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I have given below the Topics wise questions asked in the UPSC Preliminary General studies, from 2013 to 2019. (7 Years)Use your time in a Smart and Intelligent way. Focus on the topics where more questions are asked.Also, link the conventional areas to the current affairs topics in those respective areas.I have divided the topics based on importance into LIST- 1, 2 and 3.LIST 1 ( TOP MOST PRIORITY)HISTORYArt and Culture - Festival and States, Painting (Bani thani, Kalamkari, Mural Paintings), Craft and Heritage states, Classical dance ,Classical Languages, Traditions and Communities, Important cultural places (Ajanta and Mahabalipuram), Pilgrimage and location, Shrine and Location - 16 QuestionsNationalist Movement 1905–1918- INC (Surat Split, Women and Muslim President, Lahore session),Revolutionary Movement (Ghadr, Rowlatt Satyagraha,Swaraj Sabha, Personalities (Lajpat Rai, Annie Besant, Mahatma Gandhi) - 11 QuestionsStruggle for Swaraj- Congress socialist party, Cripps Mission,Simon Commission, Cabinet Mission, Quit India Movement, Salt Satyagraha, Chronology (3) - 9 QuestionsBuddhism and Jainism - 11 QuestionsBhakti and Sufi Saints - 5 QuestionsGEOGRAPHYClimatology, Atmosphere, Pressure & Temperature systems, Rainfall and Climatic regions of the world - 29 QEconomic geography of India,Agriculture, Mineral & Energy resources, Industries & Transportation - 29 QPhysiographic divisions of India - 16 QPOLITYUnion & State legislature - 25 QUnion & State Executive - 14 QConstitutional & Non Constitutional bodies - 12 QJudiciary - 8 QPreamble & Salient features of Constitution - 8 QECONOMYBanks & Monetary policy in India - Financial Inclusion (Small Finance Bank, Payments Bank), Public Sector Banks, Banking Terms (Asserts, Inter Creditor Agreement, Capital Adequacy Ratio, Core Banking Solutions, Basel III Accord, Monetary policy, Inflation, Marginal Standing Facility Rate, Banking Correspondent, SLR, Bank Rate, Priority Sector Lending)Tax Terms (Equalisation Levy, GST, Tax Devolution, Tax to GDP ratio, Sales Tax) - 24 QGrowth and development - National Economy Terms (GNP, GDP, Economic Growth, Poverty) Index, National Indexes (Index of eight core Industries, CPI-IL) - 15 QIndian Agriculture- Agriculture and Cropping pattern , Imports of Agriculture products , Government Measures (Food Corporation of India, Minimum Support Price, Fair Remuneration Price, Seed Replacement Ratio) - 14 QExternal sector - Forex Reserve and Debts ,Financial Terms (Currency Crisis, Demand and Supply, Liquidity Assets),Sovereign Fund - 12 QLIST 2HISTORYSocial and Cultural Awakening in the First Half of the 19th Century- Tribal Uprising , Santhal Uprising ,Movement /Organisation - Leaders, Institution - Founder, Persons – Position held - 7 QAdministrative Changes After 1858 and Acts - Victoria Proclamation,Charter Act 1813,Factories Act 1881, Govt. of India Act 1935, Trade Dispute Act 1929, Govt. of India Act 1919 (2) - 7 QGrowth of New India—The Nationalist Movement 1858-1905 - Moderates (Economic Critics),Swadeshi Movements ,Committee (Butler, Radcliff), Ilbert Bill - 6 QBabur, Mughal Architecture, Mansabdar, Jagirdar, Zamindar, Personalities, Mughal Paintings, Akbar Religious measures - 7 QThe Structure of the Government and the Economic Policies of the British Empire in India, 1757-1857 - Land Reforms - Ryotwari settlement, Economic consequence of Brit rule ,English Education - 5 QGEOGRAPHYWorld Political geography,Places, regions & Countries - 9 QUniverse & Earth - 9 QIndia Political geography, Places, regions & States - 8 QRiver system - 8 QGeomorphology and Soils, Rocks, Earthquake, Volcanism and Plate tectonic - 6 QPOLITYFundamental rights - 6 QDirective Principles of State policy - 6 QLocal government - 6 QSchedules - 5 QECONOMYRBI- Monetary Policy and RBI, RBI and Its Measures - 10 QTerminology (Money Multiplier, Merchant Discount Rate, Opportunity Cost, Domestic Content Requirement, Import Cover, Base Erosion and Profit Sharing, Rupee Convertibility, Disguised unemployment) - 8 QGovernment budgeting - Budget (Fiscal Deficit, Capital Budget, Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management, Non Plan expenditure, Capital Account) - 8 QFinancial markets - Indian Stock Market, Bond (IFC Masala Bond, Gold Bond) - Financial Terms (Currency Crisis, Demand and Supply, Liquidity Assets) - 6 QLIST 3Ancient HistoryVedic Culture and IVC difference - 1 QHarappan Site - 2 QAshokan Inscription - 2 QIndian Philosophy - 2 QTerminology- 3 QFeudal System - 1 QBooks and Themes - 1 QSaka Era - 