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Did slave owners really own Mandingos (slaves that would fight to the death), as portrayed in the film Django Unchained?Thanks for the A2A!I’m not sure that I’ve read any evidence of masters making slaves fight till the death. I wouldn’t put it past them, but I think they more likely would make them fight until they were concussed and could fight no longer.In fact… I know this happened.These activities were known as Battle Royals or Battle Royales.Nowadays when you think of a Battle Royal, you probably envision something like this…But this is where its root come from…Kindly notice that the people witnessing this event are government paid servicemen.The Washington Herald published a story called "Negro Troopers Enjoy Battle-Royal" in 1918. The story, accompanied with a picture, went as follows;"It's a great old game, the battle-royal. It used to be that boxing promoters would get a bunch of husky black boys to climb into a ring and battle for a ten-dollar note, the note going to the boy who was on his feet last. They've made it a little different with some of our negro troops overseas. At a recent athletic carnival in England a bunch of troopers were blindfolded and sent in a ring with the above amusing result" (December 9, 1918). Negro Battle Royal - 2014 - Question of the Month - Jim Crow Museum - Ferris State UniversityAs you can see, they kids are blindfolded, given one boxing glove to wear and a cup to hold (if someone understands the purpose of the cup, please let me know).Now the thing to understand here is that the punches that hurt the worse.. and are the most dangerous… are the ones that you don’t see.They are blindfolded…So I wouldn’t be surprised if these kids suffered permanent damage from some of these fights. I would expect…That they had teeth knocked outThat they suffered eye injuries that weren’t tended toThat they often suffered neurological damage from being concussedThat they weren’t given medical treatment afterwardsThat they couldn’t turn down this wonderful opportunity to get the hell beaten out of them by people that couldn’t even seeKeep in mind that they would make both children and men fight in these events. Sometimes with each other.I wouldn’t be surprised either to find one day that they forced Black women to fight in these spectacles as well. After all, they didn’t mind torturing women in medical experiments.How Black Slaves Were Routinely Sold As ‘Specimens’ To Ambitious White DoctorsThe US medical system is still haunted by slaveryAnd they certainly didn’t mind using them as sex toys and selling the unwanted offspring for profitThe Loathsome Den- Sexual Assault on the Plantation: #MeTooAfricans in America/Part 4/Letters regarding slave women abuseThe Sexual Abuse of Black Men under American SlaverySo making them fight each other seems like something that would be expected.Here are a few accounts of how these Battle Royals worked.[A] ring was drawn on the ground which ranged from about 15 ft. to 30 ft. in diameter depending on the number of contestants who engaged in the combat. Each participant was given a kind of bag that was stuffed with cotton and rags into a very compact mass. When so stuffed, the bags would weigh on an average of 10 pounds, and was used by the contestants in striking their antagonist.Each combatant picked whichever opponent he desired and attempted to subdue him by pounding him over the head with the bag, which he used as his weapon of defense. And which was used as an offending weapon.The contest was continued in this manner till every combatant was counted out, and a hero of the contest proclaimed. Sometimes two contestants were adjudged heroes, and it was necessary to run a contest between the two combatants before a final hero could be proclaimed.Then the two antagonist would stage a battle royal and would continue in the conflict till one was proclaimed victorious. Sometimes these Free-For-All battles were carried on with a kind of improvised pair of boxing gloves, and the contests were carried on in the same manner as previously described.Very often, as many as 30 darkies of the most husky type were engaged in these battles, and the contests were generally attended by large audiences. Being staged during the period of favorable weather, and mostly on Saturday afternoon; these physical exhibitions were the scenes of much controversial conflict, gambling, excessive inebriation and hilarity.~ Frederick Douglass, 1818-1895https://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/selena.anderson/engl2307/readings/battle-royale-by-ralph-ellisonInteresting that these boys appear to range from 12 to 19 years old. I guess no one saw a problem with that.Mind you… these visual depictions are all AFTER slavery was over. One can only imagine how they were treated when they were slaves.Of course, some will be quick to say, “but Robert… White people wouldn’t have done anything to harm their slaves. They loved them like their own children. Plus, the slaves were too valuable to hurt. They were given better treatment than the actual slave masters”We’ve all heard this… or something like this before. So lets pause for a moment to address it.A quick internet search would clear all this up. In fact…This law was created fairly early