis in organic chemistry, i.e., for the detection of different chemical bonds in molecules while quantitative measurements are delicate and unusual.Mainly based on the work of Plass, in 1956–i.e., about sixty years ago, and about ninety five years after the initial scientific studies-the global climatic change was first drawn to the public attention in the Time Magazine and thereupon in the American Scientist [17] assuming the growing amount of carbon-dioxide due to the impacts of civilisation as its real cause. Thereby, the vivid term greenhouse was introduced as a simple model concept for its only explanation. Further publication followed, initially in large and later in shorter intervals: e.g. 1972 in Nature [18], 1980 in Science [19], and 1982 in the Scientific American [20]. Therein, the results of C.D. Keeling are quoted, ascertained between 1958 and 1978 in Mauna Loa in Hawaii (Figure 2) on the one hand, and at the South Pole (Figure 3) on the other hand. They reveal a continuous increase of the carbon-dioxide content in the air which was associated with the global temperature increase during the same period, delivering the apparent proof of coherence between carbon-dioxide content and temperature of the atmosphere. Besides, the obvious seasonal variations were attributed to an increased carbon-dioxide removal from the air by the photosynthetic activity of plants in the summertime.Figure 1: The preferred apparatus of Tyndall [2].But above all, the book and the film of Al Gore entitled “An Inconvenient Truth” in 2006, which were based on these findings, made the breakthrough into the public view. Moreover, earlier, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) had been founded (1988) which published regular reports in the years 1990, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2013/2014, accompanied by special issues, while several world climate conferences took place, notably delivering the Kyoto Protocol in December 1997, and finally the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change of Paris in December 2015. Besides, thousands of professional papers and reports have been published over which nobody can entirely keep the survey. Schlesinger et al. [21] distinguished between several different types of climate models, instead of a consistent uniform model. For instance, on the Fall Meeting of the American Geophysical Union in 2011 at least 30 models were submitted “yielding the same wide range of possible warming and precipitation changes as they did five years ago” [22].According to the NASA and the NOAA, the result of all these efforts is: The year 2016 was the warmest one since the beginning of the measurements!Figure 2: Rising concentration of carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere at Mauna Loa in Hawaii, according to Revelle [20].What is the reason for this failure? Is it the fact that hitherto too less has been made to reduce the emissions of the «greenhouse» gas carbon-dioxide? Or is, according to the «climate doubters», the real cause of the global temperature rise solely induced by natural variations of solar radiation which cannot be influenced [23]? Or does another anthropogenic factor exist which affects the climate?Figure 3: Rising concentration of carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere at the South Pole, according to Revelle [20].Indeed: as an obvious cause, the surface-albedo comes into question, or rather its complement, the solar absorption coefficient. It is colour dependant and indicates the absorption degree of the incoming solar light which is partly absorbed and partly reflected by the Earth surface. As would seem natural, bright colours reflect the sunlight better than dark colours. Nevertheless, this obvious factor was so far disregarded in favour of the greenhouse theory. However, as it will be shown below, this theory is deficient to such an extent that it cannot be maintained. The errors concern the convenient measuring methods and the result evaluation, as well as its theoretical background, even with respect to basic propositions. In significant cases, an analysis of the original data is made by plotting them in diagrams, which was not usual in publications at that time. Along these lines, the author’s recently published own work will be alleged as a valuable alternative, supplemented by further novel results.The Greenhouse Model and the Principal ObjectionsAs already mentioned, the amount of respective professional and popular scientific publications is huge, impeding extracting the significant items. A firm comprehensive description of the greenhouse theory is not available, not even in textbooks such as [24-26]. It must be picked-out from several sources wherein a critical discussion of the diverse variants was not delivered. Instead of scientific arguments, rather consent appears to be decisive being influenced by the majority opinion.Nevertheless, the greenhouse theory may be briefly described, not least by reference to simplifying articles in the internet which are relevant for the public opinion. It should be realized that it is based on a model, as the name «greenhouse» suggests. Its essential thoughts may be outlined as follows:The incoming solar light is partly absorbed and partly reflected by the Earth surface. As already mentioned, the absorption degree is given by the complement to the so-called albedo which indicates the reflection degree of the Earth surface, and which mainly depends on its colouring. Due to this absorption, the surface of the Earth is warmed up. Simultaneously, and/or delayed, the warmed Earth surface emits medium-wave IR-radiation (=heat radiation or thermal radiation, wave-length λ=3–50 μm) which is partly absorbed by the atmosphere, due to the greenhouse gases, and partly emitted into Space. Therefore, the assumption is made that any warming-up of the atmosphere is exclusively due to a partial atmospheric absorption of medium-wave IR-radiation by so-called greenhouse gases.This concept becomes evident not least from the schedule shown in Figure 4, found in [27]. Therein, the bottom emission intensity of 390 Wm-2is assigned to the bottom temperature of 288 K, according to the Stefan-Boltzmann term σ·T4 (whereby σ=Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and T=absolute temperature, see later). Hence, Figure 4 may be considered as representative for the current greenhouse theory. It is explicitly described in [28]. However, the fact that the occurrence of that bottom temperature is not explained lets suggest that something is wrong about this theory. At least it reveals that the influence of the Earth surface temperature–and thus of the surface albedo-is usually neglected assuming it as constant. But it would be relevant even if the greenhouse theory were correct.Preliminary ObjectionsIt needs no professional knowledge to realize that some assumptions of the greenhouse theory are questionable. And it needs not much professional knowledge to find some further snags which query this theory fundamentally. Hence it seems useful to allege these arguments in the first place.Any artificial greenhouse needs a solid transparent roof, which is absent in the case of the atmosphere. Rather, the atmosphere represents an open system in which complicated physical processes occur. But even in a greenhouse the texture of the bottom acts an important part. Moreover, the scale of a greenhouse is much smaller than the scale of the atmosphere which implicates different regularities.Figure 4: Global energy balance and the greenhouse effect, according to Ramanathan et al. [27].The fact that the atmospheric carbon-dioxide concentration has increased while the average global temperature has increased, too, does not reveal a causal relationship but solely an analogous one. The two phenomena just occurred simultaneously. Likewise, the urbanisation and the industrialisation of the world have considerably increased, as a result of the global population increase, being related to an increase of the buildings and further superficial changes, in particular of the brightness.Within this theory, the atmosphere is treated as a static object being solely characterised by an average global temperature value, in spite of the fact that it behaves dynamically exhibiting diurnal, seasonal and annual fluctuations, and that the structure of the Earth surface is quite variable with respect to the proportion of land and sea surface, apart from the geographical latitude and the existence of mountains inducing different climatic zones. Thereby, it should be known that the term «climate» comes from the Latin word «clima», meaning «region». Thus, strictly speaking, a «world climate» does actually not exist even if interdependencies exist between the single climates. As a consequence, the term «microclimate» has been created. But this is a pleonasm since any climate is a microclimate. Considering these aspects, operating with average values is not admissible since such values do not allow conclusions about the weather fluctuations and storms which are characteristic for the climatic changes, too, and likewise about the enhanced temperature elevations in certain regions.Most people have no idea how little the carbon-dioxide content of the atmosphere really is. Even if one adjusts the values given in the figures 2 and 3 upward to 400 ppm=0.04 percent amounting the 2500th part of air, it seems unlikely that this would be responsible for the warming up of the whole atmosphere. In spite of this, the carbon-dioxide is always washed out by rain which impedes an unlimited accumulation. The fact that this leads to an acidification of the rain, and–in the long-term–of the oceans which impairs the plankton, may be a factor to be reckoned with but it has nothing to do with the atmospheric warming.Already from the outset of the greenhouse theory-and being still essential for the current climate theory -, the warming up of the whole atmosphere was focussed, and not of its lowest layer. But actually this lowest layer is of interest for the climate, and not primarily the whole atmosphere. This becomes also evident from the fact that the surface temperature–or rather the temperature 1 meter above the ground–is assumed as relevant, and not the temperature of the higher atmospheric layers. However, in this lowest range boundary processes between the Earth surface and the atmosphere are relevant, in particular heat exchange due to wind convection, and heat conduction while the radiative energyexchange is secondary.Figure 5: Relative intensities at 288 K according to Planck’s distribution law.According to Planck’s distribution law, the wavelength of the thermal radiation maximum of solid Earth surface being 288K=15°C warm is at about 10 μm (Figure 5). The fact that carbon-dioxide absorbs only at the wave lengths 2.7, 2.8, 4.3 and 15 μm, i.e., beyond this maximum, is not new. It means that there is a «window» within the absorption by the atmosphere, and that the emitted thermal radiation occurs just at this window. When the Earth’s surface temperature is enhanced, the absorption maximum is shifted to even lower values. At least it may be argued that the band-width of the thermal radiation is wide enough to overlap the absorption peaks of carbon-dioxide, as evident from Figure 5. However, this fact delivers rather an excuse than a convincing argument in favour of the greenhouse theory.AcknowledgmentThe present work has been carried out independently but not without the critical support of Dr Andreas Rüetschi and the translation assistance of Verena Ginobbi.ReferencesFourier M (1827) Mémoire sur les températures du globe terrestre et des espaces planétaires. Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences de l’institut de France 7: 569-604.Tyndall J (1861) On the absorption and radiation of heat by gases and vapours and on the physical connexion of radiation, absorption and conduction. Phil Mag 22: 169-194,273-285.Tyndall J (1863) On the radiation through the Earth’s atmosphere. Phil Mag 25: 200-206.Tyndall J (1872) Contributions to molecular physics in the domain of radiant heat. 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“72% of people in Ontario believe the carbon tax is a cash grab”the atmospheric greenhouse conjecture is falsified.Gerhard Gerlich, Ralf D. Tscheuschner“… it should be known that the term «climate» comes from the Latin word «clima», meaning «region». Thus, strictly speaking, a «world climate» does actually not exist even if interdependencies exist between the single climates.“Most people have no idea how little the carbon-dioxide content of the atmosphere really is… In spite of this, the carbon-dioxide is always washed out by rain which impedes an unlimited accumulation.” ALLMINDINGERThere is no mandated ‘carbon price’ for CO2 as market forces determine the price for a wide variety of carbon dioxide products based on supply and demand. Here is the array of products based on carbon dioxide.8. CO2 uses8.1. Current uses of CO2Nowadays different applications are known that can be used for demonstrating that CO2is a useful, versatile and safe product. Figure 11 illustrates most of the current and potential uses of CO2.Figure 11.CO2 uses. Different pathways for utilisation CO2.The price of CO2 for these many products will vary based on quality and quantity. When you see how shoddy the science is about CO2 as a greenhouse gas you will see no point in this issue.More importantly the theory of greenhouse gases is unfounded and fully debunked. My post will focus on this issue as the best answer to your question.You may be thinking of carbon taxes which are intended to reduce human use of fossil fuels with CO2 emissions. These taxes are intended to encourage consumers to use less carbon dioxide by making fossil fuels more expensive and save humanity from a climate catastrophe of a future too hot climate caused by industry. This unfounded fear is called anthropogenic global warming AGW and it ignores that the earth is in the Quaternary Ice age and more warming is most desirable to escape the brutal cycles of icing over North America for example. It also ignores that CO2 is essential to all life on the planet through photosynthesis and more is very beneficial and needed for greening the planet including the deserts.Carbon taxes are regressive like a sales tax everyone pays the same thus hurting the poor over the rich. Using taxes as an instrument of social policy only works if the taxes are high enough to be factored into the so called negative behavior - [using fossil fuels] and there must be an alternative unlike useless wind and solar. If there is no reasonable alternative then the taxes are just a money grab by governments without any environmental effect. This is exactly what the Paris Accord was about. The Accord is a scientific fraud by a grand income generating scheme for many governments encouraged to reach carbon reduction targets by using carbon taxes. Leader of the UN IPCC pushing the Accord admitted that their real agenda was not the climate or the environment. See Dr. Ottmar Endenhofer giving clarity to the purpose of the UN-IPCC:Because the purpose of carbon taxes is to change behavior they must be high enough to matter. The advocates know at current rates they only hurt industry making exports less competitive and they do not change behavior.Even once the tax reaches $50 per tonne in 2022, Harvey says it’s unlikely to induce widespread change on its own. That tax level would only add between 10 and 12 cents per litre to the price of gas, he says. “To get a wholesale shift to more efficient vehicles and to get industry to shift, … it’s going to have to rise to $100 or $200 a tonne.” In other words, the cost to fill up has to jump substantially if people are going to trade in gas guzzlers.Is a carbon tax Canada’s best option to help the environment?To raise taxes so high would be political suicide especially after the world wide economic collapse of the Covid-19 pandemic. This means the taxes harm the economy without achieving their avowed purpose. Carbon taxes are foolish and harmful virtue signally gesture- that’s all.Does this purpose mean that shoddy environmental science is to be brushed over because the real goal is world wealth redistribution? But the carbon taxes are invidious and the attack on fossil fuel has enormous harmful impacts on the bringing > 2 billion people living off the grid cheap electrical power from coal and other fossil fuels.Carbon taxes have been justified by computing a social cost to CO2 ( using disputed climate science. But the cost is dwarfed by the benefits of CO2.Social Benefit Of Carbon Is Ten To A Hundred Times The Estimated Social CostBy Ed Caryl on15. October 2015By Ed CarylWe see many articles and posts about the Social Cost of Carbon (SCC) as an excuse for carbon taxes, but nothing about the Social Benefits of Carbon (SBC). The very reason civilization is consuming fossil fuels and producing carbon dioxide is ignored. Carbon-based fuels drive civilization and have done so since man’s taming of fire. They heat and light our homes and places of business, transport us and our goods, and fuel industry. All that energy production has value. Ignoring this value is as insane as if you only entered checks in your checkbook and ignored deposits.There is great argument about the value of the SCC. The amounts are estimates based on the costs of production and future pollution and impacts primarily, and range from a few dollars per ton of CO2 to a few hundred dollars, depending on the computation method. Here are the U. S. government’s most recent figures:Table 1 from The White House here.But all these computations ignore the benefits attached to consuming carbon fuels. At first glance, it may seem difficult to put a value on benefits due to all the myriad ways that fossil fuels are used. Producing electricity is one use, and this was addressed in Boosting Per Capita Prosperity And Energy Consumption Is The Only Way To Care For Our Planet posted here in June 2013. But a more fundamental way to measure the prosperity that fossil fuels provide is to simply compare the per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to the per capita CO2 emissions. The plot below uses data from the World Bank found here and here. The data from 2011 was used because that year had the most complete data.Figure 1 is a plot of emissions versus GDP for 189 countries for which the World Bank has data for 2011. Both axis are logarithmic scales. For a version of this graph with country labels and population, go to this link at GapMinder.The outliers in Figure 1 are small countries with unusual circumstances, such as Luxembourg and Qatar (upper right). The United States is the dark blue dot at the upper right. The European countries are clustered to the left of the US. It is clear that a high GDP requires high emissions but it doesn’t answer the question as to the value of a tonne of CO2. The next plot answers that question by dividing the per capita GDP by the emissions per capita for each country and plotting that against per capita emissions.Figure 2. The vertical scale is the per capita GDP per metric tonne of CO2 emitted, this is the Social Benefit of Carbon in each country. The horizontal scale is the CO2 emissions per capita. The large blue triangle on the right is the U. S. Both vertical and horizontal scales are logarithmic.In figure 2, the first 19 countries on the left are in Africa, with very small emissions per capita but high GDP relative to those emissions. The European countries on the right have high emissions but most also have high GDP relative to those emissions. The three lowest GDP dots with high emissions are “‘stan” countries in central Asia. The social benefit of carbon for the 19 African countries is quite high because they use very little carbon now and would benefit greatly from using more. The U. S. SBC is $2,924.84. The country-average SBC of all the points in figure 2 is $3,774.75. The Social Benefit of Carbon is ten to a hundred times the estimated Social Cost of Carbon in Table 1.The Excel spreadsheet that generated the above graphics is available here.Social Benefit Of Carbon Is Ten To A Hundred Times The Estimated Social CostFortunately, world leaders are waking up to the reality that the science of AGW is false. I will post some recent and extensive research attacking the premise of carbon taxes ie that carbon dioxide is a temperature and climate changing greenhouse gas.Data From 2 Independent Studies Show No Correlation Between CO2 And TemperatureBy P Gosselin on29. July 2020German climatologist Professor Dr. Horst-Joachim Lüdecke recently took data from two independent studies and superimposed them. The result shows the long claimed atmospheric CO2-global temperature correlation doesn’t exist.The first data set was global temperature anomaly going back 600 million years, taken from the results of a paper by Came and Veizer, appearing in Nature (2007) and plotted below (blue):The second data set was of atmospheric CO2 going back 600 million years, taken from a published study by Berner (2003), also appearing in Nature. These data are plotted in the above chart in green.No correlationThe plots were combined in the above chart to see how well they correlated, if at all. The result: no correlation.For example, as the chart shows, 150 million years ago the atmospheric CO2 concentration was over 2000 ppm, which is 5 times today’s atmospheric concentration of 410 ppm – a level that some climate scientists say is already “dangerously high”. Yet, the global temperature 150 million years ago was more than 2°C below the long-term mean.450 million years ago the relationship was even far more on its head: atmospheric CO2 concentrations were more than 10 times today’s level, yet the global temperature was a frigid 3.5°C below the mean!