1 QTravellers - Hiuen Tsang - 1 QArchitecture (Famous sculpture work and Places, Rock Cut) - 2 QMedieval HistoryDelhi Sultanate Administration - 1 QMedieval Port - 1 QTemple Architecture - 2 QMedieval states and Present place - 1 QVijayanagar Empire (Tax system, Founder) - 1 QTerminology - 3 QGEOGRAPHYOceanography, Water distribution, Tides and Ocean currents - 5 QPOLITYFundamental duties - 3 QUnion & Territories and Citizenship - 3 QEmergency - 2 QECONOMYInternational economic organizations- International Organizations (WTO, IMF, NDB, International Financial Institutions - 7 QFinancial Inclusion- E– Governance and Digital Payments gateways - 5 QInvestment model - Capital (Social Capital, Human Capital, Capital Formation, Venture Capital) - 4 QIssues related to planning - Five Year Plan - 2 QAll the very Best,kindly, Share it to other aspirants.

How is the BIOS for a computer motherboard written? How was the first BIOS written?The first time BIOS (Basic Input Output System) term was used was with the development of the 8080 microprocessor Operating System (OS) called CP/M from Digital Research around 1974. At that time, the BIOS code was stored with the OS code and was the way you configured CP/M for the specific hardware. The configured OS was stored on the storage device (typically floppy disks at the time) and when booted to by a relatively primitive methods of the time, such as manually toggling with switches in a small (about 15 to 20 bytes) boot loader, loaded the OS.BIOS code in PC MotherboardsWhen IBM created the IBM Personal Computer, they used the same terminology name, but included all of it in a Read-Only Memory (ROM) that booted up the system.It had 3 basic purposes;Initialize and configure the hardwareTest the hardware during the initialization processAdd a software layer interface to access the hardware with function calls to perform various functionsThe first 2 functions are generally referenced as POST (Power On and Self Test).Now, I can’t answer precisely how the first BIOS was written for a PC motherboard, but I can tell you how the third legal one (there may have been a few other legal ones and definitely many that were not, prior to 1984) was done, and by extraction, how they all were done. (Actually, the non-legal ones were probably just copied from IBM, with maybe a few small changes so it was not identical, and then reassembled. So I guess that’s not really being “written”)I wrote the original Phoenix Technologies (at that time, Phoenix Software) PC, XT and AT ROM BIOS starting in May 1984, and completed them by May 1985. See Creating the Phoenix BIOS for more details.IBM’s, Compaq’s and Phoenix’s BIOSes were all written in x86 Assembly language, although some legal ones written after the Phoenix BIOS may have been written in C (Well, partially in C actually).IBM BIOSAt IBM, Dave Bradley is credited for writing the ROM BIOS. For IBM, they most likely started by building a list of functions needed. These might be read a keystroke, write a character to the screen, get analog gaming controller input, read/write a sector from a floppy or hard drive, etc. Then they tried to generalize some things with tables (like upper 128 ASCII character font), function entry points, etc. After doing that, they probably just started coding. It was most likely written as 1 large assembly file (although I don’t know for sure, but is based upon tools available at the time) or just one file with a lot of includes of other files to effectively make it one large assembly file. The assembler used was most likely either a cross-assembler or one of an Intel x86 development system. It definitely was not MASM 1.0, but could have been a pre-release version of MASM. (If you have any additional details, please comment)Compaq and Phoenix BIOSFor the Compaq and Phoenix BIOSes, each company needed to have a team analyze the IBM BIOS code and write a complete specification of functions, with specific locations for some of them (Due to bad programmers jumping straight to those locations for their programs rather than extracting those locations from interrupt vectors or pointers). Then a programmer who had never seen the IBM ROM BIOS code starts writing it, one function at a time (for myself, I started with the simpler functions and worked to the more complicated ones).Reverse Engineering the BIOSThe IBM BIOS code was not patented, but it was copyrighted. This is the method IBM would try to use to stop people from copying the PC, and in fact sued a number of companies that copied all or portions of the code. A copyright is not what