in the history of American slavery. At the time, there were only about 2000 slaves in this country. But violence against them was already a common place concept. ~ Slavery and the Law in VirginiaAlso, I’ve mentioned this before, but it’s important to note that we have evidence of how brutal slavery was to many of the people who lived under it’s harsh rulesThe bones, almost pristine despite being buried for more than 200 years, represent the emergence of African-American culture in the United States…while most people think of slavery as having been concentrated in rural or the Southern parts of the country, Edna Medford of the Historical Component says New York had a significant slave population during the 18th century….The bones show the hardships the Africans faced the moment they stepped off the slave ships; in some cases they literally were worked to death."You have so many individuals who have trauma or injury to the bone, broken neck bones because they were forced to do that kind of labor," says Ena Fox of Howard University. He [Dr. Michael Blakey] says half of the populations died before they became teen-agers; others died within the first two years of their arrival.Fox, who's been collecting data from the teeth that were found, says defects in the tooth enamel were caused by malnutrition. Further examination of the bones and teeth reveal Africans who were enslaved as children and then shipped here had more cased of metabolic illness and malnutrition than children who spent their childhood in Africa and later died as adults.Signs of arthritis in the neck bones were probably caused by toting heavy items on the head -- a traditional African practice -- and lesions on the thigh bones probably resulted from muscle and ligament tears, Blakey said. "These people were obviously working at the very margins of human endurance and capacity," he said. "Arguably, a few were worked to death in a time when it was considered cost-effective to work slaves to death. Even some 6-year-old children show signs of being worked in what we would today consider an extreme way." ~ Bones reveal little-known tale of New York slaves | 4-22-97 -- Colonial-Era Burial ProjectSo the takeaway here is that slave masters probably didn’t fight their slaves to the death. But this is not because they loved them or because they were worried about their well being. No. It was because they made more money from working them to death than they would from making them fight each other to the death.If they could’ve found a way to make more money from the fighting, they would have done it.So yeah. The fighting happened, and I’m sure that some people were permanently hurt from it. After all… how can you expect to protect yourself in a fight when you’re blindfolded?These fights went under different names and had different rules.Battle RoyaleNigger fightsFree for AllsRough and Tumbleshttps://books.google.com/books?id=R_UACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA310&lpg=PA310&dq=slaves+rough+and+tumbleNow, it must also be said that Irish and other lower class White men would also participant amongst themselves in rough and tumbles. The reasoning behind this is that they weren't, at the time, considered by mainstream Whites to be “part of their group”. As such, they had to face their own brand of ridicule, which would include being called weakling cowards. Often these fights were a way to make money while proving their toughness and manhood to others.These fights continued long after slavery. In later years, the Blacks were either coerced into fighting or paid small amounts for their efforts as White men looked on and made bets on who would last the longest.It was announced in the newspapers as an “Athletic Show” and it began with a “battle royal” boxing bout among five Negroes. Five burly men, stripped to the waist, entered a roped arena on a platform. At the stroke of the bell two couples immediately began sparring. The fifth man then pitched into one of the boxers who seemed to be having the best of it, thus breaking up the pair. The released man turned to the other group and picking out one of the men began without warning to punch him. And so the fight proceeded. No matter how cleverly a man might be holding his own he was always in danger of having someone come at him from behind with a none too well padded fist. Scientific boxing was not in evidence. The contest was one of brutal physical endurance. When a man could keep it up no longer he left the ring and the winner was the man who stayed in longest. As announced, the winner was to receive $4.00, the second place man $2.00, and the third $1.00.At fairs, carnivals, benefits, and holiday festivals throughout the country, battle royals were among the featured events.In the Amarillo Globe Times in 1932, a sports carnival included “wrestling, hosing, comedy, novelty numbers, orchestra and a negro battle royal” (May 9, 1932).In Iowa, a “negro battle royal” was staged at the center of the park for a Fourth of July celebration (Mason City Globe-Gazette, June 29, 1934).At a Firemen’s picnic in Biloxi, Mississippi, it was determined to have a “negro battle royal Sunday at 8 p.m. as a feature attraction (Biloxi Daily Herald, July 6, 1937).Along with bicycle and relay races at the annual Scurry County Fair in Texas, there was a “feast of good things” where community stunts, fiddlers, string band contests and a negro battle royal were going on every day during the fair (Abilene Reporter News, September 22, 1929).In between horse races and bicycle races at the state fairgrounds in Wheeling, West Virginia, a battle royal “between six colored boys” would be part of the “amusements” (Wheeling Daily Intelligencer, August 7, 1899).