“There’s no correlation between earth temperature and CO2,” Prof. Lüdecke concludes, observing recorded data.John F. Hultquist 29. July 2020 at 11:28 PM | Permalink | Reply” a single experiment can prove me wrong.” – Albert EinsteinHowever, CO2/AGW has become an axiom.Seems axioms can’t be wrong.Yonason 2. August 2020 at 11:57 PM | Permalink | ReplyI’ve posted this before, but it fits here, as well.Also note that while the temperature falls and rises randomly, CO2 declines discontinuously but steadily. As Patrick Moore points out, if that decline continues, the [CO2] will fall below what is essential for life on earth. At that point all higher life dies.Advocating for lower CO2 is suicidally stupid.Data From 2 Independent Studies Show No Correlation Between CO2 And TemperatureCarbon dioxide and fossil fuels are not the driver of the climate as the greenhouse gas theory has been fully debunked.Solar cycles are far more relevant and impactful. GHGs have almost zero effect (Co2 in particular) and it cannot be determined whether that minuscule effect is cooling or warming. We know making fossil fuels more expensive will have an immediate negative effect on the poor and the export industries who will immediately become disadvantaged with the majority of nations without a carbon tax.The greenhouse gas theory about trace Co2 emissions is false and many research peer reviewed papers expose the errors. Harming the poor and the economy with carbon taxes is a futile plan accomplishing nothing.I am posting three major peer reviewed papers published in respected science journals that demolish the radical unproven GHG theory.Falsification Of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of PhysicsGerhard Gerlich, Ralf D. Tscheuschner(Submitted on 8 Jul 2007 (v1), last revised 4 Mar 2009 (this version, v4))The atmospheric greenhouse effect, an idea that many authors trace back to the traditional works of Fourier (1824), Tyndall (1861), and Arrhenius (1896), and which is still supported in global climatology, essentially describes a fictitious mechanism, in which a planetary atmosphere acts as a heat pump driven by an environment that is radiatively interacting with but radiatively equilibrated to the atmospheric system. According to the second law of thermodynamics such a planetary machine can never exist. Nevertheless, in almost all texts of global climatology and in a widespread secondary literature it is taken for granted that such mechanism is real and stands on a firm scientific foundation. In this paper the popular conjecture is analyzed and the underlying physical principles are clarified. By showing that (a) there are no common physical laws between the warming phenomenon in glass houses and the fictitious atmospheric greenhouse effects, (b) there are no calculations to determine an average surface temperature of a planet, (c) the frequently mentioned difference of 33 degrees Celsius is a meaningless number calculated wrongly, (d) the formulas of cavity radiation are used inappropriately, (e) the assumption of a radiative balance is unphysical, (f) thermal conductivity and friction must not be set to zero, the atmospheric greenhouse conjecture is falsified.Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics (http://physics.ao-ph)Journal reference: Int.J.Mod.Phys.B23:275-364,2009DOI: 10.1142/S021797920904984XCite as: arXiv:0707.1161 [http://physics.ao-ph](or arXiv:0707.1161v4 [http://physics.ao-ph] for this version)Falsification Of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of PhysicsFULL TEXT PDF https://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.1161.pdfRole of greenhouse gases in climate changeRole of greenhouse gases in climate changeMartin Hertzberg, Alan Siddons, Hans SchreuderFirst Published April 26, 2017 Research Articlehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X17706177Article informationHertzberg et al., 2017“This study examines the concept of ‘greenhouse gases’ and various definitions of the phenomenon known as the ‘Atmospheric Radiative Greenhouse Effect’. The six most quoted descriptions are as follows: (a) radiation trapped between the Earth’s surface and its atmosphere; (b) the insulating blanket of the atmosphere that keeps the Earth warm; (c) back radiation from the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface; (d) Infra Red absorbing gases that hinder radiative cooling and keep the surface warmer than it would otherwise be – known as ‘otherwise radiation’; (e) differences between actual surface temperatures of the Earth (as also observed on Venus) and those based on calculations; (f) any gas that absorbs infrared radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface towards free space. It is shown that none of the above descriptions can withstand the rigours of scientific scrutiny when the fundamental laws of physics and thermodynamics are applied to them.”GREENHOUSE IS FAKE METAPHOR OF THE OPEN ATMOSPHEREThis article on the Climate Greenhouse Theory is long and very detailed for Quora readers, but the issue is so important and the past science so shoddy that it is worth taking the time to consider it. Also Allmendinger presents and alternative to the discredited GHG theory.Review Article Open AccessThe Refutation of the Climate Greenhouse Theory and a Proposal for a Hopeful AlternativeThomas Allmendinger*Glattbrugg/Zürich, Switzerland*Corresponding Author:Thomas AllmendingerCH-8152 Glattbrugg/ZürichSwitzerlandTel: +41 44 810 17 33E mail: [email protected] date: March 14, 2017; Accepted date: April 12, 2017; Published date: April 18, 2017Citation: Thomas Allmendinger (2017) The Refutation of the Climate Greenhouse Theory and a Proposal for a Hopeful Alternative. Environ Pollut Climate Change 1:123.Copyright: © 2017 Thomas Allmendinger. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.Visit for more related articles at Environment Pollution and Climate ChangeView PDF Download PDFAbstractIn view of the global acceptance and the political relevance of the climate greenhouse theory–or rather philosophyit appeared necessary to deliver a synoptic presentation enabling a detailed exemplary refutation. It focuses the foundations of the theory assuming that a theory cannot be correct when its foundations are not correct. Thus, above all, a critical historical review is made. As a spin-off of this study, the Lambert-Beer law is questioned suggesting an alternative approach. Moreover, the Stefan-Boltzmann law is relativized revealing the different characters of the two temperature terms. But in particular, the author’s recently published own work is quoted revealing novel measurement methods and yielding several crucial arguments, while finally an empiric proof is presented.The cardinal error in the usual greenhouse theory consists in the assumption that photometric or spectroscopic IR-measurements allow conclusions about the thermal behaviour of gases, i.e., of the atmosphere. They trace back to John Tyndall who developed such a photometric method already in the 19th century. However, direct thermal measurement methods have never been applied so far. Apart from this, at least twenty crucial errors are revealed which suggest abandoning the theory as a whole.In spite of its obvious deficiencies, this theory has so far been an obstacle to take promising precautions for mitigating the climate change. They would consist in a general brightening of the Earth surface, and in additional measures being related to this. However, the novel effects which were found by the author, particularly the absorption of incident solar-light by the atmosphere as well as its absorption capability of thermal radiation, cannot be influenced by human acts. But their discovery may contribute to a better understanding of the atmospheric processes.KeywordsAlbedo; Measuring Methods; Stefan-Boltzmann Law; IRabsorption by gasesIntroductionReferring to speculations of others, in particular of M. Fourier [1] who, already in 1827, compared the Earth atmosphere with the glass of a «hothouse», John Tyndall delivered since 1861 basic experimental results about the absorption of thermal radiation by several gases [2-4]. The observation that carbon-dioxide was absorptive, in contrast to pure air, initiated the atmospheric greenhouse theory. Within his apparatus (Figure 1), so-called Leslie-cubes served as radiation sources exhibiting a temperature of 100°C, and delivering a wide wavelength range of infrared radiation (which today is called «medium IR-radiation», ranging from 3 to 50 μm). Analogously, he carried out experiments with organic fluids [5], too, but using this time an electrically heated platinum wire as a heat source. The intensity of the thermal radiation was detected, after passing a tube containing the analysed gas by means of a thermopile which was connected to a reference cube. The ends of the tube were capped with slabs of rock salt crystal which is transparent for thermal radiation in the relevant wavelength range, unlike glass. In principle, this photometric method represents a precursor of modern IR-spectroscopy, but which is mainly used at liquids. However, it did not allow a distinct wavelength-specific analysis of the tested substances, but solely delivered a general absorption value.About twenty years later, S. P. Langley (in 1880 ff.) made spectroscopic investigations about the light-absorption by the Earth’s atmosphere, also in Moonlight. He concluded “that when air was altogether absent, the temperature of the earth under direct sunshine would be excessively low” [6]. In principle, this perception still represents the modern greenhouse theory, even if one should suppose, on the contrary, that the temperature of the Earth surface would be higher in the absence of the atmosphere due to its absorption power, and not lower.Further twenty years later (just at the end of the 19th century), Svante Arrhenius revisited the topic. After having referred to the work of Langley [7], and later to the one of Tyndall, he made own absorption experiments with carbon-dioxide using an apparatus similar to the one of Tyndall [8] which principally validated the results of Tyndall. However, he could take into account Stefan’s radiation law which meanwhile had been established [9], whilst Planck’s quantum theory, and in particular his distribution law, was published later, namely in 1900 [10].At that time, the climatic topic was not at all in the public eye. It acted an only marginal part even in professional physics. The term «environmental protection» did not yet exist in the vocabulary. Solely meteorology but not climatology was of interest because of the weather-forecasting. But after the Second World War the topic was revisited, particularly by Gilbert N. Plass [11-16] referring to Arrhenius. Meanwhile, spectroscopy had been developed and spread out for analytic purposes, using monochromatic light. Thereby, IR-spectroscopy turned out to be especially suitable for the structural analysis in organic chemistry, i.e., for the detection of different chemical bonds in molecules while quantitative measurements are delicate and unusual.Mainly based on the work of Plass, in 1956–i.e., about sixty years ago, and about ninety five years after the initial scientific studies-the global climatic change was first drawn to the public attention in the Time Magazine and thereupon in the American Scientist [17] assuming the growing amount of carbon-dioxide due to the impacts of civilisation as its real cause. Thereby, the vivid term greenhouse was introduced as a simple model concept for its only explanation. Further publication followed, initially in large and later in shorter intervals: e.g. 1972 in Nature [18], 1980 in Science [19], and 1982 in the Scientific American [20]. Therein, the results of C.D. Keeling are quoted, ascertained between 1958 and 1978 in Mauna Loa in Hawaii (Figure 2) on the one hand, and at the South Pole (Figure 3) on the other hand. They reveal a continuous increase of the carbon-dioxide content in the air which was associated with the global temperature increase during the same period, delivering the apparent proof of coherence between carbon-dioxide content and temperature of the atmosphere. Besides, the obvious seasonal variations were attributed to an increased carbon-dioxide removal from the air by the photosynthetic activity of plants in the summertime.Figure 1: The preferred apparatus of Tyndall [2].But above all, the book and the film of Al Gore entitled “An Inconvenient Truth” in 2006, which were based on these findings, made the breakthrough into the public view. Moreover, earlier, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) had been founded (1988) which published regular reports in the years 1990, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2013/2014, accompanied by special issues, while several world climate conferences took place, notably delivering the Kyoto Protocol in December 1997, and finally the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change of Paris in December 2015. Besides, thousands of professional papers and reports have been published over which nobody can entirely keep the survey. Schlesinger et al. [21] distinguished between several different types of climate models, instead of a consistent uniform model. For instance, on the Fall Meeting of the American Geophysical Union in 2011 at least 30 models were submitted “yielding the same wide range of possible warming and precipitation changes as they did five years ago” [22].According to the NASA and the NOAA, the result of all these efforts is: The year 2016 was the warmest one since the beginning of the measurements!Figure 2: Rising concentration of carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere at Mauna Loa in Hawaii, according to Revelle [20].What is the reason for this failure? Is it the fact that hitherto too less has been made to reduce the emissions of the «greenhouse» gas carbon-dioxide? Or is, according to the «climate doubters», the real cause of the global temperature rise solely induced by natural variations of solar radiation which cannot be influenced [23]? Or does another anthropogenic factor exist which affects the climate?Figure 3: Rising concentration of carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere at the South Pole, according to Revelle [20].Indeed: as an obvious cause, the surface-albedo comes into question, or rather its complement, the solar absorption coefficient. It is colour dependant and indicates the absorption degree of the incoming solar light which is partly absorbed and partly reflected by the Earth surface. As would seem natural, bright colours reflect the sunlight better than dark colours. Nevertheless, this obvious factor was so far disregarded in favour of the greenhouse theory. However, as it will be shown below, this theory is deficient to such an extent that it cannot be maintained. The errors concern the convenient measuring methods and the result evaluation, as well as its theoretical background, even with respect to basic propositions. In significant cases, an analysis of the original data is made by plotting them in diagrams, which was not usual in publications at that time. Along these lines, the author’s recently published own work will be alleged as a valuable alternative, supplemented by further novel results.The Greenhouse Model and the Principal ObjectionsAs already mentioned, the amount of respective professional and popular scientific publications is huge, impeding extracting the significant items. A firm comprehensive description of the greenhouse theory is not available, not even in textbooks such as [24-26]. It must be picked-out from several sources wherein a critical discussion of the diverse variants was not delivered. Instead of scientific arguments, rather consent appears to be decisive being influenced by the majority opinion.Nevertheless, the greenhouse theory may be briefly described, not least by reference to simplifying articles in the internet which are relevant for the public opinion. It should be realized that it is based on a model, as the name «greenhouse» suggests. Its essential thoughts may be outlined as follows:The incoming solar light is partly absorbed and partly reflected by the Earth surface. As already mentioned, the absorption degree is given by the complement to the so-called albedo which indicates the reflection degree of the Earth surface, and which mainly depends on its colouring. Due to this absorption, the surface of the Earth is warmed up. Simultaneously, and/or delayed, the warmed Earth surface emits medium-wave IR-radiation (=heat radiation or thermal radiation, wave-length λ=3–50 μm) which is partly absorbed by the atmosphere, due to the greenhouse gases, and partly emitted into Space. Therefore, the assumption is made that any warming-up of the atmosphere is exclusively due to a partial atmospheric absorption of medium-wave IR-radiation by so-called greenhouse gases.This concept becomes evident not least from the schedule shown in Figure 4, found in [27]. Therein, the bottom emission intensity of 390 Wm-2is assigned to the bottom temperature of 288 K, according to the Stefan-Boltzmann term σ·T4 (whereby σ=Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and T=absolute temperature, see later). Hence, Figure 4 may be considered as representative for the current greenhouse theory. It is explicitly described in [28]. However, the fact that the occurrence of that bottom temperature is not explained lets suggest that something is wrong about this theory. At least it reveals that the influence of the Earth surface temperature–and thus of the surface albedo-is usually neglected assuming it as constant. But it would be relevant even if the greenhouse theory were correct.Preliminary ObjectionsIt needs no professional knowledge to realize that some assumptions of the greenhouse theory are questionable. And it needs not much professional knowledge to find some further snags which query this theory fundamentally. Hence it seems useful to allege these arguments in the first place.Any artificial greenhouse needs a solid transparent roof, which is absent in the case of the atmosphere. Rather, the atmosphere represents an open system in which complicated physical processes occur. But even in a greenhouse the texture of the bottom acts an important part. Moreover, the scale of a greenhouse is much smaller than the scale of the atmosphere which implicates different regularities.Figure 4: Global energy balance and the greenhouse effect, according to Ramanathan et al. [27].The fact that the atmospheric carbon-dioxide concentration has increased while the average global temperature has increased, too, does not reveal a causal relationship but solely an analogous one. The two phenomena just occurred simultaneously. Likewise, the urbanisation and the industrialisation of the world have considerably increased, as a result of the global population increase, being related to an increase of the buildings and further superficial changes, in particular of the brightness.Within this theory, the atmosphere is treated as a static object being solely characterised by an average global temperature value, in spite of the fact that it behaves dynamically exhibiting diurnal, seasonal and annual fluctuations, and that the structure of the Earth surface is quite variable with respect to the proportion of land and sea surface, apart from the geographical latitude and the existence of mountains inducing different climatic zones. Thereby, it should be known that the term «climate» comes from the Latin word «clima», meaning «region». Thus, strictly speaking, a «world climate» does actually not exist even if interdependencies exist between the single climates. As a consequence, the term «microclimate» has been created. But this is