something does, but the specific “artistic” version (in other words the specific code) implementation of that.The legality of copying and the concept of intellectual property (IP) is discussed in the Invisible Edge book (you may have to refresh the page).Compaq basically had one team that never saw the IBM BIOS test it by considering it a black box. This requires testing the BIOS by giving it all possible inputs and then seeing what outputs and changes it made. I believe this might only be partially correct, as they needed to know the meaning of the BIOS interrupts (essentially the functions of the BIOS), and probably the basic way to invoke those interrupts.If Compaq assumed the entire interrupt as a true black box, they would have to create all possible input values for all CPU registers, and then see what changed in the returned values, as well as all of memory and the state of all devices in the PC (Some which may not be readable). This would be a herculean task and probably not doable, so they had to start with some knowledge.Based on my research, the Compaq BIOS was coded by 2 to maybe 7 different programmers.Compaq probably used Microsoft’s MASM to write their BIOS. Their functional copying must not have been perfect, as many application programs needed to check for Compaq BIOS, and change their operation slightly for it. Being the 2nd PC-compatible (including the IBM PC) BIOS, application programmers were willing to make an adjustment for it (rather than doing it the right way!).Phoenix, on the other hand, had about 5 or 6 people that went through the IBM PC BIOS code (including Dave Hirschmann, Bob Vandette, Diane Pothier, Tom Jennings of Fidonet fame, and a few others), writing a functional specification of what each did, as well as table starting points, data structure layouts (e.g. font table), and memory locations affected or referenced. The starting location of each function in the BIOS would be specified, as well as any other known direct references by applications reading locations in the ROM directly (as opposed to doing it the correct way by using a software-derivable pointer to the location).The Phoenix PC BIOS (started coding May 1, 1984 completed about September 1, 1984) was coded entirely by myself, the PC-XT BIOS (Started about September 1, 1984, ended about December 1984) had 1 other person (Al Weiner) who did the hard drive code, and the PC-AT BIOS (started about December 1984, Ended May 1, 1985) had 1 person (Stan Lyness) that coded the hard drive code and some other small parts, and I wrote the rest. In addition, Phoenix also hired Malcolm Pordes to decode the PC-AT’s 8042 Keyboard controller’s interface (which really was essentially a black box) and to duplicate the operational code for it.As each of my BIOS function code ran approximately the same lengths as the equivalent in the IBM PC BIOS, I assume that IBM basically had each function and table just assembled as a whole, one after another. The difference in my coding, was it performed complete checking for valid function parameters, and any out-of-bounds values would be returned as an error, rather than crash (which was what IBM’s did). Also, the code was written to be as fast as possible within the constraints of being compatible, and code space was secondary, even though it had to fit in an 8,192 bytes of ROM. If I didn’t have enough code space for a function, I had to jump to other spare space areas to finish the code in a few cases. I hated doing that!Note: any reference to the Texas Instruments TMS9900 that was mentioned in any article or wiki was by the Marketing Head of Phoenix Lance Hansche, and are totally wrong. But then he was Marketing, and they make up a lot of things! This includes any other description I ever read that were based on these misstatements.I had not used that chip until 1993. At that time, my main experience was in 8080 and Z-80 8 bit processor coding, with dabbles in others, including 8086. I think Hansche was referring to a person Phoenix hired in 1983 to test the viability and proof-of-concept of a clean BIOS. I believe there were some remnant code I inherited from them initially, but it was really bad code, and I threw it away as I created each BIOS Interrupt Service Routine that replaced any previous code.The Phoenix BIOS differenceThe Phoenix BIOS was written as a third-party BIOS to be sold to many motherboard manufacturers. It was written in Microsoft Macro Assembler (MASM) and linked with Phoenix’s PLINK-86 (written by Dave Hirschmann), an advanced linker, that allowed for code alignment (on word, double word