(Recreation in Springfield, Illinois 1914) ~ Battle Royal: When whites paid black men to beat the hell out of each otherA rare interracial battle royal including "four colored boys and two white boys" ended when one of the white participants "quit the ring rather than take the chance of being knocked out by a little colored fellow named Cal Butler." The white contestant "asserted that he was entitled to a draw, but the referee's decision gave the fight to Butler" (Omaha Daily Bee, November 9, 1900).A featherweight championship bout featuring Abe Attell had an undercard battle royal "between five negro employees of the race track" (Los Angeles Herald, December 10, 1908).The "most interesting part" of a boxing program at the Ardmore Airdome in Oklahoma, "will be the battle royal by five negroes. This feature alone furnishes more amusement than a whole sideshow." The article mentions that the "proceeds will be given to the Confederate home committee" (The Daily Ardmoreite, September 15, 1910).In Utah, a "Comical Boxing Bout" put the crowd in a good humor "by a comical exhibition of a battle royal between five negroes who pummeled each other with large boxing gloves… When the sport dragged, one of the battle royal kids kindly dropped to the mat and was counted out" (The Evening Standard, January 23, 1913)."Six big, husky negroes were mingling in a battle royal at the old Long Acre Club, in Twenty-ninth Street, one night. To be more exact, five were big, but the other hadn't flirted with a steak in weeks. It so happened that the five picked on the one, and ere long the little fellow was knocked down. He was wise, this little fellow, and, rising on all-fours, he crawled across the ring, climbed over the lower rope, and dropped to the floor. 'Hey, you!' yelled Mike Newman, 'ain't you going to fight any more?' 'Oh, yes 'Marse Newman. Ahm goin' to fight plenty more. But no more to-night!' replied the coon, and he kept his word" (The New York Tribune, August 18, 1915).Closing the bill was the battle royal between six colored fighters. This was the funniest bout that has been staged in this city for some time. Every one crowded to the ringside to see the grand hubbub. They entered the ring, all kinds, big and husky, black and tan. With no referee in the ring they went at it. One darky opened up with corking another boy and they all went after him. He was sent rolling out of the ring for his offence. Down they went one after another until only three were left. Two of these set out to beat the other one up. Reading defeat, he retired and left one tall lanky "brown skin" and another husky black boy to settle the argument. They fought for about a minute when the black one was sent sprawling through the ropes and the lanky "high yella" grinned and picked up the money the fans had thrown in the ring and was declared the victor" (October 29, 1920).On a particular Saturday night "Ten thousand on-lookers see dem big Negroes in the Ring!!! A ring full of gloves and hour full of fun Wild Swings-haymakers-Upper Cuts Amusing-Ludicrous Free Fun for everybody" (Denton Record-Chronicle, October 3, 1930)."Act one of the evening's performance opened with a negro battle royal. The darkies were blindfolded and battled one round, and then their blindfolds were removed, and they went another round. The two survivors sparred and battled for two rounds. The victor left the mat as the colored orchestra played 'Bye-Bye Blackbirds,' for the vanquished" ( Corsicana Daily Sun, August 28, 1931).In an apparent effort to increase diversity among the boxing audiences, a "Negro Battle Royal" was among the featured events and it was said, "these matches will be run under the very highest standards and no one need hesitate bringing their wife and children" (Corsicana Daily Sun, July 21, 1933).I guess you can’t blame the black participants for their role in this. After all… the only other jobs they had available to them at the time wereButlerField handMaidFoot servantSex workerSleeping car porterSteel mill workerMinstrel show performerSeveral well known Black people had to fight in these events either because they were slaves or because they needed to put food on the table. Some that you might know areJack Johnson - Unforgivable Blackness . Sparring . Johnson's RiseBeau Jack - Beau Jack, 78, Lightweight Boxing Champion in the 1940'sHenry Armstrong - The Great Henry Armstrong • Boxing NewsJoe Gans - Gant, Joe “Gans” (1874-1910)Tom Molineaux (Slave fights)- The shameful story of how - 200 years ago this week - a bigoted mob cheated a freed slave out of the British heavyweight title | The Life of Bare-knuckle Boxer Tom MolineauxBill Richmond (Slave fights) - Bill Richmond – the pioneering pugilist - Black History Month 2018 | Black History Month Celebrating the Great Black British AchieversEssay about Battle Royal, by Ralph EllisonNegro Battle Royal - 2014 - Question of the Month - Jim Crow Museum - Ferris State University