a pleonasm since any climate is a microclimate. Considering these aspects, operating with average values is not admissible since such values do not allow conclusions about the weather fluctuations and storms which are characteristic for the climatic changes, too, and likewise about the enhanced temperature elevations in certain regions.Most people have no idea how little the carbon-dioxide content of the atmosphere really is. Even if one adjusts the values given in the figures 2 and 3 upward to 400 ppm=0.04 percent amounting the 2500th part of air, it seems unlikely that this would be responsible for the warming up of the whole atmosphere. In spite of this, the carbon-dioxide is always washed out by rain which impedes an unlimited accumulation. The fact that this leads to an acidification of the rain, and–in the long-term–of the oceans which impairs the plankton, may be a factor to be reckoned with but it has nothing to do with the atmospheric warming.Already from the outset of the greenhouse theory-and being still essential for the current climate theory -, the warming up of the whole atmosphere was focussed, and not of its lowest layer. But actually this lowest layer is of interest for the climate, and not primarily the whole atmosphere. This becomes also evident from the fact that the surface temperature–or rather the temperature 1 meter above the ground–is assumed as relevant, and not the temperature of the higher atmospheric layers. However, in this lowest range boundary processes between the Earth surface and the atmosphere are relevant, in particular heat exchange due to wind convection, and heat conduction while the radiative energyexchange is secondary.Figure 5: Relative intensities at 288 K according to Planck’s distribution law.According to Planck’s distribution law, the wavelength of the thermal radiation maximum of solid Earth surface being 288K=15°C warm is at about 10 μm (Figure 5). The fact that carbon-dioxide absorbs only at the wave lengths 2.7, 2.8, 4.3 and 15 μm, i.e., beyond this maximum, is not new. It means that there is a «window» within the absorption by the atmosphere, and that the emitted thermal radiation occurs just at this window. When the Earth’s surface temperature is enhanced, the absorption maximum is shifted to even lower values. At least it may be argued that the band-width of the thermal radiation is wide enough to overlap the absorption peaks of carbon-dioxide, as evident from Figure 5. However, this fact delivers rather an excuse than a convincing argument in favour of the greenhouse theory.The Inadequacy of the Global Radiation BudgetIn the already cited textbooks about climatology a simplified global radiation budget is described delivering the ostensible proof in favour of the greenhouse model concept. Since it is widely alleged it shall be quoted below word by word, referring to the textbook of Boeker and van Grondelle [26] p. 3:“In the simplest calculation the temperature of the earth is determined by the solar radiation coming in and the infrared (IR) leaving the earth, or energy in=energy out (1.1)The amount of radiation entering the atmosphere per m 2perpendicular to the radiation is called S, the total solar irradiance or solar constant (=1366 Wm -2). Looking at the earth from outer space it appears that a fraction a, called the albedo, is reflected back. As illustrated in Figure 1.1 (Figure 6), an amount (1-a)S penetrates down to the surface [which means: it is absorbed by the earth at its surface]. With earth radius R=6.38 × 106 m the left of Eq. (1.1) reads (1-a)SπR 2 .In order to make an estimate of the right-hand side of Eq. (1.1) we approximate the earth as a black body with temperature T. A black body is a hypothetical body, which absorbs all incoming radiation, acquires a certain temperature T and emits its radiation according to Stefan- Boltzmann’s law producing outgoing radiation with intensity σT 4 (with σ=5.671 × 10-8 Wm -2 K -4). The total outgoing radiation from the earth then becomes σT 4x 4πR 2 . Substitution in Eq. (1.) gives:For albedo a one finds from experiments a=0.30. Substitution of the numerical values gives T=255 K, which is way below the true average earth surface temperature of 15°C=288 K. The difference of 33 °C is due to the greenhouse effect, for which the earth’s atmosphere is responsible.”Apart from the fact that the albedo cannot be assumed as a uniform property being homogenously spread over the whole world, particularly that it cannot be applied to the water surfaces of the lakes and of the oceans which amount to two thirds of the Earth surface, this model concept exhibits at least the following capital errors:The first error consists in the assumption that the Earth radiates on its total spherical surface exhibiting an area of 4πR 2, i.e., also on the half side which is turned away from the solar insolation, while for its absorption solely the half side which is turned towards the solar insolation is taken into account. Moreover, this hemisphere is reduced to a disc exhibiting the profile area of πR 2.But the former one is solely involved due to the Earth’s rotation. Thus, for this model, the Earth’s rotation should actually be omitted since it requires that the involved actions are occurring at the same site representing a steady equilibrium state. This would be the case if the Earth surface were assumed as a thin spherical layer, inwardly being perfectly insulated and thus exhibiting no significant heat capacity. As a consequence, for calculating the mean outgoing heat radiation, solely the area of the half side which is turned towards the solar insolation should be taken into account.The second error is related to the first one. It consists in the assumption of a disc profile instead of a hemisphere. The latter one exhibits an entirely different temperature distribution, due to the different solar radiation intensity which is given by the cosine-function of the incident radiation angle σ (Figure 7). In the absence of an atmosphere–for instance on the Moon surface, the local surface temperature would be given by the equationFigure 6: Figure 1.1 in Boeker and van Grondelle [26] on page 3.Figure 7: Incidence of sunlight on the Earth surface.For the respective calculation of the average surface temperature, the different local temperatures should be loaded according to their frequencies. Certainly, it would not be equal to the mean value between the maximum and the minimum temperature. However, this computation is not made here since it would solely be feasible for the absence of an atmosphere. Moreover, it is not at all clear how the respective mean temperature of the Earth surface has been determined.It is quite problematic to assume a «top-of-atmosphere» albedo, as it is made here, and as it is customary by several prominent authors [29]. The presence of the atmosphere let suppose considerable interferences and complications due to the numerous processes which occur therein, not to mention the cloud and fog formation. But in particular, there is confusion with respect to the relevant temperature: on the one hand, the temperature at the Earth surface is considered–i.e., at the bottom of the atmosphere -, while on the other hand, the top of the atmosphere is focussed. Therefore, two different observation points are required which cannot be occupied simultaneously.The term «albedo»–or rather its complement, the solar absorption coefficient-is primarily related to surfaces of solid opaque bodies. (Commonly, the designation «black body» is used. However, as own studies yielded, a body needs not be black but solely solid and opaque, cf. chapter 3). Thereby, the reflective process occurs normally two dimensionally. Thus it is inappropriate to apply it on fluids such as water-of oceans and lakes-where the radiation can deeply penetrate being affected three-dimensionally. The emission also obeys other regularities than in the case of solid opaque surfaces. Even its application on ice and snow is questionable. However, within this model the Earth is considered as a solid opaque body, which is impermissible.Thanks to satellites, the extra-terrestrial solar constant could be determined as 1366 Wm -2 while the terrestrial solar constant (measured at the Earth surface) amounts to only approx. 1000 Wm -2.This means that the atmosphere adsorbs a considerable part of the solar radiation. The remarkable difference is not explainable since, apart from the absorption of UV-light by ozone and a possible influence of the Raleighscattering, no significant absorbent is known. The «greenhouse gases» cannot be responsible for it since their influence is too little.It is doubtful to confine the energy budget of the Earth on radiation processes. In fact, additional thermodynamic and kinetic processes occur, vertically as well as horizontally, affecting the energy budget, such as winds and storms, water flows, not least evaporation and condensation of water. Hence it appears impossible to model the whole atmosphere. On the whole, this simple radiation model is fully wrong delivering not the slightest proof in favour of the greenhouse thesis.The Questioning of the Original Absorption Measurement MethodsIn climatological text books, as well as in the greater part of the respective literature, one seeks in vain information about the original measurement methods delivering the foundations of the extensive theory and their sophisticated models. This theoretical framework is supported by quite poor empiric evidence, disregarding the essential scientific demand of proving any theoretical approach by experiments. This is the more astonishing since most basic measurements were made in the 19th century when the technical capabilities were not available, nor the material commonly used nowadays. E.g., the customarily alleged light-adsorption law of Bouger, Lambert and Beer traces back to work being published in the years 1729, 1760 and 1852–hence at times where electric light was not available, and artificial light had to be delivered by candles or by oil lamps. Photometers being used at that time–like those of Rumford or of Ritchie–utilized the fact that the intensities of two comparing light sources being casted abreast on a white surface decrease reciprocally to the square of the difference in distance. In particular, a lot of materials, being readily available nowadays, were then not known, such as synthetic materials.As introductorily mentioned, John Tyndall first made measurement on gases detecting the intensity loss of thermal radiation within a metallic tube (Figure 1). It is difficult to discuss the deficiencies of his equipment retrospectively. Nevertheless, some objections may be made.First of all, the odd array of the reference has to be mentioned, i.e., the symmetric shape of the thermopile (see left side in the figure). Obviously, a symmetrically arranged Lesly-cube is provided as a reference serving as a counter radiation source. However, normally a medium with a constant low temperature is provided thereto, and not an irradiated device. Hence, for radiation measurements a bolometer might be used as it was developed by Langley [6,30] which can be calibrated with a pyranometer, based on a calorimetric measurement with a blackened tubular part. But for that apparatus such a calibration was obviously not possible, hence the effective radiation power (in German: Strahlungsleistung) was not determinable neither for the incoming radiation, emitted by the Leslie-cube, nor for the outgoing radiation at the end of the measuring tube.Secondly, an intensity loss of the radiation along the tubes would have to be expected, even in the vacuum, due to the fact that any artificial radiation decreases as a function of the distance. Normally, this decrease is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. However, in this case where the radiation was channelled in a tube, the radiation decrease is not simply expectable but should be determined empirically enabling the calibration of the apparatus, but such a calibration was not made.And thirdly, a considerable interaction of the heat radiation with the metallic tube is to be expected, due to its high heat capacity as well as to its thermal conductivity, leading to interferences. Hence this equipment does not guarantee reliant results suited for a quantitative evaluation.Figure 8: Absorption of an «olefiant» gas as a function of the pressure, according to Tyndall [2].Nevertheless, half-quantitative measurements were possible. Tyndall found that some gases, such as «olefiant gas» (=ethylene?) and other organic compounds as well as carbon-dioxide, adsorbed heat radiation well while other gases, in particular dry air, did not absorb, or did it only very weakly. The results revealing the pressure dependence of the absorption were not analysed but listed in tabular form which allows plotting them in diagrams now. However, they do not allow quantitative analyses, not least because the unit of the absorption was not indicated. Thereto, especially the results given in table I on page 180 in [2] are interesting since they comprise a comparatively wide pressure range. They are plotted in Figure 8 wherein the dimensionless A-values given by Tyndall are inserted.Therein, primarily it appears odd that the pressure doubling from 240 to 480 mm Hg induces absorption amplification only by the factor 1.18. Moreover, the distinctive decrease of the absorption in the initial range of the curve is not intelligible, nor as the linear course at higher pressures. In this respect, it is appropriate to compare the plot with the curve of the Lambert-Beer law as it is commonly assumed for visible light.In its present form, this law is not identical with Beer’s original approach [31]. It is deduced hypothetically and not widely verified empirically, particularly not with respect to wide-band medium wave infrared radiation. It is quoted in modern textbooks being formulated as follows:whereI0and I=intensities before and after the absorption,k=absorption constant, c=concentration (or pressure), d=distanceIndeed, this equation fulfils the boundary conditions that the outgoing intensity I becomes zero when the concentration or the distance is infinite, and that it becomes equal to the initial intensity when the concentration or the distance are zero. The absorption constant k is usually designated as «absorption coefficient», but this is fallacious since, normally, a coefficient must be dimensionless, which cannot be the case here since the exponent must be dimensionless as a whole. For expressing this relation in terms of fractional absorption a=1–I/I 0(whereby a ≤ 1), the formula can be rearranged to. An empirical determination of the absorption constant k is principally feasible by nested intervals when two values of a, and the corresponding values of the product c·d, are known. However, in this case no solution for k could be found (whereby the pressure is directly related to c while d was constant), which reveals that the curve does not fulfil the convenient Lambert-Beer law. Rather, as Figure 9 shows, within this range a logarithmic dependency on the pressure is evident, being virtually the opposite of an exponential function. It cannot be within the scope of the present treatise to theoretically explain this peculiar characteristic. However, it seems to give enough reason to doubt the general validity of the Lambert-Beer relation and to query it at least in this case being relevant for the absorption of thermal radiation by gases.Figure 9: Logarithmic plot of the results drafted in Figure 8.Moreover, for studying a radiative warming-up effect it seems sufficient to solely consider a relatively small, preferably 1meter high air column since a warming will take place within that column at least to the same extent as it will occur in the whole atmosphere. Thereby, it does not need much imagination to conclude that a carbon-dioxide concentration of 0.04% (=400 ppm), as it is roughly present in the atmosphere, will not lead to any perceptible warming-up of the whole gas quantity which is 2500 times larger–and thus exhibiting a respective larger heat capacity, even if the whole absorbed radiation energy were converted into heat.Svante Arrhenius made own absorption experiments with carbondioxide using an apparatus similar to the one of Tyndall [8]. He disregarded the above aspects, too, but his thermopile was related to 15°C (thus not being counter-radiated by a second Leslie-cube). His testing tube was considerably smaller than the one of Tyndall, namely 50 cm long, exhibiting an outer diameter of 50 mm and an inner diameter of 33 mm. It was made from iron which inside was covered with a strong absorbing layer from iron oxide–a quite inconceivable precaution, for thereby, the instrument-induced interferences were probably enhanced. The gas pressure was considerably higher. It could be varied between 1 and 8 bar, hence it differed even much more from the real atmospheric conditions than Tyndall’s device. Assuming that the product of length and pressure would be commutatively equal to the product of pressure and length, thus assuming that e.g. carbon-dioxide, which exhibits a pressure of 8 bar would absorb along a path of 0.5 m to the same extent as carbon-dioxide exhibiting a pressure of 0.001 bar along a path of 4000 m, he used the product of length and pressure as the relevant parameter. This is unreasonable in view of the above alleged regards, in particular with respect to the presence of air as the predominant gas, and apart from the fact that these two terms are presumably not applicable commutatively.Nevertheless, his results being compared with the respective results of Tyndall are worth to be mentioned. As it is evident from Figure 10, his measurements concerned a higher pressure range than the one of Tyndall, overlapping them only marginally. But even if the two curves are obviously not exactly congruent, the comparison of their combination with the curve of Figure 9 suggests an analogous course of the absorption curve which seems to be characteristic–but not well intelligible–for this system. Besides, the high pressure range is virtually not relevant for atmospheric carbon-dioxide.Except for the measurements of Knut Ångström [32,33], from that time no further experimental work is known. As incipiently mentioned, after the Second World War the topic was revisited, particularly by Gilbert N. Plass [11-16], but applying a spectroscopy method instead of a simple photometric one, thus using monochromatic IR-light instead of wide-band thermal radiation. Such spectroscopic methods are still used today, even if they have been improved meanwhile.The difficulty for quantitative IR-applications arises not least from the mutual interference of thermal radiation and heat conduction, partly concerning the same energy range. The former is related to vibrations and rotations of chemical bonds, while the latter is related to the translation of whole molecules, i.e., to their kinetic energy. Hence, the former is an intra-molecular phenomenon while the latter is an inter-molecular phenomenon. According to Lorentz, there exists a correlation between the collision-frequency of the molecules and the IR-spectral band-width. Consequently, the pressure of carbon-dioxide, as well as the presence of an additional inert gas such as nitrogen, affects the band-widths and the intensities in the IR-spectrum [34]. Moreover, the splitting of the absorption into several sections, as it is intrinsically the case when spectroscopic methods are applied, affords a subsequent integration of the absorption bands, which is laborious and not explicitly feasible. Therefore, the spectroscopic method, being advisable due to the easy availability of such commercial instruments, doesn’t seem to be the optimal means for treating this problem while the original method applied by Tyndall and Arrhenius, using Leslie-cubes, was closer to reality.The interpretation of Plass is based on experimental results delivered by W.H. Cloud. They were made with an extraordinary long, namely 100 foot (=30.5 m) absorption cell. However, the original work report of Cloud is no more available since the citation «Johns Hopkins University» is insufficient. For instance the results for the carbondioxide absorption for the wide spectral interval from 12 μm to 18 μm are given by Plass in [13], Figure 1, as a double-logarithmic plot (Figure 11). Since this manner of representation is misleading, in Figure 12 the respective non-logarithmic plot is drafted. Therein, the x-axe displays the product of the pressure p and the optical path length w, but one has to be aware that solely the pressure was varied while the length of the cell was unchanged.Obviously, this course of curve is similar to the one of Tyndall’s, shown in Figure 8. And analogously, the transformation