and allowed alignment of a module to a specific address) and empty space fill.The Phoenix BIOS was written as a lot of separate files, generally representing a BIOS function or distinct piece of code, e.g. memory test, and then were linked together. There were many assembler Equates to allow manufacturers to select which compatibility options they wanted. Normally there was a default set of equates, but some manufacturers wanted IBM “features” (read that as bugs) that made no sense, e.g. weird mapping for Alt-Numpad usage, or having it crash like the IBM BIOS. For simulating a crash, the Phoenix BIOS would go to a tight loop, but interrupts were still active, allowing for a keyboard warm boot (Control-Alt-Delete). There were also a few options for slight differences in hardware, as well as options to support chipset configurations.I wrote it to be tolerant of all the programs that used odd references to the BIOS (much more than Compaq). As a hardware designer as well as programmer, I’d ask many questions to the Phoenix specification team that they never conceived. E.g., are there any non-random values left in a register after a BIOS function that some programmer might be able to use, and any other bizarre usage of a BIOS function I could conceive of (even if it had not yet been used by an existing program)? Also, I had test programs (Unit testing) that ran through various function calls and checked the results, as well as measuring their timing in order to increase speed.Motherboard manufacturers often used slightly different parts than the IBM PC to save money. As a hardware engineer, I would write the code to be tolerant of hardware that might act slightly different. I did this by using clean techniques accessing the hardware, or testing for hardware differences prior to using them. An example would be cloned variants of the Intel 8259 Interrupt controller chip that were controlled slightly different.I believe, based upon later seeing other BIOSes binary code in debugging motherboards with non-Phoenix BIOSes (before Phoenix acquired some of them) like AMI, Award, and MRBIOS, that these other BIOSes were written by people who were strictly programmers (and not the cleanest code - could be bad programming or from using a C compiler). I was astonished how bad the code was that I looked at. It appeared they had no real understanding of how electronics work (based upon their code), and thus were less compatible and less adaptable than the Phoenix BIOS.ROM BasicPhoenix had decided not to worry about cloning the IBM ROM Basic. It was 1984, and memory was more plentiful than when the PC was introduced in 1981 and GW-BASIC was also available. Add to that the cost of the extra ROM (or larger ROM) was more than many manufacturers (like Leading Edge) wanted to spend.In my opinion, a ROM Basic was a bad idea anyway, even in 1981. It just saved you the time of loading it from cassette tape or floppy disk. Since Floppy drives were readily available, there was really no point to have a ROM Basic that couldn’t be upgraded.Addendum:In response to the question comment“We can't program any thing if we never had have a operating system on the machine so how the first BIOS has been written?”The first original programmable computers applications (which could be a bootstrap, BIOS or Operating System) were written in hand assembled code. A very simple, one pass assembler would be written (also hand assembled) and then recreated in the same assembler for a better and more capable assembler.After that, some times a mini-OS might be made, at which point more extensive versions can be made. A BIOS is essentially a mini OS without a file system, so a file system doesn’t need to be much more. In fact, the original DOS was just a software wrapper for many of the BIOS functions, with a file system that used the disk I/O primitives of the BIOS.In more modern times, cross-assemblers and cross-compilers are made for new target computers. These run on existing computer systems to create software for a destination computer (e.g. a PC). This is how the first popular home computer language, MITS Altair Basic was written by Bill Gates back in 1975.And once you have a simple Operating System like MS-DOS running on x86 based computers (not necessarily a PC), you can use native assemblers and compilers to create new code. This was how the original Phoenix BIOSes were written. After that, the code was emulated on the computer that it was assembled on (by replacing that computer’s interrupt handler for the particular BIOS function), or a ROM was created and placed