Some books are frivolous you power through them on the plan and never think about or re-read them again. And some books you buy in hard copy, display on your bookshelf, and read over and over again noticing something different and more inspiring about them each time. These are some books. Grab a mug of tea or coffee and prepare to curl up for a very, very long time.1) THE DEFINING DECADEBy - DR. MEG JAYOur "thirty-is-the-new-twenty" culture tells us the twenty something years don't matter. Some say they are a second adolescence. Others call them an emerging adulthood. Dr. Meg Jay, a clinical psychologist, argues that twenty something’s have been caught in a swirl of hype and misinformation, much of which has trivialised what is actually the most defining decade of adulthood.Drawing from a decade of work with hundreds of twenty something clients and students, THE DEFINING DECADE weaves the latest science of the twenty something years with behind-closed-doors stories from twenty something’s themselves. The result is a provocative read that provides the tools necessary to make the most of your twenties, and shows you how work, relationships, personality, social networks, identity, and even the brain can change more during this decade than at any other time in adulthood-if we use the time wisely.THE DEFINING DECADE is a smart, compassionate and constructive book about the years we cannot afford to miss.2) ANTTHROPOLOGY OF AN AMERICAN GIRLBy – HILARY THAYER HAMANNHilary Thayer Hamann’s Anthropology of an American Girl touched a nerve among readers, who identified with the sexual and intellectual awakening of its heroine, a young woman on the brink of adulthood. A moving depiction of the transformative power of first love, Hamann’s first novel follows Eveline Auerbach from her high school years in East Hampton, New York, in the 1970s through her early adulthood in the moneyed, high-pressured Manhattan of the 1980s.Centering on Evie’s fragile relationship with her family and her thwarted love affair with Harrison Rourke, a professional boxer, the novel is both a love story and an exploration of the difficulty of finding one’s place in the world. As Evie surrenders to the dazzling emotional highs of love and the crippling loneliness of heartbreak, she strives to reconcile her identity with the constraints that all relationships—whether those familial or romantic, uplifting to the spirit or quietly detrimental—inherently place on us. Though she stumbles and strains against social conventions, Evie remains a strong yet sensitive observer of the world around her, often finding beauty and meaning in unexpected places.3) EARLY AUTUMNBy – LOUIS BROMFIELDBromfield takes a close look at the Pentlands- a fictional rich family in New England- exposing the hypocrisy and ignorance behind their luxurious facade. Bromfield's eloquence when describing both his characters and their surroundings is breathtaking, and his accuracy in describing the characters' complicated emotions makes it apparent that he knows human nature very well. A fascinating study on the struggle of one woman to escape the stifling influence of her husband and in-laws.4) THE FAULTS IN OUR STARSBy – JOHN GREEN"I fell in love the way you fall asleep: slowly, then all at once."Despite the tumor-shrinking medical miracle that has bought her a few years, Hazel has never been anything but terminal, her final chapter inscribed upon diagnosis. But when a gorgeous plot twist named Augustus Waters suddenly appears at Cancer Kid Support Group, Hazel's story is about to be completely rewritten.Insightful, bold, irreverent, and raw, The Fault in Our Stars is award-winning author John Green's most ambitious and heartbreaking work yet, brilliantly exploring the funny, thrilling, and tragic business of being alive and in love.A thought-provoking love story from the New York Times bestselling author of Looking for Alaska, An Abundance of Katherine’s, Paper Towns and - with David Leviathan - Will Grayson.A novel of life and death and the people caught in between, The Fault in Our Stars is John Green at his best. You laugh, you cry, and then you come back for more' - Markus Zusak, author of The Book Thief .5) MAGIC AMERICABy- C.E MEDFORDHope lives in an alternative Trenton, New Jersey of the 1980s where radioactive cats, congenital tattoos, biker angels, cocky fairy godmothers and the determination to survive another day are all that stand between her family and the creeping chemical forces of LoboChem, a manufacturer willing to destroy all that is beautiful for the sake of a profit.Magic America is a story about coming of age in fluorescent, urbo-suburban, magic-realism America. Dust off your Wigwams and your high-tops, your banana clips and Aquanet, for a trip through the streets and skies of a Garden State where love triumphs over fear, faith is what you die with and family is who you ride with.6) THE BOOK THIEFBy – MARKUS ZUSAKIt’s just a small story really, about among other things: a girl, some words, an accordionist, some fanatical Germans, a Jewish fist-fighter, and quite a lot of thievery.Set during World War II in Germany, Markus Zusak’s groundbreaking new novel is the story of Liesel Meminger, a foster girl