of the values of the x-axe into logarithmic form yields a nearly linear curve (Figure 13). Therefore it does not obey the usual Lambert-Beer-law. As a consequence, by using these data an explicit value for the relevant absorption coefficient cannot be determined. Obviously, this fact was not realized by the author and his followers. Rather, it was concealed by the double-logarithmic plot of the variables in the diagram of Figure 11, that which would enable the computation of the total absorption using the barometric height formula.Figure 10: Absorption of carbon-dioxide, according to Tyndall and Arrhenius [8].Figure 11: Absorption of carbon-dioxide at 12-18 µm, according to Plass [13].Figure 12: Non-logarithmic plot of the results given in Figure 11.Figure 13: Logarithmic plot of the results drafted in Figure 12.However, it must be taken into account that the conversion of thermal radiation energy into heat involves the heat capacity of the gas, i.e., a large heat capacity engenders a small temperature rise. Obviously, there is a difference between pure gases and mixed gases, in particular when the sensitive gas carbon-dioxide, which is present at a low concentration, is mixed with a large amount of air (i.e., 2500-fold more) which has to be co-warmed up. With respect to this, it needs no further consideration for drawing the conclusion that any selective radiative warming-up of the carbon-dioxide being present in the atmosphere may be negligible as a thermal source for the air.But in particular, there is no evidence that the thermal radiation which is absorbed by a gas, and which is determined by spectroscopic methods, is quantitatively transformed into heat, leading to a temperature enhancement. Respective measurements have never been made so far. Rather it seems likely that the absorbed thermal radiation energy is not quantitatively converted into heat since a considerable part of it may be re-emitted in all directions. The converted fraction cannot be theoretically calculated but must be empirically determined by measuring the temperature of the gas. As we know today, photometric absorption is accompanied by the (quantized) excitation of electrons being followed by a light emission, due to the back-jumping of the excited electrons into the ground state. This electronic jumping may be–but needs not be–associated with vibrations or rotations of the nuclei in the molecule. In solid bodies, and to a certain extent also in fluid media, these vibrations or rotations are not independent but coupled. However, in gases they are widely independent since the molecules or atoms are moving around obeying statistical laws, whereby their mean kinetic translational energy is proportional to their absolute temperature. Nevertheless, in the case of an electronic excitation a part of the vibration or rotation energy may be converted into kinetic energy, and thus in sensible heat, but the fractional amount of this concerted energy is not a priori theoretically derivable but must be determined experimentally. Inversely, part of the kinetic heat energy may be converted into molecular or atomic vibration energy. Thus, in gases two kinds of energy are involved: «internal» energy being related to intramolecular motions, and «external» energy being related to intermolecular motions. The first kind is subject of the quantum mechanics, while the second kind is subject of the kinetic gas theory. As a consequence, photometric or spectroscopic measurements cannot deliver quantitative information about the warming-up of gases due to thermal or other infrared radiation, while such measurements never have been made so far.It is worth knowing that the absorption coefficients which are applied for the convenient atmosphere models are not empirically determined but rather theoretically calculated solely using spectroscopic data, and based on the Lambert-Beer law. Already Plass quoted in [11] the formula of Lorentz, yielding an expression for the absorption coefficient as a function of the total line intensity, the electromagnetic wave frequency, and the half-width of the line. A modification was made by Spitzer regarding the average relative velocity of the colliding molecules, thus applying the kinetic gas theory. Meanwhile, quantum mechanics has delivered the formalism for connecting molecular quantities to the macro-physical absorption phenomenon [26]. Thereby, the electric dipole moments of atomic bonds within the molecules act a predominant part, letting suppose that IR-absorption requires the presence of polar bonds. This delivers the explanation why water and carbon-dioxide molecules are able to absorb IR-radiation, due to the polar character of their bonds, while the nonpolar oxygen and nitrogen do not absorb.However, as the examples of the halogens reveal, there exist molecular compounds or elements which exhibit nonpolar bonds but which nevertheless are coloured. Therefore, an absorption of light– and probably also of IR-light–by gaseous substances seems principally possible, namely due to other causes than the polarity of chemical bonds represent. This effect may be attributed to vibrations in the electron shells, and, with respect to thermal radiation. It has been overlooked so far, since that absorption appears to be very weak, being not detectable with usual spectrographs.Besides, the argument which has already been alleged against Tyndall’s approach is still valid: For studying a radiative warming effect it is sufficient to consider a relatively short air column. Thereby, the carbon-dioxide concentration is probably low enough to be neglected as a significant thermal factor. Moreover, it should be taken into account that the atmosphere is not an immobile gas array. Instead, the atmospheric air is perpetually in motion, at least upwards and downwards. This involves cooling down effects, due to gas exchange. As a consequence, any vertical radiative model is inappropriate when these effects are neglected.Recapitulated, the following objections immediately suggest themselves:1. The method does not deliver absolute absorption values but solely relative ones.2. The Lambert-Beer law is obviously not fulfilled.3. The commutativity between way and pressure within its product is not approved.4. The computation of the warming-up of the atmosphere would afford the incorporation of the air.5. For studying the radiative warming-up it is sufficient to consider a relatively small column.6. Instead of the radiative absorption by a gas, its radiative warming-up should be measured since it is not certain that the absorbed radiation energy is completely transformed into heat.Stefans’s Law and the Theoretical Construct of The Radiative TransferAs introductorily mentioned, Arrhenius knew already Stefan’s law which was deduced from the earlier experimental results of Dulong and Petit [9,35], which was later theoretically founded by Boltzmann [36], and which recently was numerically revised. However, he had some troubles with it. And indeed, it comprises a difficulty which seems not easily explainable, while a more precise study must lead to the view that it does not represent a natural law but solely a regularity.Thereto, it should be realised that this «law» makes a statement not only with respect to the fourth-power temperature dependency of the thermal radiation but also, and in particular, with respect to the backradiation of the atmosphere occurring on the surface of an irradiated solid opaque body (abbrev.: sob), and being assumed to behave analogously:(1) whereby the Stefan-Boltzmann constantObviously, it describes the equilibrium state on a solid opaque surface which exists when Tsobhas achieved its limiting value while the ambient atmosphere exhibits the temperature Tair. As a consequence, Tsobmay be calculated according to equation (2) which results from equation (1):As the author’s own measurements have yielded (cf. next chapter), this equation delivers quite realistic results. Nevertheless, a certain doubt may arise when it is realized within these equations the temperatures of two principally different states of matter are provided in the same manner, namely the one of a solid opaque body, and the one of a gas being represented by the air of the atmosphere being the source for the back-radiation. This virtually implicates that gas radiates like an opaque solid body though it doesn’t absorb any radiation unless «greenhouse gases» are present–which would be a flagrant contradiction to Kirchhoff’s law!Rather the different characters of the two participants have to be regarded: in the case of solid materials, primarily the properties of the surface are relevant, while in the case of gases the relevant processes occur inside, i.e., within their whole extension range. This means, that the former processes occur two-dimensionally, while the latter ones are three-dimensional. It cannot be excluded–or rather: it seems to be obvious-that the atmosphere acts altogether incidentally like a solid thermal radiator suggesting that it behaves like a solid opaque body. However, it should have to be assumed that, if the atmosphere were less extensive, its back-radiation power would probably be weaker while equation (1) would not anymore be fulfilled.Instead, an alternative approach such asshould be taken into consideration, exhibiting the presently unknown term f(p,Tair) being a function of (atmospheric) pressure and of temperature, appears reasonable but difficult to derive and verify. Respective studies are in progress but not yet finished.This coincidence would explain why the atmosphere is commonly but abstrusely considered as a black body, leading to a variety of socalled radiative transfer models, e.g. applied in [37-40], not least engendering and confirming the greenhouse theory. Its largest fault consists in the hypothesis that, on the one hand, the atmosphere radiates like a black body while, on the other hand, it does not absorb any radiation. Moreover, a T4-dependency of the radiation power is probably not given for infinitesimal gas amounts, that which questions its applicability for any radiative transfer models.Respective considerations had already been made by Plass. In particular, his theoretical approach for calculating the intensity of upward radiation is worth to be mentioned since it appears quite abstruse. It was outlined using the example of the 9.6 μm ozone band which served as a model for the carbon-dioxide behaviour in the atmosphere. When the therein used integral is reduced to a simple linear term, equation (1) on page 32 of [12] may be written aswhere I b =black-body radiative intensity=radiative transmission for carbon-dioxideThis means that the upward intensity would be enhanced in the presence of carbon-dioxide, instead of reduced. But this cannot be the case since it would contradict the law of energy conservation.By all indications, this atmospheric black-body approach traces back to the considerations made by Schwarzschild in 1906 [41]. However, in his case the Sun atmosphere was focussed, which indeed appears to behave like a solid opaque body, due to its extraordinary high temperature of approx. 6000 K-but not the Earth atmosphere!The Solar Reflective Characterization of Solid Opaque MaterialsIn general, the temperature of the surface material depends primarily on the intensity of the incident solar light, secondly on the colour-dependent solar absorption coefficient of the surface material, thirdly on the heat dispersion within the surface material, fourthly on the thermal radiation of the surface material and further heat exchange processes on the boundary between the Earth surface and the atmosphere, and finally on the back-radiation of the atmosphere onto the surface material. However, when the convenient atmospheric theory is applied on surface phenomena, these complex circumstances are usually reduced onto the intensity of the incident solar light, the solar absorption coefficient, the thermal radiation of the surface material, and the back-radiation of the atmosphere according to Stefan’s law which virtually cannot describe time dependent processes but solely equilibrium states being connected to limiting temperatures.Thereby, the colour-dependent solar absorption coefficient βs, i.e., the fractional degree to which the incoming solar radiation is absorbed and converted to heat, is usually determined not directly but indirectly by determining the albedo–or better the solar reflection coefficient αs–by measuring the reflected radiation relatively to the incoming one. Thereby it is assumed that the solar absorption coefficient and the solar reflection coefficient are complementary yielding together 1, thus β s =1-α s.However, this method, being described in the ASTM E198–06 and depicted in Figure 14, implies a considerable uncertainty since the reflected light is scattered into any directions, as schematized in Figure 15, unlike light which is reflected by a mirror.A direct determination method for the solar absorption coefficient has recently been proposed by the author [42], measuring the temperature rise of coloured plates in the presence of vertically incidental solar light. The quadratic plates were 10 x 10 cm 2 large and 20 mm thick. To avoid heat losses laterally and at the bottom, the plates were embedded in Styrofoam, and covered with a thin transparent foil acting as an outer window to minimize erratic cooling by atmospheric turbulence (Figure 16). The preferred reference material was aluminium. It guarantees a high measurement precision, on the one hand due to its high specific heat capacity, reducing the thermal interference with the mounting material, and on the other hand due to its high thermal conductivity facilitating the heat dispersion in the plate and thus minimising the temperature difference between surface and bulk. For comparison, additionally other materials were used (wood, brick, and stone). For the warming-up experiments, several coloured plates were orientated exactly vertically to the incoming sunlight, being covered before activation by aluminium-foils. For enabling a correct orientation, the plate modules were positioned on an adjustable carrier (Figure 17). The temperatures were measured at regular intervals of 5 minutes using Hg-thermometers being centrally inserted in respective holes. The heating-rate could easily be determined by graphically assessing the initial slope. Of course, the sky had to be cloudless during the experiment. For measuring the intensity of the solar insolation, an electronic »solarmeter« was used. The time/temperature-plots for different coloured plates are shown in Figure 18. Thereof, and considering the heat capacities of the plates, the specific solar reflection coefficients βs could be calculated using formula (4), delivering the results displayed in Figure 19.Figure 14: Equipment for determining the solar reflection coefficient (according to ASTM E1918–06).Figure 15: Schematic illustration of sunbeam input and radiation output at a coloured surface.Figure 16: Colored plate embedded into Styrofoam and covered by a transparent foil [42].Figure 17: Panel comprising six modules [42].Figure 18: Warming-up of aluminium at 1040 Wm -2[42].T=temperature of the plate [K] or [°C] (yielding the same difference)T 0=starting temperature of the plate [K] or [°C]t=time [s]Φ=solar irradiation density on the surface [Wm-2] where 1 W=1 Js-1βs=solar absorption coefficientCA=cm· ρ · d · 104=thermal admittance of the plate [Jm-2K-1]cm=mass specific heat capacity of the plate material [Jg-1K-1]ρ=density of the plate material [gcm-3]d=thickness of the plate [cm]Furthermore, assuming complementarity to 1, the solar reflection coefficients α s=1–β scould be easily derived. However, it was proposed to distinguish between the solar reflection coefficient and the albedo, the latter one being related to a white surface, according to the original meaning of the word. Thus the albedo represents a relative value, being related to a white surface, and being 1 for any white surface. As a consequence, and according to this proposition being not identical with the hitherto usual one, the albedo and the solar reflecting coefficient are not equal, the latter one being smaller than the former one (Figure 20).The introduction of this separate term allows the application of an easier method to determine the albedo, using a white surface as a reference and a simple light meter being usual for photography, and enabling field measurements (Figure 21). As Figure 22 reveals, the results which were obtained by this method were sufficiently accurate. Thus, when the solar reflection coefficient of the reference is known–being determined via the direct method A, the solar reflection coefficient, and consequently the solar absorption coefficient, can be calculated.As it has to be anticipated, such plates being exposed to direct sunlight will not be warmed up ad infinitum, but only up to a limiting temperature. Thus the time/temperature-curves will, sooner or later, flatten losing their initially linear character. This phenomenon is already hinted when, instead of aluminium, plates from wood are inserted which exhibit a lower heat capacity implying a quicker warming-up (Figure 23). Obviously, this can be explained with the emission of thermal radiation effecting cooling-down, being temperature dependent, and growing up till its intensity is equal to the intensity of the absorbed incident solar radiation.Figure 19: Solar absorption coefficients ßson alumina (lb=light brown) [42].Figure 20: Relative surface albedos ason alumina [42].Figure 21: Assembly for the relative albedo-measurement by a light meter [42].Figure 22: Method-comparison by means of the albedo-values [42].Figure 23: Warming-up of coloured wood plates at 970 Wm-2[42].This cooling-down-effect was studied separately in a darkened room, using the same embedding as the one which had been used for the warming-up measurements, but starting from an elevated temperature being achieved by preheating the plate in an oven. As expected, the cooling-down rates depended on the material, due to its heat capacity (Figure 24). But unexpectedly, they did not depend on the surface colour. This was surprising since it seemed to contradict the well-known theorem of Kirchhoff which states that the absorbency of a surface is equal to its emissivity. But that’s only true when an equilibrium state is reached, as it is the case at the limiting temperature. Moreover, Kirchhoff’s statement was made at a time when the quantization of electromagnetic radiation was not yet known [43,44]. He couldn’t even know the fourth-power temperature dependency of the thermal radiation found ten years later by Stefan [9]-derived from the earlier experimental results of Dulong and Petit [35], and afterwards comprehended by Boltzmann [36], still less Planck’s distribution law published in 1900 [10]. Overall, it must be clear that there is a principal difference between radiative absorption and radiative emission of a solid body: while the absorption depends on its surface color, being exhaustive at an ideal black body, and being possible for any radiation exhibiting wave-lengths from UV till IR, the emission solely depends on its temperature. Therefore, the body must not necessarily be black, it is sufficient that it is opaque. Hence it is deceptive to assign Planck’s distribution law exclusively to black bodies, for it is already valid for any solid opaque body.As the analysis yielded, the curve-course was exponential, being describable with formula (5):wherein t=timeT=(surface) temperature of the plateTin=initial (surface) temperature of the plateTam=ambient (room) temperatureB=heat transfer coefficient [Wm-2K-1]A=surface area [m2]m=mass of the plate [g]cm=mass specific heat capacity of the plate material [Jg-1K-1]In order to determine the heat transfer coefficient B from experimental data, the logarithmic form of equation (5) was used, delivering a linear plot. Inserting the relevant heat capacity values the evaluation of the logarithmic plots yielded for the heat transfer coeffistand cient B of aluminium 8.8 Wm-2K-1(with foil). Since the values for stone, brick and wood turned out to be quite similar, it could be concluded that the heat transfer coefficient is in the first approximation independent of the material but dependent on the surrounding atmosphere. Hence, a general heat transfer coefficient of approx. 