in a IBM or clone PC and tested there.References:The legality of copying and the concept of intellectual property (IP) and copying the IBM BIOS is discussed in the The Invisible Edge: Taking Your Strategy to the Next Level book (you may have to refresh the page).To see a discussion of my work on creating the Phoenix BIOS, seeWhat is the coolest thing you have ever created alone as a programmer?Who should get more credit for the rise of the PC: anonymous engineers at IBM and Xerox or Wozniak, Jobs, Allen and Gates? (Spoiler: None of them!)This explains a short description of early PC HistoryDid the sales of computers rise after the invention of video games?This explains why the only Systems left are PCs, Apple Macintoshes, and ARM processorsWhy did Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) fail?This describes the the early needs for a “turbo” button, my design of the AST 286 Premium motherboard (fastest PC computer of 1987), and why the average person cares about memory timing for their PCHistory of Computing: What did the "turbo" button on early 90s PCs do?

Hello :)I am guessing you've reached the point where you hope "Bicameralism" is just a way to make burgers...You know..an upper bun and a lower bun and a lot of good cooked meat or patty in between :PI can truly understand your situation. For students who have had no experience in learning the constitutional as well as non-constitutional aspects of our country's governance/politics, it can be a nightmare. (I mean even if Freddy Kruger haunts you in sleep, you wont mind...as long as he agrees to rip apart your polity textbooks with his claw)The thing about Indian Polity is that it can be aced easily, all you have to do is wide open your eyes and ear and become a Ninja. (The black robe is optional...but recommended for better effects)A Ninja picks his /her battles wisely. And so should you. Don't be a Barney!!(The Pink Dinosaur -.-) A Barney reads everything from every book and gets freaked out because he/she can't remember anything.How to cover the Polity section ?? ( A Ninja's guide for excellence)Step 1: Learn about your enemyAfter looking at the previous papers you'll see that UPSC has been very particular about the candidate's knowledge in the following areas:1) Governance issues relating to weaker sections, disabled, Senior citizens,Minorities and the various Legislative , Constitutional and Executive welfare measures for them.2) Constitutional articles relating to Fundamental Rights , Legislative Business in Parliament, local governments, President etc. should be on your fingertips because direct questions are asked here.Step 2: Ready your Shuriken!! (They are like Ninja Stars you uncultured freaks -.-)The market is filled with plenty of good/bad books. I won't recommend any new material since you may already own a standard book. I'll try to help you in devising the methodology of covering the syllabus of Indian Polity.Start with the Constituent Assembly. I suggest everyone to start with "Polity"only after you've grasped the syllabus of "Indian Freedom Movement" in a significant detail. This will help you to understand the mindset of the framers of the constitution. Factual questions are asked here, which generally cover different committees of Constituent Assembly, their Chairman, making of the Constitution, ministries formed during the Interim govt., Sources of the constitution, etc.Don't Rush here.Take as much time as you need. Do not move to the next chapter till you are thorough here.The Preamble. Questions asked here are about the terms like Socialist,Secular,Republic etc. To solve these questions , the changes made in the Preamble must be studied thoroughly. Esp. Constitutional Amendments related to the Preamble.Fundamental Rights/Duties/Directive Principles of State Policy. This is quite literally the Holy Grail of polity section. You have to focus on them individually as well as their inter-relations. E.g., How the DPSPs will get influenced, if the FRS are increased or Why were FDs added to the Constitution ? Also read the Judicial Review and different kinds of writs here.Constitutional Amendments.Very simple. The procedure of amendment and some landmark amendments in past and recent ones. That's it. Move on.Centre-State/Inter-state Relations.You'll have to focus on the nature of Indian Federation here. If you look at the previous years papers, the nature of Indian Provinces in 1950, the present status, basically the Articles 1-4 are very important here. Also focus on the Union,State and Concurrent Lists as well as the Legislative,Administrative and Financial relations between Centre and States.The above topics will consist of a lot of rules/laws/acts. And quite a lot of them should be remembered.Now there's a catch with this section. Details and understanding are the essence of any subject. But polity is all about the code.....the process....the reason. ....