living outside of Munich. Liesel scratches out a meager existence for herself by stealing when she encounters something she can’t resist–books. With the help of her accordion-playing foster father, she learns to read and shares her stolen books with her neighbors during bombing raids as well as with the Jewish man hidden in her basement before he is marched to Dachau.This is an unforgettable story about the ability of books to feed the soul.7) HAPPILY AFETR EVERBy – HARRIET EVANSA poignant, romantic, and delightful new novel about a young woman who refuses to believe happy endings are real, from internationally bestselling author Harriet Evans.In her blockbuster international bestsellers, Harriet Evans perfectly captures the complex lives of young twenty-first-century career women with an “effortlessly readable . . . comic style and loveable characters” (Marie Claire, UK).At twenty-two, Eleanor Bee is sure about three things: she wants to move to London and become a literary superstar; she wants to be able to afford to buy a coffee and croissant every morning; and after seeing what divorce did to her parents—especially her mum—she doesn’t believe in happy endings.Elle moves to London. She gets a job at Bluebird Books, a charmingly old-fashioned publisher. She falls out of bars, wears too-short skirts, makes lots of mistakes, and feels like she’s learning nothing and everything at the same time. And then, out of the blue, she falls in love, and that’s when she realizes just how much growing up she has to do.Ten years on, Elle lives in New York, and you could say she has found success; certainly her life has changed in ways she could never have predicted. But no matter where you go and how much you try to run away, the past has a funny way of catching up with you.8) THE GIRL IN WHITE DRESSBy – JENNIFER CLOSEWickedly hilarious and utterly recognizable, Girls in White Dresses tells the story of three women grappling with heartbreak and career change, family pressure and new love—all while suffering through an endless round of weddings and bridal showers.Isabella, Mary, and Lauren feel like everyone they know is getting married. On Sunday after Sunday, at bridal shower after bridal shower, they coo over toasters, collect ribbons and wrapping paper, eat minuscule sandwiches and doll-sized cakes. They wear pastel dresses and drink champagne by the case, but amid the celebration these women have their own lives to contend with: Isabella is working at a mailing-list company, dizzy with the mixed signals of a boss who claims she’s on a diet but has Isabella file all morning if she forgets to bring her a chocolate muffin. Mary thinks she might cry with happiness when she finally meets a nice guy who loves his mother, only to realize he’ll never love Mary quite as much. And Lauren, a waitress at a Midtown bar, swears up and down she won’t fall for the sleazy bartender—a promise that his dirty blond curls and perfect vodka sodas make hard to keep.With a wry sense of humor, Jennifer Close brings us through those thrilling, bewildering, what-on-earth-am-I-going-to-do-with-my-life years of early adulthood. These are the years when everyone else seems to have a plan, a great job, and an appropriate boyfriend, while Isabella has a blind date with a gay man, Mary has a crush on her boss, and Lauren has a goldfish named Willard. Through boozy family holidays and disastrous ski vacations, relationships lost to politics and relationships found in pet stores, Girls in White Dresses pulls us deep inside the circle of these friends, perfectly capturing the wild frustrations and soaring joys of modern life.9) AMERICANAHBy – CHIMAMANDA NGOZI ADICHIEFrom the award-winning author of Half of a Yellow Sun, a dazzling new novel: a story of love and race centered around a young man and woman from Nigeria who face difficult choices and challenges in the countries they come to call home.As teenagers in a Lagos secondary school, Ifemelu and Obinze fall in love. Their Nigeria is under military dictatorship, and people are leaving the country if they can. Ifemelu—beautiful, self-assured—departs for America to study. She suffers defeats and triumphs, finds and loses relationships and friendships, all the while feeling the weight of something she never thought of back home: race. Obinze—the quiet, thoughtful son of a professor—had hoped to join her, but post-9/11 America will not let him in, and he plunges into a dangerous, undocumented life in London.Years later, Obinze is a wealthy man in a newly democratic Nigeria, while Ifemelu has achieved success as a writer of an eye-opening blog about race in America. But when Ifemelu returns to Nigeria, and she and Obinze reignite their shared passion—for their homeland and for each other—they will face the toughest decisions of their lives.Fearless, gripping, at once darkly funny and tender, spanning three continents and numerous lives, Americanah is a richly told story set in today’s globalized world: Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s most powerful and astonishing novel yet.10) THE HANDMAID’S TALEBy – MARGARET ATWOODOffred is a Handmaid in the Republic of Gilead. She may leave the home of the Commander and his wife once a day to walk to food markets whose signs are now pictures instead of words because women are no longer allowed to read. She must lie on her back once a month and pray that the Commander makes her pregnant, because in an age of declining births, Offred and the other Handmaids are valued only if their ovaries are viable. Offred can remember the years before, when she lived and made love with her husband, Luke; when she played with and protected her daughter; when she had a job, money of her own, and access to knowledge. But all of that is gone now.