9 Wm-2K-1may be assumed. In the case of the absence of a foil, the heat transfer coefficient increased by the factor 1.7 up to 15 Wm-2K-1. However, as it seems obvious, the heat conductivity of the material is decisive, too, but scarcely calculable.Figure 24: Cooling-down of different materials, with covering foil [42].Combining the differential equations for the warming-up rate and the cooling-down rate, the differential equation for the overall-process was obtained, whose solution yielded equation (6):When t = ∞, T has reached a limes being computable by equation (7):Hence, according to formula (7), the limiting temperature is independent of the thermal admittance or the heat capacity, respectively, but solely dependent on the irradiation density Ф, the solar absorption coefficient βs, and the heat transfer coefficient B. For instance, in the case of the black aluminium plate, exhibiting a solar absorption coefficient of 0.85 and a heat transfer coefficient of 8.8 Wm-2K-1(in the presence of a cover-foil), and at a solar irradiation density of 1000 Wm-2, the maximal temperature enhancement is approx. 95° (K or C), whilst in the case of the white aluminium plate, exhibiting a solar absorption coefficient of 0.24, the maximal temperature enhancement is approx. 27° (K or °C). If the ambient temperature Tam is assumed to be 25°C, the resulting limiting temperatures are 120° (for the black plate) and 52° (for the white plate), respectively. Remarkably, the solar absorption coefficient for (light) green is quite large, namely 0.6. Thus, from this state of view, green colour should not be chosen for improving the albedo, while the colour of deserts is optimal.Using formula (6), the temperature courses at differently coloured aluminium-plates (Figure 25), as well as at brick-plates (Figure 26), were calculated (with foil). These plots reveal that the heating-rates of the aluminium-plates are much smaller than those of the brickplates– namely due to the larger thermal admittance, while the limiting temperatures are equal in both cases.Figure 25: Temperature courses at differently coloured aluminium-plates [42].Figure 26: Temperature courses at differently coloured brick-plates [42].The above data can be used for the validation of the Stefan- Boltzmann formula which is valid for limiting temperatures. Inserted in formula (2), and assuming an irradiation density of 1000 Wm-2 and an ambient air temperature of 298K=25°C, the values 389K=116°C for black, and 332K=59°C for white are obtained, which match quite well the measured values of 120°C (for black) and of 52°C (for white). Thereto it must be conceded that the author’s original cooling-down measurements, being reported in [42], were made indoor and not under the open sky. Therefore, they were possibly influenced by the emission of the ceiling. As a consequence, further respective investigations are provided. Likewise, the measurements of Dulong and Petit which Stefan’s work was related to were possibly interfered by the walls of the experimental receptacle, too.Hence, the Stefan-Boltzmann equation delivers satisfying results for the limiting temperatures of the Earth surface layer. However, such steady equilibrium states are seldom, not least due to the permanent diurnal fluctuations. Thus in contrast to this, the here proposed formalism allows to describe time-dependent processes, even if precise statements about real processes influenced by additional effects such as heat-exchange due to air-convection, or thermodynamic ones, are not feasible. Thereby it becomes evident that the Earth surface influences the near-ground atmosphere to a considerable extent, while the influence of the upper atmospheric layers on the climate is secondary.The Discovery of the Near-Infrared Absorption by GasesThe starting point of the here referenced own research [45] was the greenhouse theory, too. However, it deviated from the prior discussed «classical» perception since it was based on the assumption that the incident solar-radiation is mainly responsible for the atmospheric warming-up, and not the thermal radiation of the Earth surface. This assumption seemed plausible, on one hand because of the fact that the terrestrial solar constant is considerably smaller than the extraterrestrial, letting suppose that absorption occurs. On the other hand, the widely published spectral scheme, displayed in Figure 27, suggests that this absorption could be due to «greenhouse gases» such as water vapour and carbon-dioxide. Meanwhile it has become clear that no compelling correlation exists between such a spectroscopic pattern and the thermal behaviour of a gas. However, this gave grounds for making a remarkable discovery.According to Plank’s distribution law the radiation of low temperature sources is associated to longer wave-lengths. Thereby, as to IR-radiation, it is important to distinguish between near IR (λ=0.8–3 μm), emitted at high temperatures (>1000 K), and medium IR (λ=3–50 μm) occurring at lower temperatures as usual thermal radiation, while IR-radiation with larger wavelengths (λ=50–1000 μm) is defined as far IR. Sunlight obeys this law, too, exhibiting a colour temperature of about 6000 K, and delivering–besides UV and visible-mainly near-IR radiation.Figure 27: Spectral energy curves related to the sun, according to Howard et al. [46].Spectroscopic outdoor measurements with sunlight were initially made by Langley in the 19th century [6]. Respective lab-measurements with artificial IR-light followed in the 20th century. They revealed that solely special gases, such as carbon-dioxide and water vapour, absorb infrared radiation, which delivered the reason to assume a greenhouse effect. Spectroscopy differs from simple photometry in so far as the light is split into discrete wave-length ranges, usually by means of a prism, while simple photometry applies light comprising a wide range of wave-lengths. Hence, spectroscopy is widely used for chemical analyses exhibiting a characteristic spectral absorbance. In both cases the absorbance must be high enough in order to allow enabling detection. Therefore it cannot be excluded that a weak absorbance may occur which is not detectable by a normal IR-spectrograph. Virtually, with respect to the climate question, a possible temperature rise of gases induced by solar radiation is of prior interest, and less their IR-spectroscopic behaviour, since there is no good reason to assume that any absorbed IR-radiation will be entirely transformed into heat. Rather it is conceivable that part of it will be re-emitted, to spread in all directions. As a consequence, it seemed advisable making thermal measurements at irradiated gases-that which has never been made so far.Compared to solid bodies, thermal measurements on gases are much more delicate. Due to their low heat capacity they let suppose a considerable interference with the vessel walls in which the gas is embedded, apart from the fact that gases may move when a temperature gradient arises. Hence, a large ratio between the gas volume and the surface of the vessel must be intended, as well as a low heat capacity of the vessel material. Therefore, it is not surprising that no effect can be detected when heavy materials and apparatus are used.Preliminary tests were made using square twin-tubes from Styrofoam (3 cm thick, 1 m long, outer diameter 25 cm), each equipped with three thermometers at different positions, and covered above and below by a thin transparent foil (0.01 mm thick Saran-wrap). The tubes were pivoted on a frame in such a way that they could be oriented in the direction of the solar light (Figure 28). One tube was filled with air, the other with carbon-dioxide. Incipiently, the tubes were covered on the tops with aluminium-foils which were removed at the start of the experiment.Figure 28: Twin-tubes from Styrofoam [45].The primary experimental result was quite astonishing in many respects. Firstly: The content gases warmed within a few minutes by approximately 10°C up to a constant limiting temperature. This was surprising-at least in the case of air–for no warming-up should occur since sunlight is colourless and allegedly not able to absorb any IR-light. However, the existence of a limiting temperature was conceivable since an emission of thermal radiation has to be expected thus far as the temperature rises. Secondly: The limiting temperatures were more or less equal at any measuring point. This means that the intensity of the sun beam was virtually not affected by the heat absorption in the gas tube since the latter one was comparatively weak. And thirdly: Between the two tubes no significant difference could be detected. Therefore, thanks to this simple experiment a significant effect of carbon-dioxide on the direct sunlight absorption could already be excluded.However, it seemed appropriate to study this effect more precisely with the aim of getting quantitative results, and insight of the theoretically ascertainable coherences. For this purpose, the subsequent experiments were made with artificial light, i.e., with IR-lamps, exhibiting a higher amount of IR and being better reproducible, and using a single tube instead of twin tubes (Figure 29). Furthermore, different gases were employed (ambient air, a 4:1 N2/O2-mixture, CO2, Ar, Ne, and He, from steel cylinders) while the apparatus was improved step by step. Finally, the results obtained in artificial light were compared with the results obtained in solar light by means of an optimized solar-tube (Figure 30) allowing an approximate statement about the wavelength of the effective radiation. The preparation of the measuring-tube is of great importance since it may influence the reliability of the results. It is explicitly described in [45].Figure 29: Equipment with IR-lamp [45].Figure 30: Optimized solar-tube [45].A disadvantage of using artificial light is the inherent temperature gradient along the tube (Figure 31), in contrast to the case where the influence of sunlight is studied implying no temperature gradient (Figure 32). It was due to the natural intensity loss, and not to the heat conductance of the gas which turned out to be negligible. The evidence that thermal radiation was the main cause for the warmingup– and not the heat conductance–was given by the fact that it started simultaneously at any measuring point. Solely the measuring point at the top was presumably affected by additional heat conduction. Though, the local intensity was only approximately appraisable. For improving the accuracy of the results, a minor temperature gradient–or gradient of the limiting temperatures, respectively-was aimed which could be satisfyingly realized by taking several measures such as the mirroring of the walls and of the thermometer contact-tips. As IR-bulbs, “Basking Spots” from »exo-terra« (being usual for terraria) were applied in three sizes, according to three intensities (150 W, 100 W and 50 W), and were inserted into an »Arcadia« reflector. The assessment of their spectral distribution was difficult, leading to the assumption of a peak temperature of approx. 1000 K.The influence of the several gas kinds was studied by means of artificial IR-light measurements since the reproducibility as well as the temperature enhancement was higher than the one in the sunlight measurements. Their comparison was made by the relevant time/temperature-curves measured at the medium temperature position which most likely exhibited the specific limiting-temperature value. As evident from Figure 33, any gas absorbed such IR-light-even the noble gases argon, neon and helium do so while there is no significant difference between argon and carbon-dioxide, but only a small difference between carbon-dioxide and air. As separate measurement yielded, there was practically no difference between ambient air and a pure nitrogen/oxygen 4:1 mixture. Furthermore, no pressure influence could be detected.Figure 31: Temporal courses at the three temperature positions with 150 W in air [45].Figure 32: Temporal courses at the three temperature positions in the solartube with air [45].Figure 33: Time-temperature curves of different gases [45].The theoretical interpretation of the results enabled the calculation of the heat absorbance of a gas, delivering an absorption degree of solely 0.012/mole or 0.00053/l. So it is not surprising, that this effect has so far been overlooked!In order to explain the limiting temperature as an implication of the radiative emission, it was necessary to draw on the kinetic gas theory which has already been successfully applied on the heat conductivities of gases. Assuming a direct correlation between the limiting temperature and the radiative emission power, a stringent dependency of the product on the mean kinetic energy and the collision frequency could be deduced, namely(σ=cross sectional area, M=atomic mass, T=absolute temperature, p=pressure)When the heating-up rates are equal - as it is evident from Figure 33, the comparison of two gases yields for the relevant absolute limiting temperatures T1and T2the relationwhere M1and M2indicate the atomic masses, and r1and r2the atomic radii of the compared gases.Moreover, a rough estimate of the effective wavelength-range was feasible by comparing the absorbance rates due to sunlight and artificial light, delivering the value of approx. 1.9 μm. Finally, the radiative heat coefficient was determined, i.e., the portion of the radiation energy which is transformed into heat energy, delivering the very low value 6.3â��10-5, i.e., the amount of radiative energy which is transformed into kinetic heat energy is very small. Therefore, the empirical evidence was delivered that any gas is warmed up by near-infrared light as well as by sunlight up to a limiting temperature. In particular, air and pure carbon-dioxide behave similarly–thus contrary to the greenhouse theory!The Warming-Up of Air and of Carbon-Dioxide by Thermal RadiationAs initially elucidated, the climate greenhouse theory assumes that the atmosphere is warmed-up by the thermal radiation of the Earth surface; that this warming-up occurs through the whole atmosphere, and not only within its near-ground layer; and that this warming-up is solely due to the traces of the so-called greenhouse gases, in particular to carbon-dioxide. As a consequence, the atmosphere would be cold when no greenhouse-gases were present, namely -273°C cold, equal to the nadir. This consideration alone reveals the absurdity of that theory.So one cannot get out of assuming an absorption of thermal radiation by pure air, even in the absence of such trace gases, and besides the heat transfer at the surface boundary due to heat-conduction and air-convection. A further reason for such an assumption is given by the occurrence of a back-radiation from the atmosphere, appearing in the Stefan-Boltzmann equation, while according to Kirchhoff’s theorem the existence of radiative emission implies the existence of radiative absorption.For verifying this presumption, empiric evidence is delivered herewith by measuring the thermal behaviour of air being warmed by a hotplate. Thereto, a tube from Styrofoam was used similar to the one which was employed for the experiments with near-infrared radiation, being explicitly described in [46]. But in contrast to those experiments, in this case the heat source was placed on the bottom of the tube (Figure 34). It reached a considerably lower temperature, and thus it generated longer-wave radiation. A customary hotplate was used (diameter 18.6 cm, area 0.027 m2), but it was modified by an insulating Styrofoam-plate which was mounted on the underside for minimizing downward heat losses. Furthermore, a Pt-thermo-sensor was mounted directly on the plate for detecting its surface temperature. The plate was heated via a variable resistor, while current and voltage where measured with separate digital instruments enabling to calculate the heating power. The distance between hotplate and tube was approx. 3 cm. The quadratic tube (outer distance 25 cm) was 1 m tall and consisted of 3 cm thick Styrofoam plates. Outside it was sealed with a self-adhesive plastic foil, while outside and inside a thin aluminum-foil was attached for radiation-reflection. Three thermometers were provided at a distance of 10, 50 and 90 cm. Their tips were mirrored with aluminum-foils. In addition, a hygrometer was installed which allowed to monitor the filling level of the tube by means of the moisture content of the ambient air. Below and above, the tube was covered by thin Saran foils. It could be filled with other gases from steel cylinders (synthetic air, i.e., a 4:1 nitrogen/oxygen mixture, and pure carbon-dioxide) through the thermometer-holes. The filling process lasted normally approx. one hour. In case of carbon-dioxide the inflow had to be warmed up with a hairdryer. Over the course of the experiments, the atmospheric pressure varied between 1027 and 1037 hPa.Figure 34: Equipment with hotplate.In a preliminary experiment, the air flow was studied in the absence of covering foils. Thereto, an anemometer was mounted at the top of the tube. Starting from an ambient temperature of 23°C, the heat power was enhanced step by step up to 46.3 W. After approx. 3 h, limiting temperatures were attained, namely 73.5°C at the hotplate, 31.0° at the lowest thermometer position, and 27.0° at both upper thermometer positions. Surprisingly, absolutely no air convection was indicated by the anemometer. However, this does not mean that no convection occurred but only that it was very weak.For the following main experiments with covering foils the hotplate was preheated separately till it had attained a constant limiting temperature. However, its temperature increased from 75° to 90°C when the plate was slid under the tube due to the heat accumulation, while the temperatures of the enclosed gas also increased attaining limiting temperatures after one hour. As usual, any limiting temperature can be assumed as determined by the equilibrium between absorption and emission power. In Figure 35, for the three tested gases synthetic air (i.e., a nitrogen/oxygen 4:1 mixture), room air and pure carbon-dioxide, the limiting temperatures are displayed which were reached at the three different positions in the tube. Since the conditions were complicated, not least due to heat conduction interfering thermal radiation, the results for the lowest temperature positon are scarcely interpretable; probably they are correlated to the different heat conductivities. However, considering the limiting temperatures at the medium and at the upper position, there is no doubt that with any gas a radiation induced temperature-increase happened, even with synthetic air. Surprisingly, in the case of pure carbon-dioxide a decrease from the medium to the top thermometer position occurred. This means that carbon-dioxide would even reduce the temperature enhancement, instead of forcing it! This may be explained by the fact that solely internal-i.e., intra-molecular–energy is affected. However, it can be concluded that there exists absolutely no influence of carbon-dioxide on the climate, even without regard to its extremely low concentration in the air.Summary and ConclusionIn fact, it would be feasible to refute the climate greenhouse theory already by some simple arguments: The fact, that the atmospheric carbon-dioxide has increased while the average global temperature has increased, too, does not at all reveal a causal relationship but solely an analogous one. Moreover, a greenhouse needs a solid transparent roof which is absent in the case of the atmosphere. And finally, it seems unlikely that the extremely low carbon-dioxide concentration of 0.04 percent is able to co-warm the entire atmosphere to a perceptible extent.Figure 35: Limiting temperatures for different gases at different positions, average values of two measurements.However, these arguments are not taken seriously. This theory appears to be well-founded and untouchable. It is accepted by thousands of scientists, and numerous professional publications exist which guarantee the correctness of this theory. It cannot be that it is false.But the present treatise reveals: yes, it can!It is hard to believe: But at least twenty objections could be alleged to question and refute the climate greenhouse theory, which may be characterized as a huge accumulation of theoretic constructs being opposed to a poor empiric foundation. Its main deficiency consists in the never verified assumption that within a gas the absorbed thermal radiation would entirely be transformed into heat. Further common misconceptions arise from the concept that the whole atmosphere is responsible for the Earth temperature, instead of its lowest layer being relevant for our perception of climate, and from the negligence of the boundary processes between Earth’s surface and atmosphere, in particular regarding the colour-dependent temperature of the surface material. Finally, the assumption is abstruse that the atmosphere behaves as a black body. Besides, and as a spin-off of this study, the Lambert-Beer law was questioned suggesting an alternative approach. Furthermore, and in particular, the Stefan-Boltzmann relation was relativized revealing the different characters of the two temperature terms.But this treatise is not confined to a mere critique. It rather presents a variety of recently published results which are based on novel thermal measuring methods using simple but adequate materials, and being consistent with basic physical laws. In any case, limiting temperatures were reached. Firstly, the solar reflective characterization of solid opaque materials is considered, delivering a direct measuring method for the solar reflection coefficient. Moreover, the cooling-down behaviour of solid bodies is studied. Secondly, the discovery of the near-infrared absorption by gases is reported which is relevant for the incident solar radiation. Surprisingly, and contrary to any former knowledge, any gas is warmed up, while the difference between air and pure carbon-dioxide is minor-that which delivers the first empirical evidence that «greenhouse gases» do not exist. The second and definite evidence is delivered by the here first mentioned warming-up experiments of air and of pure carbon-dioxide in the presence of thermal radiation, which even revealed a temperature reduction by carbon-dioxide, apart from the fact that the carbon-dioxide content of the air is so low that it can be neglected.As a consequence, it is absolutely certain that the atmospheric temperature is not at all influenced by trace gases such as carbondioxide. On the contrary, the Earth surface represents the governing factor affecting the climate considerably, in particular due to its colouring. Hence this entails the only option to influence the climate by taking human measures while the radiative behaviour of the atmosphere cannot be influenced. They would consist in a general brightening of the Earth surface, and in additional measures being related to this. However, so far any really effective measures have been impeded. This passivity is favoured by ever subordinating such measures to the greenhouse proclamation. A typical example for this is given in [47], while its abatement by alleging a global model computation using the greenhouse assumption, as delivered in [48], is even more destructive.Thus it is high time to realize that each day on which the climate greenhouse theory is maintained, in spite of its here alleged refutation, and hindering any appropriate and effective measures at the Earth surface–particularly in cities, is a lost day.Perhaps it will be one lost day too many…AcknowledgmentThe present work has been carried out independently but not without the critical support of Dr Andreas Rüetschi and the translation assistance of Verena Ginobbi.ReferencesFourier M (1827) Mémoire sur les températures du globe terrestre et des espaces planétaires. Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences de l’institut de France 7: 569-604.Tyndall J (1861) On the absorption and radiation of heat by gases and vapours and on the physical connexion of radiation, absorption and conduction. 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The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, /ˈɪsroʊ/) is the space agency of the Government of India headquartered in the city of Bengaluru. Its vision is to "harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research and planetary exploration."[6]Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was established under the DAE in 1962 by the efforts of scientist Vikram Sarabhai recognizing the need in space research. INCOSPAR grew into ISRO in 1969 also under the DAE.[7][8]In 1972 Government of India setup a Space Commission and the Department of Space (DOS)[9], bringing ISRO under the DOS. The establishment of ISRO thus institutionalized space research activities in India.[10]It is managed by the Department of Space, which reports to the Prime Minister of India.[11]ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975.[12]It was named after the mathematician Aryabhata. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle, SLV-3. ISRO subsequently developed two other rockets: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching satellites into polar orbits and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary orbits. These rockets have launched numerous communications satellites and earth observation satellites. Satellite navigation systems like GAGAN and IRNSS have been deployed. In January 2014, ISRO used an indigenous cryogenic engine in a GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT-14.[13][14]ISRO sent a lunar orbiter, Chandrayaan-1, on 22 October 2008 and a Mars orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, on 5 November 2013, which entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014, making India the first nation to succeed on its first attempt to Mars, and ISRO the fourth space agency in the world as well as the first space agency in Asia to reach Mars orbit.[15]On 18 June 2016, ISRO set a record with a launch of twenty satellites in a single payload, one being a satellite from Google.[16]On 15 February 2017, ISRO launched one hundred and four satellites in a single rocket (PSLV-C37) and created a world record.[17][18]ISRO launched its heaviest rocket, Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle-Mark III (GSLV-Mk III), on 5 June 2017 and placed a communications satellite GSAT-19 in orbit. With this launch, ISRO became capable of launching 4-ton heavy satellites into GTO.Future plans include the development of Unified Launch Vehicle, Small Satellite Launch Vehicle, development of a reusable launch vehicle, human spaceflight, controlled soft lunar landing, interplanetary probes, and a solar spacecraft mission.[19]Contents1 Formative years2 Goals and objectives3 Organisation structure and facilities 3.1 Research facilities 3.2 Test facilities 3.3 Construction and launch facilities 3.4 Tracking and control facilities 3.5 Human resource development 3.6 Commercial wing (Antrix Corporation) 3.7 Other facilities4 Launch vehicle fleet 4.1 Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) 4.2 Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) 4.3 Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) 4.4 Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) 4.5 Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV III)5 Satellite programmes 5.1 The INSAT series 5.2 The IRS series 5.3 Radar Imaging Satellites 5.4 Other satellites 5.5 South Asia Satellite 5.6 GAGAN satellite navigation system 5.7 IRNSS satellite navigation system6 Human Spaceflight Programme 6.1 Technology demonstrations 6.2 Astronaut training and other facilities 6.3 Crewed spacecraft7 Planetary sciences and astronomy 7.1 Astrosat8 Extraterrestrial exploration 8.1 Lunar: Chandrayaan-1 8.2 Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalayaan)9 Future projects 9.1 Forthcoming satellites 9.2 Future extraterrestrial exploration 9.2.1 Chandrayaan 2 9.2.2 Mars Orbiter Mission 2 9.2.3 Aditya-L1 9.2.4 Venus and Jupiter 9.2.5 Lunar missions 9.3 Space transportation 9.3.1 Small Satellite Launch Vehicle 9.3.2 Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) 9.3.3 Unified Launch Vehicle10 Applications 10.1 Telecommunication 10.2 Resource management 10.3 Military 10.4 Academic 10.5 Tele-Medicine 10.6 Biodiversity Information System 10.7 Cartography11 International co-operation 11.1 ISRO satellites launched by foreign agencies12 Statistics13 See also14 Citations15 References16 Further reading17 External linksFormative yearsVikram Sarabhai, first chairperson of INCOSPAR, which would later be called ISROModern space research in India is most visibly traced to the 1920s, when the scientist S. K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments leading to the sounding of the ionosphere by application of ground-based radio methods in Calcutta.[20]Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences.[20]However, it was the period after 1945 that saw important developments being made in coordinated space research in India.[20]Organised space research in India was spearheaded by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai—founder of the Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad—and Homi Bhabha, who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945.[20]Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high altitude and airborne testing, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of the deepest mining sites in the world—and studies of the upper atmosphere.[21]Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.[21][22]In 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Bhabha as its secretary.[22]The department provided funding for space research throughout India.[23]During this time, tests continued on aspects of meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field, a topic that was being studied in India since the establishment of the observatory at Colaba in 1823. In 1954, the Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the Himalayas.[22]The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad. Space research was further encouraged by Government of India.[23]In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.[23]The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was set up in 1962 by the efforts of independent India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.[24]Goals and objectivesThe prime objective of ISRO is to use space technology and its application to various national tasks.[25]The Indian space programme was driven by the vision of Vikram Sarabhai, considered the father of the Indian Space Programme.[26]As he said in 1969:There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the Moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society.—Vikram Sarabhai,[25]Former President of India, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, said:Very many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a newly independent nation which was finding it difficult to feed its population. But neither Prime Minister Nehru nor Prof. Sarabhai had any ambiguity of purpose. Their vision was very clear: if Indians were to play meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it merely as a means of displaying our might.—A. P. J. Abdul Kalam,[27]India's economic progress has made its space program more visible and active as the country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology.[28]In 2008, India launched as many as eleven satellites, including nine from other countries and went on to become the first nation to launch ten satellites on one rocket."[28]ISRO has put into operation two major satellite systems: Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources.In July 2012, Abdul Kalam said that research was being done by ISRO and DRDO for developing cost reduction technologies for access to space.[29]Organisation structure and facilitiesThe organisational structure of the Department of Space of the Government of IndiaISRO is managed by the Department of Space (DoS) of the Government of India. DoS itself falls under the authority of the Space Commission and manages the following agencies and institutes:[30]Indian Space Research Organisation Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram. Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), Thiruvananthapuram. Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC-SHAR), Sriharikota. ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC), Mahendragiri. ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bengaluru. Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad. National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad. ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU), Thiruvananthapuram. Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU), Ahmedabad. Master Control Facility (MCF), Hassan, Karnataka. ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC), Bengaluru. Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS), Bengaluru. Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), Dehradun.Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of ISRO, Bengaluru.Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad.National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), Gadanki, Andhra pradesh.North-Eastern Space Applications Centre[31] (NE-SAC), Umiam.Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), Mohali.Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's space university.Research facilitiesFacilityLocationDescriptionVikram Sarabhai Space CentreThiruvananthapuramThe largest ISRO base is also the main technical centre and the venue of development of the SLV-3, ASLV, and PSLV series.[32]The base supports India's Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station and the Rohini Sounding Rocket programme.[32]This facility is also developing the GSLV series.[32]Liquid Propulsion Systems CentreThiruvananthapuram and BengaluruThe LPSC handles design, development, testing and implementation of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid stages and liquid engines for launch vehicles and satellites.[32]The testing of these systems is largely conducted at IPRC at Mahendragiri.[32]The LPSC, Bangalore also produces precision transducers.[33]Physical Research LaboratoryAhmedabadSolar planetary physics, infrared astronomy, geo-cosmo physics, plasma physics, astrophysics, archaeology, and hydrology are some of the branches of study at this institute.[32]An observatory at Udaipur also falls under the control of this institution.[32]Semi-Conductor LaboratoryChandigarhResearch & Development in the field of semiconductor technology, micro-electro mechanical systems and process technologies relating to semiconductor processing.National Atmospheric Research LaboratoryTirupatiThe NARL carries out fundamental and applied research in Atmospheric and Space Sciences.Space Applications CentreAhmedabadThe SAC deals with the various aspects of practical use of space technology.[32]Among the fields of research at the SAC are geodesy, satellite based telecommunications, surveying, remote sensing, meteorology, environment monitoring etc.[32]The SAC additionally operates the Delhi Earth Station, which is located in Delhi and is used for demonstration of various SATCOM experiments in addition to normal SATCOM operations.[34]North-Eastern Space Applications CentreShillongProviding developmental support to North East by undertaking specific application projects using remote sensing, GIS, satellite communication and conducting space science research.Test facilitiesFacilityLocationDescriptionISRO Propulsion ComplexMahendragiriFormerly called LPSC-Mahendragiri, was declared a separate centre. It handles testing and assembly of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid engines and stages for launch vehicles and satellites.[32]Construction and launch facilitiesFacilityLocationDescriptionISRO Satellite CentreBengaluruThe venue of eight successful spacecraft projects is also one of the main satellite technology bases of ISRO. The facility serves as a venue for implementing indigenous spacecraft in India.[32]The satellites Aaryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, and IRS-1A were constructed at this site, and the IRS and INSAT satellite series are presently under development here.This is renamed as U R Rao Satellite Centre.[33]Laboratory for Electro-Optics SystemsBengaluruThe Unit of ISRO responsible for the development of altitude sensors for all satellites. The high precision optics for all cameras and payloads in all ISRO satellites including Chandrayaan-1 are developed at this laboratory. Located at Peenya Industrial Estate, Bengaluru.Satish Dhawan Space CentreSriharikotaWith multiple sub-sites the Sriharikota island facility acts as a launching site for India's satellites.[32]The Sriharikota facility is also the main launch base for India's sounding rockets.[33]The centre is also home to India's largest Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant (SPROB) and houses the Static Test and Evaluation Complex (STEX).[33]The Second Vehicle Assembly Building (SVAB) at Sriharikota is being realised as an additional integration facility, with suitable interfacing to a second launch pad.[35][36]Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching StationThiruvananthapuramTERLS is used to launch sounding rockets.Tracking and control facilitiesFacilityLocationDescriptionIndian Deep Space Network (IDSN)BengaluruThis network receives, processes, archives and distributes the spacecraft health data and payload data in real time. It can track and monitor satellites up to very large distances, even beyond the Moon.National Remote Sensing CentreHyderabadThe NRSC applies remote sensing to manage natural resources and study aerial surveying.[32]With centres at Balanagar and Shadnagar it also has training facilities at Dehradun in form of the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing.[32]ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command NetworkBengaluru (headquarters) and a number of ground stations throughout India and World.[34]Software development, ground operations, Tracking Telemetry and Command (TTC), and support is provided by this institution.[32]ISTRAC has Tracking stations throughout the country and all over the world in Port Louis (Mauritius), Bearslake (Russia), Biak (Indonesia) and Brunei.Master Control FacilityBhopal; HassanGeostationary satellite orbit raising, payload testing, and in-orbit operations are performed at this facility.[37]The MCF has earth stations and Satellite Control Centre (SCC) for controlling satellites.[37]A second MCF-like facility named 'MCF-B' is being constructed at Bhopal.[37]Human resource developmentFacilityLocationDescriptionIndian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS)DehradunIndian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), a unit of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Department of Space, Govt. of India is a premier training and educational institute set up for developing trained professionals (P.G and PhD level) in the field of Remote Sensing, Geoinformatics and GPS Technology for Natural Resources, Environmental and Disaster Management. IIRS is also executing many R&D projects on Remote Sensing and GIS for societal applications. IIRS also runs various Outreach programmes (Live & Interactive and e-learning) to build trained skilled human resources in the field of Remote Sensing and Geospatial Technologies.Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST)ThiruvananthapuramThe institute offers undergraduate and graduate courses in Aerospace Engineering, Avionics and Physical Sciences. The students of the first three batches of IIST have been inducted into different ISRO centres as of September 2012.Development and Educational Communication UnitAhmedabadThe centre works for education, research, and training, mainly in conjunction with the INSAT programme.[32]The main activities carried out at DECU include GRAMSAT and EDUSAT projects.[33]The Training and Development Communication Channel (TDCC) also falls under the operational control of the DECU.[34]Commercial wing (Antrix Corporation)Main article: Antrix CorporationSets up as the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix's job is to promote products, services and technology developed by ISRO.[38][39]Other facilitiesAerospace Command of India (ACI)Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) – OdishaDevelopment and Educational Communication Unit (DECU)Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS)Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR)Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC)Integrated Space CellInter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA)ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) – ThiruvananthapuramNational Deep Space Observation Centre (NDSPO)Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC)Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC)Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC)Launch vehicle fleetComparison of Indian carrier rockets. Left to right: SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, GSLV Mk.IIIDuring the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicle program owing to geopolitical and economic considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country developed a sounding rockets programme, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure.[40]ISRO further applied its energies to the advancement of launch vehicle technology resulting in the creation of PSLV and GSLV technologies.Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)Main article: Satellite Launch VehicleStatus: DecommissionedThe Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation SLV or SLV-3 was a 4-stage solid-propellant light launcher. It was intended to reach a height of 500 kilometres (310 miles) and carry a payload of 40 kilograms (88 pounds).