(CPR...all the medical aficionados will get this.....Nerds everywhere!! -_-)Whenever you read about any act, focus only on the CPRs. It will be short and easy to remember. Moving on.By now you'll have a pretty good idea about the constitutional framework, the skeleton of the articles. Now at this point if some wiseass troubles you with trivial questions regarding certain provision of our constitution, you must be able to perform a wild guess about it's location in the constitution.The following topics will be a cake-walk for you once you are confident in the above explained topics.The Executive. Maximum questions appear from this section. Focus on the powers,election,impeachment/removal of the Executives. Also focus on the relations between the President and Council of Ministers, difference between the Cabinet and the Council of ministers, etc.Parliament and State Legislature. I personally get very confused while answering questions in this section. ( I am not really surprised...till a few months ago I thought Mark Wahlberg and Matt Damon were same people -.-) The functions of the Central Legislature and State Legislature and the relations between them must be understood clearly with proper analysis. Concentrate on comparison between the two houses,elections,functions and removal of the speaker and the Deputy speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, Office of Profit,Budget session,various bills,joint sittings, various committees and commissions etc. Also learn few terminologies along the way i.e. Question Hour,Zero Hour,Prorogation,Adjournment etc.The Judiciary. Our Judiciary is hierarchical so I suggest that you cover it one by one, i.e. At the Central,State and District levels. The powers and functions of the courts has to be studied comparatively, because questions asked generally are from the works of different courts, writs issued by them, popular judgments of the Supreme Court. Give a little reading about Judicial Activism in India and about the Scope of Judiciary in the present Political scenario (Newspapers will help you here)Election Commission/Political Parties. Questions here are mostly related to the work of the Central Election Commission and State ECs. Nowadays questions come from Electoral reforms and Political Party system too. All of this is mostly current affairs based. You'll get a better ideas about the changing political scenario and the Constitutional provision. Also give importance to the People's Representation Act, 1951 and its amendments.Local Government. This is an easy section. Focus on 73rd and 74th Amendments, Panchayati Raj Institutions,Reservation systems and Finances. While reading newspapers focus on the programmes seen by the government at the local level.Constitutional and Statutory bodies. This topic is quite descriptive. But the essence is in broad details only. Don't go searching for your soulmate in every page. Just be aware of the distinction between the two bodies. After this focus on the important bodies like, Finance Commission, UPSC,NCW,CVC etc. Focus only on their Status and Functions.Step 3: I couldn't come up with anything flashy...just read on :PYour newspaper reading habits will play an important role here. Especially for GS2 paper. Have strong and constructive opinions about every constitutional and legal issue. Please mark the distinction...I am not speaking about "political" issues here. Always answer the questions in a "problem solving"manner.Now consider the following question which came in GS2 paper.Q) How can reservation of seats for women in Parliament contribute to the establishment of a socially just society in India ?While answering this question...begin with the meaning of social justice. Now discuss the real position of women in India. Give arguments in favour as well as against the Reservation issue. (I understand that everybody is entitled to a personal opinion...but don't let that take over you while writing the answers. I believe that giving two sides of an issue shows a very strong moral fibre of the candidates...you'll be seen as a person who can make unbiased decisions)I'll show you my practice sheet so that you have a general idea....I hope the analysis helped. Happy hunting my dear Ninja :DPeace!!Thanks for the A2A :)