Short answer:It depends on what is meant by music, but one could say that at certain levels and with various limitations, there could be signs that chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas and macaques execute it or have its independence.The interpretation of the studies seems to vary, but they prefer harmonious music, with sounds similar to their own and enjoy silence more than some types of music. What is clear is that they do not perceive it in the same way that humans do.In Tarzan's novels the great apes played the drums, in a primitive way, but you could say it´s music, of course that is a literary fiction.Although I've heard about a band of Gorillaz that play music. ;)Long answer:First we should take into account that we define by music. I can sit in front of a drums and play drums and cymbals and that does not mean I'm playing an instrument.There is a difference between music and noise. They seem to have a certain limited sense of rhythm and use percussion.“Definition of music1a : the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity1b : vocal, instrumental, or mechanical sounds having rhythm, melody, or harmony choral music piano music recorded music2a : an agreeable sound : euphony her voice was music to my earsthe music of a nightingaleb : musical quality the music of versethe music of lovingly orchestrated words —Saturday Review3: a musical accompaniment a play set to music4: the score (see 1score 6a) of a musical composition set down on paper leafing through the music5: a distinctive type or category of music.“The question has turned into a burgeoning scientific field—one that looks at everything from boy-band-loving cockatoos to head-bobbing sea lions—with implications for how and why music evolved in people.Every human culture through time that we know of has evolved some kind of music, says Aniruddh Patel, a cognitive neuroscientist at Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, who spoke at a presentation during the ongoing American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) conference.But how deeply rooted our penchant for music is still eludes researchers. It could be that music is simply an extension of our ability to imitate sounds, while others including Charles Darwin have proposed that a sense of rhythm is common in all animals as a consequence of similar wiring in our nervous systems. (See "Why Did Humans Invent Music?")Since then, scientists have demonstrated that a similar, if less flexible, ability exists in bonobos and chimpanzees.What about non human primates?There is one published study by a researcher in Japan, Yuko Hattori, who should be here speaking today, showing that chimpanzees can synchronize to a metronome at one tempo, near their spontaneous tempo—[which] is the tempo that they like to tap anyway. But they don't show this flexibility where if you slow it down or speed it up, they spontaneously match it.But it's a young field. Maybe with a little bit more training and experience, [the chimpanzees] will show it.Has anyone looked at what areas of the brain are involved in animals?Hugo Merchant, the neurobiologist from Mexico is here. He has been studying tapping to a beat in monkeys. He's actually measuring from parts of their brains while they do this. So he is the person to ask about what brain regions [are involved]—in monkeys, anyway. But they don't seem to quite do it the way we do it.So following a rhythm has been seen in parrots, a sea lion, maybe in elephants, bonobos, and chimps. What does that mean in terms of its adaptive value, or importance in evolution?The theory that I propose is that somehow, it's a consequence of being able to imitate sound. We can imitate complex sounds unlike any other primate. And that means you have to have special connections between your hearing centers and your movement centers in your brain. I felt that laid the groundwork for this other ability, which is also a connection between hearing and movement.If that's true, then in a sense, this ability [to follow a rhythm] was a byproduct in evolution. And that's why I tested the theory with the parrot and why I'm so interested in the monkey work.”