[41]Its first launch took place in 1979 with two more in each subsequent year, and the final launch in 1983. Only two of its four test flights were successful.[42]Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)Main article: ASLVStatus: DecommissionedThe Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation ASLV was a five-stage solid propellant rocket with the capability of placing a 150-kilogram (330-pound) satellite into Low Earth Orbit. This project was started by the ISRO during the early 1980s to develop technologies needed for a payload to be placed into a geostationary orbit. Its design was based on Satellite Launch Vehicle.[43]The first launch test was held in 1987, and after that three others followed in 1988, 1992 and 1994, out of which only two were successful, before it was decommissioned.[42]Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)Main article: PSLVStatus: ActiveThe Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, commonly known by its abbreviation PSLV, is an expendable launch system developed by ISRO to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into Sun synchronous orbits. PSLV can also launch small satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The reliability and versatility of the PSLV is proven by the fact that it has launched, as of 2014, seventy-one satellites/spacecraft (thirty-one Indian and forty foreign) into a variety of orbits.[44][45]The maximum number of satellites launched by the PSLV in a single launch is 104, in the PSLV-C37 launch on 15 February 2017.[46][47][48]Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches:DecadeSuccessfulPartial successFailuresTotal1990s31152000s1100112010s300131Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)Main article: GSLVStatus: ActiveThe Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation GSLV, is an expendable launch system developed to enable India to launch its INSAT-type satellites into geostationary orbit and to make India less dependent on foreign rockets. At present, it is ISRO's second-heaviest satellite launch vehicle and is capable of putting a total payload of up to 5 tons to Low Earth Orbit. The vehicle is built by India, originally with a cryogenic engine purchased from Russia, while the ISRO developed its own cryogenic engine.The first version of the GSLV (GSLV Mk.I), using the Russian cryogenic stage, became operational in 2004, after an unsuccessful first launch in 2001 and a second, successful development launch in 2003.The first attempt to launch the GSLV Mk.II with an Indian built cryogenic engine, GSLV-F06 carrying GSAT-5P, failed on 25 December 2010. The initial evaluation implies that loss of control for the strap-on boosters caused the rocket to veer from its intended flight path, forcing a programmed detonation. Sixty-four seconds into the first stage of flight, the rocket began to break up due to the acute angle of attack. The body housing the 3rd stage, the cryogenic stage, incurred structural damage, forcing the range safety team to initiate a programmed detonation of the rocket.[49]On 5 January 2014, GSLV-D5 launched GSAT-14 into intended orbit. This marked first successful flight using indigenous cryogenic engine (CE-7.5), making India the sixth country in the world to have this technology.[13][14]Again on 27 August 2015, GSLV-D6 launched GSAT-6 into the transfer orbit. ISRO used the indigenously developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) third time on board in this GSLV flight.[50]On 8 September 2016, GSLV-F05 launched INSAT-3DR, a weather satellite, weighing 2,211 kg (4,874 lb) into a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). GSLV is designed to inject 2–5 tonnes (2.2–5.5 tons) -class of satellites into GTO. The launch took place from the Second Launch Pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR (SDSC SHAR), Sriharikota. The GSLV-F05 flight was the first operational flight of GSLV carrying the Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS). The indigenously developed CUS was carried on board for the fourth time during a GSLV-F05 flight. GSLV-F05 vehicle is configured with all its three stages including the CUS similar to the ones flown during the previous GSLV-D5 and D6 missions in January 2014 and August 2015.[51]Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches:DecadeSuccessfulPartial successFailuresTotal2000s31152010s6028Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV III)Main article: GSLV IIIStatus: ActiveGSLV-Mk III is a launch vehicle. It is capable to launch four tonne satellites into geosynchronous transfer orbit. GSLV-Mk III is a three-stage vehicle with a 110-tonne (120-ton) c-ore liquid propellant stage (L-110) flanked by two 200-tonne (220-ton) solid propellant strap-on booster motors (S-200). The upper stage is cryogenic with a propellant loading of 25 tonne (C-25). The vehicle has a lift-off mass of about 640 tonnes and be 43.43 metres tall. According to ISRO, the payload fairing has a diameter of 5 metres and a payload volume of 100 cubic metres.[52]It will allow India to become less dependent on foreign rockets for heavy lifting.[53]On 18 December 2014, ISRO conducted an experimental test-flight of GSLV MK III carrying a crew module, to be used in future human space missions.[54]This suborbital test flight demonstrated the performance of GSLV Mk III in the atmosphere.[55]GSLV Mk III-D1 carrying communication satellite GSAT-19 lifted off from the second launch pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on 5 June 2017 and placed the communication satellite into the geosynchronous transfer orbit sixteen minutes after takeoff. GSAT-19 satellite with a lift-off mass of 3,136 kg (6,914 lb), is the communication satellite of India, configured around the ISRO's standard I-3K bus.[56]Decade wise summary of GSLV III launches:DecadeSuccessfulPartial successFailuresTotal2010s3003[57]Satellite programmesINSAT-1BIndia's first satellite, the Aryabhata, was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Cosmos-3M launch vehicle. This was followed by the Rohini series of experimental satellites, which were built and launched indigenously. At present, ISRO operates a large number of earth observation satellites.The INSAT seriesMain article: Indian National Satellite SystemINSAT-1B satellite: Broadcasting sector in India is highly dependent on INSAT system.INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs of India. Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.The IRS seriesMain article: Indian Remote Sensing satelliteIndian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of earth observation satellites, built, launched and maintained by ISRO. The IRS series provides remote sensing services to the country. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite system is the largest collection of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world. All the satellites are placed in polar Sun-synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programmes to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A, B, C, D) nomenclature. The later versions are named based on their area of application including OceanSat, CartoSat, ResourceSat.Radar Imaging SatellitesISRO currently operates two Radar Imaging Satellites (RISAT). RISAT-1 was launched from Sriharikota Spaceport on 26 April 2012 on board a PSLV. RISAT-1 carries a C band synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) payload, operating in a multi-polarisation and multi-resolution mode and can provide images with coarse, fine and high spatial resolutions.[58]India also operates RISAT-2, which was launched in 2009 and acquired from Israel at a cost $110 million.[58]Other satellitesISRO has also launched a set of experimental geostationary satellites known as the GSAT series. Kalpana-1, ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite,[59]was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 12 September 2002.[60]The satellite was originally known as MetSat-1.[61]In February 2003 it was renamed to Kalpana-1 by the Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in memory of Kalpana Chawla – a NASA astronaut of Indian origin who perished in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.ISRO has also launched the Indo-French satellite SARAL on 25 February 2013, 12:31 UTC. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa") is a cooperative altimetry technology mission. It is being used for monitoring the oceans surface and sea-levels. AltiKa will measure ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm, against 2.5 cm on average using current-generation altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km.[62][63]In June 2014, ISRO launched French Earth Observation Satellite SPOT-7 (mass 714 kg) along with Singapore's first nano satellite VELOX-I, Canada's satellite CAN-X5, Germany's satellite AISAT, via the PSLV-C23 launch vehicle. It was ISRO's 4th commercial launch.[64][65]South Asia SatelliteMain article: South Asia SatelliteThe South Asia Satellite (GSAT-9) is a geosynchronous communications satellite by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) region. The satellite was launched on 5 May 2017. During the 18th SAARC summit held in Nepal in 2014, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi mooted the idea of a satellite serving the needs of SAARC member nations, part of his Neighbourhood first policy.One month after sworn in as Prime Minister of India, in June 2014 Modi asked ISRO to develop a SAARC satellite, which can be dedicated as a ‘gift’ to the neighbors.It is a satellite for the SAARC region with 12 Ku-band transponders (36 MHz each) and launch using the Indian Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle GSLV Mk-II. The total cost of launching the satellite is estimated to be about ₹2,350,000,000 (₹235 crore). The cost associated with the launch was met by the Government of India. The satellite enables full range of applications and services in the areas of telecommunication and broadcasting applications viz television (TV), direct-to-home (DTH), very small aperture terminals (VSATs), tele-education, telemedicine and disaster management support.GAGAN satellite navigation systemMain article: GPS-aided geo-augmented navigationThe Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS)/Air Traffic Management (ATM) plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given an acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over the Indian air space as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India (AAI) and ISRO. TDS was completed during 2007 by installing eight Indian Reference Stations (INRESs) at eight Indian airports and linked to the Master Control Centre (MCC) located near Bangalore.The first GAGAN navigation payload has been fabricated and it was proposed to be flown on GSAT-4 during Apr 2010. However, GSAT-4 was not placed in orbit as GSLV-D3 could not complete the mission. Two more GAGAN payloads will be subsequently flown, one each on two geostationary satellites, GSAT-8 and GSAT-10. On 12 May 2012, ISRO announced the successful testing of its indigenous cryogenic engine for 200 seconds for its forthcoming GSLV-D5 flight.[66]IRNSS satellite navigation systemMain article: IRNSSIRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite system being developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region extending up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its primary service area. IRNSS will provide two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS) and is expected to provide a position accuracy of better than 20 m in the primary service area.[67]It is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system being developed by Indian Space Research Organisation, which is under total control of Indian government. The requirement of such a navigation system is driven by the fact that access to Global Navigation Satellite Systems like GPS is not guaranteed in hostile situations. ISRO initially planned to launch the constellation of satellites between 2012 and 2014 but the project got delayed by nearly two years.ISRO on 1 July 2013, at 23:41 IST launched from Sriharikota the First Indian Navigation Satellite the IRNSS-1A. The IRNSS-1A was launched aboard PSLV-C22. The constellation would comprise seven satellites of I-1K bus each weighing around 1450 Kilogrammes, with three satellites in the Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) and four in Geosynchronous earth orbit(GSO). The constellation would be completed around April 2016.[68]On 4 April 2014, at 17:14 IST ISRO has launched IRNSS-1B from Sriharikota, its second of seven IRNSS series. 19 minutes after launch PSLV-C24 was injected into its orbit.IRNSS-1C was launched on 16 October 2014, and IRNSS-1D on 28 March 2015.[69]On 20 January 2016, 9:31 hrs IST IRNSS-1E was launched aboard PSLV-C31 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. On 10 March 2016, 4:31 hrs IST IRNSS-1F was launched aboard PSLV-C32 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. On 28 April 2016, 12:50 hrs IST IRNSS-1G was launched aboard PSLV-XL-C33 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. This Satellite is the seven and the last in the IRNSS system and completes India's own navigation systemAs of January 2016, ISRO was in the process of developing 4 back-up satellites to the constellation of existing IRNSS satellites.[70]On 31 August 2017, India's ISRO failed in its attempt to launch its eighth regional navigation satellite (IRNSS-1H) from Sriharikota at 7pm. The satellite got stuck in the fourth stage of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle–PSLV-C39. A replacement satellite, IRNSS-1I, was successfully placed into orbit on 12 April 2018.[71]Human Spaceflight ProgrammeMain article: Indian Human Spaceflight ProgrammeIn 2009, the Indian Space Research Organisation proposed a budget of ₹12,400 crore (US$1.7 billion) for its human spaceflight programme.[72]According to the Space Commission, which recommended the budget, an uncrewed flight will be launched after seven years from the final approval[73]and a crewed mission will be launched after 7 years of funding.[74][75]If realised in the stated time-frame, India will become the fourth nation, after the USSR, USA and China, to successfully carry out crewed missions indigenously.Prime Minister of India, Sri Narendra Modi, announced in his Independence Day address of August 15, 2018 that India will send astronauts into space by 2022 through the Gaganyaan mission.[76]After the announcement, ISRO chairman, Sivan, said ISRO has developed most of the technologies needed such as crew module and crew escape system, and that the project would cost less than Rs. 10,000 crore and would include sending at least 3 Indians to space, 300–400 km above in a spacecraft for at least 7 days using a GSLV Mk-III launch vehicle.[77][78]The chance of a female being a member of the first crew is "very high"according to the Scientific Secretary to the Indian Chairman, R Umamaheswaran.[79]Technology demonstrationsThe Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SCRE or more commonly SRE or SRE-1)[80]is an experimental Indian spacecraft that was launched on January 10, 2007 using the PSLV C7 rocket, along with three other satellites. It remained in orbit for 12 days before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere and splashing down into the Bay of Bengal.[81]The SRE-1 was designed to demonstrate the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule, and the technology for performing experiments in the microgravity conditions of an orbiting platform. It was also intended to test thermal protection, navigation, guidance, control, deceleration and flotation systems, as well as study hypersonic aerothermodynamics, management of communication blackouts, and recovery operations. A follow-up project named SRE-2 was cancelled mid-way after years of delay.[82]on 18 December 2014, ISRO launched the Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment aboard the GSLV Mk3 for a sub-orbital flight.[83][84]The crew module separated from the rocket at an altitude of 126 km and underwent free fall. The module heat shield experienced temperature in excess of 1600 °C. Parachutes were deployed at an altitude of 15 km to slow down the module which performed a splashdown in the Bay of Bengal. This flight was used to test orbital injection, separation and re-entry procedures and systems of the Crew Capsule. Also tested were the capsule separation, heat shields and aerobraking systems, deployment of parachute, retro-firing, splashdown, flotation systems and procedures to recover the Crew Capsule from the Bay of Bengal.[85][86]On 5 July 2018, ISRO conducted a pad abort test of their launch abort system (LAS) at Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. This is the first in a series of tests to qualify the critical crew escape system technology for future crewed missions. The LAS is designed to quickly pull out the crew to safety in case of emergency.[87]Astronaut training and other facilitiesNewly established Human Space Flight Centre (HSPC) will coordinate the IHSF campagn.[88][89]ISRO will set up an astronaut training centre in Bengaluru to prepare personnel for flights on board the crewed vehicle. The centre will use simulation facilities to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival in zero gravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation environment of space. ISRO will build centrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the mission. Existing launch facilities in Satish Dhawan Space Centre will be upgraded for the Indian Human Spaceflight campaign.[90]Crewed spacecraftMain article: GaganyaanISRO is working towards an orbital crewed spacecraft that can operate for seven days in a low Earth orbit. The spacecraft, called Gaganyaan (गगनयान), will be the basis of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. The capsule is being developed to carry up to three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its maiden crewed mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-ton capsule will orbit the Earth at 400 km in altitude for up to seven days with a two-person crew on board. The crewed vehicle is planned to be launched on ISRO's GSLV Mk III in 2022.[91]Planetary sciences and astronomyIndia's space era dawned when the first two-stage sounding rocket was launched from Thumba in 1963.[citation needed]There is a national balloon launching facility at Hyderabad jointly supported by TIFR and ISRO. This facility has been extensively used for carrying out research in high energy (i.e., X- and gamma-ray) astronomy, IR astronomy, middle atmospheric trace constituents including CFCs & aerosols, ionization, electric conductivity and electric fields.[92]The flux of secondary particles and X-ray and gamma-rays of atmospheric origin produced by the interaction of the cosmic rays is very low. This low background, in the presence of which one has to detect the feeble signal from cosmic sources is a major advantage in conducting hard X-ray observations from India. The second advantage is that many bright sources like Cyg X-1, Crab Nebula, Scorpius X-1 and Galactic Centre sources are observable from Hyderabad due to their favourable declination. With these considerations, an X-ray astronomy group was formed at TIFR in 1967 and development of an instrument with an orientable X-ray telescope for hard X-ray observations was undertaken. The first balloon flight with the new instrument was made on 28 April 1968 in which observations of Scorpius X-1 were successfully carried out. In a succession of balloon flights made with this instrument between 1968 and 1974 a number of binary X-ray sources including Cyg X-1 and Her X-1, and the diffuse cosmic X-ray background were studied. Many new and astrophysically important results were obtained from these observations.[93]One of most important achievements of ISRO in this field was the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude of between 20–40 km. The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin. These three bacteria can be considered to be extremophiles. Until then, the upper stratosphere was believed to be inhospitable because of the high doses of ultra-violet radiation. The bacteria were named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.[94]AstrosatThe Astrosat is India's first multi wavelength space observatory and full-fledged astronomy satellite. Its observation study includes active galactic nuclei, hot white dwarfs, pulsations of pulsars, binary star systems, supermassive black holes located at the centre of the galaxies etc.Extraterrestrial explorationLunar: Chandrayaan-1Main article: Chandrayaan-1Rendering of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraftChandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon. The unmanned lunar exploration mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched the spacecraft using a modified version of the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. The vehicle was inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. It carried high-resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. During its 312 days operational period (2 years planned), it surveyed the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and 3-dimensional topography. The polar regions were of special interest, as they possibly had ice deposits. The spacecraft carried 11 instruments: 5 Indian and 6 from foreign institutes and space agencies (including NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Brown University and other European and North American institutes/companies), which were carried free of cost. Chandrayaan-1 became the first lunar mission to discover existence of water on the Moon.[95]The Chandrayaan-166 team was awarded the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009 award,[96]the International Lunar Exploration Working Group's International Co-operation award in 2008,[97]and the National Space Society's 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.[98][99]Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalayaan)Main article: Mars Orbiter MissionArtist's rendering of the Mars Orbiter Mission spacecraft, with Mars in the background.The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known as Mangalayaan, was launched into Earth orbit on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and has entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014.[100]India thus became the first country to enter Mars orbit on its first attempt. It was completed at a record low cost of $74 million.[101]MOM was placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014 at 8:23 am IST.The spacecraft had a launch mass of 1,337 kg (2,948 lb), with 15 kg (33 lb) of five scientific instruments as payload.The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter Mission team the 2015 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.[102][103]Future projectsISRO plans to launch a number of Earth observation satellites in the near future. It will also undertake the development of new launch vehicle, crewed spacecraft, and probes to Mars and near-Earth objects.Forthcoming satellitesSatellite nameNotesGSAT-20It is expected to be launched in 2019.CARTOSAT-3It is expected to be launched in 2019.IT is a follow up to CARTOSAT-2IRNSS-1JIt is expected to be launched in 2019.GSAT-30It is expected to be launched from French arianespace in 2019.GISAT 1Geospatial imagery to facilitate continuous observation of Indian sub-continent, quick monitoring of natural hazards and disaster.NISARNASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint project between NASA and ISRO to co-develop and launch a dual frequency synthetic aperture radar satellite to be used for remote sensing. It is notable for being the first dual band radar imaging satellite.Future extraterrestrial explorationISRO's missions beyond Earth's orbit include Chandrayaan-1 (to the Moon) and Mars Orbiter Mission (to Mars). ISRO plans to follow up with Chandrayaan-2, Mars Orbiter Mission 2, and is assessing missions to Venus, the Sun, and near-Earth objects such as asteroids and comets.DestinationCraft nameLaunch vehicleYearMoonChandrayaan-2GSLV III2019SunAditya-L1PSLV-XL2021MarsMars Orbiter Mission 2(Mangalyaan 2)GSLV III2021-22VenusShukrayaan-1(Venus Mission)GSLV III2023JupiterTBDChandrayaan 2Main article: Chandrayaan-2Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III is intended as a launch vehicle for crewed missions under the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme announced in Prime Minister Modi's 2018 Independence Day speech.[104]Chandrayaan-2 (Sanskrit: चंद्रयान-२) will be India's second mission to the Moon, which will include an orbiter and lander-rover module. Chandrayaan-2 will be launched on India's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-MkIII) in 2019.[105]The science goals of the mission are to further improve the understanding of the origin and evolution of the Moon.Mars Orbiter Mission 2Main article: Mars Orbiter Mission 2The next Mars mission, Mars Orbiter Mission 2, also called Mangalyaan 2 (Sanskrit: मंगलयान-२), will likely be launched in 2022 or 2023.[106]It will have a less elliptical orbit around Mars and could weigh seven times more than the first mission.[107]This orbiter mission will facilitate scientific community to address the open science problems. The science payload of the proposed satellite is likely to be 100 kg.Aditya-L1Main article: Aditya-L1ISRO plans to carry out a mission to the Sun by the year 2021.[108]The probe is named Aditya-1 (Sanskrit: आदित्य L१) and will have a mass of about 400 kg (880 lb).[109]It is the first Indian space-based solar coronagraph to study the corona in visible and near-IR bands. Launch of the Aditya mission was planned during the heightened solar activity period in 2012, but was postponed to 2019–2020 due to the extensive work involved in the fabrication, and other technical aspects. The main objective of the mission is to study coronal mass ejections (CMEs), their properties (the structure and evolution of their magnetic fields for example), and consequently constrain parameters that affect space weather.Venus and JupiterISRO is in the process of conducting conceptual studies to send a spacecraft to Jupiter or Venus.JupiterThe ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every 33 months. If the mission to Jupiter is launched, a flyby of Venus would be required.[110]VenusISRO is assessing an orbiter mission to Venus called Shukrayaan-1, that could launch as early as 2023 to study its atmosphere.[111]Some budget has been allocated to perform preliminary studies as part of 2017–18 Indian budget under Space Sciences,[112][113][114]and solicitations for potential instruments were requested in 2017[115]and in 2018.Lunar missionsBesides the Chandrayaan-2 lunar mission, ISRO is studying the potential for a joint lunar mission with Japan's Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to explore the polar regions of the Moon for water, and will be producing a proposal by March 2019.[116]Space transportationSmall Satellite Launch VehicleMain article: Small Satellite Launch VehicleSmall Satellite Launch Vehicle or SSLV is in development for commercially launching small satellites with a payload of 500 kg to Low Earth Orbit. SSLV would be four staged vehicle with three solid propellant based stages and a Velocity Trimming Module. The maiden flight is expected mid 2019 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.[117][118]Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD)Main article: RLV-TDAs a first step towards realizing a two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) fully re-usable launch vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose, the winged Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The RLV-TD is acting as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies such as hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight and hypersonic flight using air-breathing propulsion.First in the series of demonstration trials was the Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX). ISRO launched the prototype's test flight from the Sriharikota spaceport in February 2016. The prototype- 'the RLV-TD' weighs around 1.5 tonnes and flew up to a height of 70 km.[119]The test flight, known as HEX, was completed on 23 May 2016. The scaled up version of could serve as fly-back booster stage for winged TSTO concept.[120]Unified Launch VehicleMain article: Unified Launch VehicleThe ULV or Unified Launch Vehicle is a launch vehicle in development by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The project's core objective is to design a modular architecture that will enable the replacement of the PSLV, GSLV Mk II and GSLV Mk III with a single family of launchers. The SCE-200 engine can even be clustered for heavy launch configuration. The ULV will be able to launch 6000 kg to 10,000 kg of payload into GTO. This will mark the renunciation of the liquid stage with Vikas engine, which uses toxic UDMH and N2O4.ApplicationsTelecommunicationIndia uses its satellites communication network – one of the largest in the world – for applications such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication.[121]Business, administrative services, and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NIC) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology.[122]Dinshaw Mistry, on the subject of practical applications of the Indian space program, writes:"The INSAT-2 satellites also provide telephone links to remote areas; data transmission for organisations such as the National Stock Exchange; mobile satellite service communications for private operators, railways, and road transport; and broadcast satellite services, used by India's state-owned television agency as well as commercial television channels. India's EDUSAT (Educational Satellite), launched aboard the GSLV in 2004, was intended for adult literacy and distance learning applications in rural areas. It augmented and would eventually replace such capabilities already provided by INSAT-3B."Resource managementThe IRS satellites have found applications with the Indian Natural Resource Management program, with Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres in five Indian cities, and with Remote Sensing Application Centres in twenty Indian states that use IRS images for economic development applications. These include environmental monitoring, analysing soil erosion and the impact of soil conservation measures, forestry management, determining land cover for wildlife sanctuaries, delineating groundwater potential zones, flood inundation mapping, drought monitoring, estimating crop acreage and deriving agricultural production estimates, fisheries monitoring, mining and geological applications such as surveying metal and mineral deposits, and urban planning.MilitaryIntegrated Space Cell, under the Integrated Defense Services headquarters of the Indian Ministry of Defense,[123]has been set up to utilize more effectively the country's space-based assets for military purposes and to look into threats to these assets.[124][125]This command will leverage space technology including satellites. Unlike an aerospace command, where the air force controls most of its activities, the Integrated Space Cell envisages cooperation and coordination between the three services as well as civilian agencies dealing with space.[123]With 14 satellites, including GSAT-7A for the exclusive military use and the rest as dual use satellites, India has the fourth largest number of satellites active in the sky which includes satellites for the exclusive use of Indian Air Force and Indian Navy respectively.[126]GSAT-7A, an advanced military communications satellite exclusively for the Indian Air Force,[127]is similar to Indian navy's GSAT-7, and GSAT-7A will enhance Network-centric warfare capabilities of the Indian Air Force by interlinking different ground radar stations, ground airbase and Airborne early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft such as Beriev A-50 Phalcon and DRDO AEW&CS.[127][128]GSAT-7A will also be used by Indian Army's Aviation Corps for its helicopters and UAV's operations.[127][128]In 2013, ISRO had launched GSAT-7 for the exclusive use of the Indian Navy to monitor the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) with the satellite's 2,000 nautical mile ‘footprint’ and real-time input capabilities to Indian warships, submarines and maritime aircraft.[126]To boost its network-centric operations, the IAF is also likely to get another satellite GSAT-7C within a few years.[126]India's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India's 93–124-mile (150–200-kilometre) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space programme, the intermediate range Agni missile is drawn from the Indian space programme's SLV-3. In its early years, when headed by Vikram Sarabhai and Satish Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects such as the SLV-3. Eventually, however, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) based missile programme borrowed human resources and technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (elected president of India in 2002), who had headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, moved to DRDO to direct India's missile programme. About a dozen scientists accompanied Kalam from ISRO to DRDO, where he designed the Agni missile using the SLV-3's solid fuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missile-derived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended and used for civilian-economic applications, but they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 New Delhi's Ministry of Defence temporarily blocked the use of IRS-1C by India's environmental and agricultural ministries to monitor ballistic missiles near India's borders. In 1997 the Indian Air Force's "Airpower Doctrine" aspired to use space assets for surveillance and battle management.[129]AcademicInstitutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University and the Indian Institutes of Technology use satellites for scholarly applications.[130]Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological programme using space technology, reaching 2400 villages through video programming in local languages aimed at educational development via ATS-6 technology developed by NASA.[131]This experiment—named Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—conducted large scale video broadcasts resulting in significant improvement in rural education.[131]Education could reach far remote rural places with the help of above programs.Tele-MedicineISRO has applied its technology for telemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical professionals in urban locations via satellites.[130]Since high-quality healthcare is not universally available in some of the remote areas of India, the patients in remote areas are diagnosed and analysed by doctors in urban centers in real time via video conferencing.[130]The patient is then advised medicine and treatment.[130]The patient is then treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty hospitals' under instructions from the doctor.[130]Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients.[130]Biodiversity Information SystemISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002.[132]Nirupa Sen details the program: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1: 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web-enabled database that links gene-level information of plant species with spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India, Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO."[132]CartographyThe Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes.[26]IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.[26]The CARTOSAT-2 project, equipped with single panchromatic camera that supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeeded the CARTOSAT-1 project.[133]International co-operationISRO has had international co-operation since inception. Some instances are listed below:Establishment of TERLS, conduct of SITE & STEP, launches of Aryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, IRS-IA and IRS-IB/ satellites, manned space mission, etc. involved international co-operation.ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search and Rescue.India has established a Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations.India hosted the Second UN-ESCAP Ministerial Conference on Space Applications for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific in November 1999.India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International Space University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS).[134]Chandrayaan-1 carried scientific payloads from NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Space Agency, and other institutions/companies in North America and Europe.The United States government on 24 January 2011, removed several Indian government agencies, including ISRO, from the so-called Entity List, in an effort to drive hi-tech trade and forge closer strategic ties with India.[135]ISRO carries out joint operations with foreign space agencies, such as the Indo-French Megha-Tropiques Mission.[134]At the International Astronautical Congress 2014 at Toronto, ISRO chairman K. Radhakrishnan and NASA administrator Charles Bolden signed two documents. One was regarding the 2020 launch of a NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) satellite mission to make global measurements of the causes and consequences of land surface changes. The other was to establish a pathway for future joint missions to explore Mars.[136]Antrix Corporation, the commercial and marketing arm of ISRO, handles both domestic and foreign deals.[137]Formal co-operative arrangements in the form of memoranda of understanding or framework agreements have been signed with the following countries[138]ArgentinaAustraliaBrazilBruneiBulgariaCanadaChileChinaEgyptFranceGermanyHungaryIndonesiaIsraelItalyJapanKazakhstanMalaysiaMauritiusMongoliaMyanmarNorwayPeruRussiaSaudi ArabiaSouth KoreaSpainSwedenSyriaThailandNetherlandsUkraineUnited Arab EmiratesUnited KingdomUnited StatesVenezuelaThe following foreign organisations also have signed various framework agreements with ISRO:-European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF)EUMETSAT (European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites)European Space AgencyIn the 39th Scientific Assembly of Committee on Space Research held in Mysore, the ISRO chairman K. Radhakrishnan called upon international synergy in space missions in view of their prohibitive cost. He also mentioned that ISRO is gearing up to meet the growing demand of service providers and security agencies in a cost effective manner.[139]ISRO satellites launched by foreign agenciesSeveral ISRO satellites have been launched by foreign space agencies (of Europe, USSR / Russia, and United States). The details (as of December 2016) are given in the tables below.51015202530Communication satellitesEarth observation satellitesExperimental satellitesOtherArianeInterkosmosVostokMolniyaDeltaSpace ShuttleLaunch vehicle familyNo. of ISRO satellites launchedCommunication satellitesEarth observation satellitesExperimental satellitesOtherTotalEuropeAriane2001021USSR / RussiaInterkosmos02103Vostok02002Molniya01001USADelta20002Space Shuttle10001Total2352030Those ISRO satellites that had a launch mass of 3000 kg or more, and were launched by foreign agencies, are listed in the table below.No.Satellite's nameLaunch vehicleLaunch agencyCountry / region of launch agencyLaunch dateLaunch massPowerOrbit typeMission lifeOther informationReference(s)1.INSAT-4AAriane5-V169ArianespaceEurope22 December 20053081 kg with propellants(1386.55 kg dry mass)5922 WGeosynchronous12 yearsFor communication.[140]2.INSAT-4BAriane 5 ECAArianespaceEurope12 March 20073,025 kg with propellants5859 WGeosynchronous12 yearsCommunication satellite[141]3.GSAT-8Ariane-5 VA-202ArianespaceEurope21 May 20113,093 kg with propellants (1,426 kg dry mass)6242 WGeosynchronousMore than 12 yearsCommunication satellite[142]4.GSAT-10Ariane-5 VA-209ArianespaceEurope29 September 20103,400 kg with propellants (1,498 kg dry mass)6474 WGeosynchronous15 yearsCommunication satellite[143]5.GSAT-16Ariane-5 VA-221ArianespaceEurope7 December 20143,181.6 kg with propellants6000 WGeosynchronous12 yearsCommunication satellite, configured to carry 48 communication transponders, the most in any ISRO communication satellite so far.[144]6.GSAT-15Ariane-5 VA-227ArianespaceEurope11 November 20153,164 kg with propellants6000 WGeosynchronous12 yearsCommunication satellite, configured to carry 24 communication transponders.[145]7.GSAT-18Ariane-5 VA-231ArianespaceEurope6 October 20163,404 kg6474 WGeosynchronous15 yearsCommunication satellite, carries 48 transponders[146]8.GSAT-17Ariane-5 VA-238ArianespaceEurope28 June 20173,477 kg6474 WGeosynchronous15 yearsCommunication satellite, carries 42 transponders[147]9.GSAT-11Ariane-5 VA-246ArianespaceEurope5 December 20185,854 kg13.4KWGeosynchronous15 yearsCommunication satellite10.GSAT-31Ariane-5 VA-247ArianespaceEurope6 February 20192,536 kg4.7KWGeosynchronous15 yearsCommunication satellite[148]StatisticsLast updated: 2 April 2019[149]Total number of foreign satellites launched by ISRO : 297 (32 countries)Spacecraft missions: 103Launch missions: 73Student satellites: 10Re-entry missions: 2