“We propose a decomposition of the neurocognitive mechanisms that might underlie interval-based timing and rhythmic entrainment. Next to reviewing the concepts central to the definition of rhythmic entrainment, we discuss recent studies that suggest rhythmic entrainment to be specific to humans and a selected group of bird species, but, surprisingly, is not obvious in non-human primates. On the basis of these studies we propose the gradual audiomotor evolution hypothesis that suggests that humans fully share interval-based timing with other primates, but only partially share the ability of rhythmic entrainment (or beat-based timing).This hypothesis accommodates the fact that non-human primates (i.e., macaques) performance is comparable to humans in single interval tasks (such as interval reproduction, categorization, and interception), but show differences in multiple interval tasks (such as rhythmic entrainment, synchronization, and continuation). Furthermore, it is in line with the observation that macaques can, apparently, synchronize in the visual domain, but show less sensitivity in the auditory domain. And finally, while macaques are sensitive to interval-based timing and rhythmic grouping, the absence of a strong coupling between the auditory and motor system of non-human primates might be the reason why macaques cannot rhythmically entrain in the way humans do.”“In the current paper we describe how Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) show some of the behavioral traits that define rhythmic entrainment but not all of them. Thus, we suggest that macaques cannot properly entrain their movements to an auditory beat because their motor system does not have the same access to auditory information as humans do.”“When monkeys drum, they activate brain networks linked with communication, new findings that suggest a common origin of primate vocal and nonvocal communication systems and shed light on the origins of language and music.In the wild, monkeys known as macaques drum by shaking branches or thumping on dead logs. Similar behavior has been seen in non-human primates — for instance, gorillas beat their chests and clap their hands, while chimpanzees drum on tree buttresses.In the lab, scientists noted that rhesus macaque monkeys drummed using artificial objects such as cage doors by shaking them vigorously or slapping or banging them against surfaces, often with accompanying threatening sounds, postures and facial expressions. Only the largest and dominant monkeys drummed, suggesting that drumming was used to communicate messages about power and status — the louder the drumming, the bigger and stronger the macaque likely is.”“Although music as we understand it is an art created by humans for humans, some intelligent enough animals sometimes show pleasure towards it, but not towards any kind of music. An investigation now reveals what kind of music chimpanzees like best, at least those observed during the experiments.The team of Frans de Waal, from Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, used musical styles with a strong geographic base. The idea was not so much to seek preferences of the chimpanzees for the musical folklore of this or that human culture, but rather to the acoustic properties, very typical of each style.Sixteen adult chimpanzees participated in the experiments in two groups, at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center, dependent on Emory University. For 12 days in a row, for 40 minutes each morning, the groups were given the opportunity to listen to African, Hindu or Japanese music, playing each of these on a portable stereo, near the large outdoor fenced plot where these primates live. Another portable stereo player was placed that did not play any music in a different place, near the fenced land, to rule out behaviors that could be associated with the object instead of the music.Psychological studies with chimpanzees such as Tara, here portrayed, have shown that they prefer silence to Western music. The new research reveals that chimpanzees like other types of music in the world, such as African or Hindu. (Photo: Courtesy of the Yerkes National Center for Primate Research)The different types of music were played with the same volume but in random order. Each day, the researchers observed the chimpanzees and recorded their position every two minutes, using handwritten notes. They also videotaped the activity on the fenced land. The behavior of the chimpanzees when each type of music was played was compared to their behavior without music, in order to detect eventual significant differences.And there were: Chimpanzees preferred traditional African or Hindu music. When music from these two classes was played near the fenced land, the chimps spent much more time in areas where they could hear it better. When Japanese music was played, it was more likely to find them in places where it was more difficult or impossible to hear.”“According to a study by the University of York showed that chimpanzees do not have the same musical tastes as humans, since they prefer melodies by Mozart and Beethoven over those of Adele and Justin Bieber.The finding suggests that humans are the only ones who have evolved to have an appreciation of music. Although previous studies indicate that chimpanzees find relaxing music, the University of York found that it has no effect on their behaviorIn the experiment, chimpanzees were put on pop or classical music in their enclosures with the possibility of leaving if they did not like some melody. As a result the animals listened to classical music tended not to leave the place.Although Dr. Emma Wallace, of the University that conducted the research, said that chimpanzees tend to run away from faster music, they do not show a real preference for classical melodies.”“Chimpanzees prefer melodic music. A team of Japanese scientists have investigated the musical tastes of these primates, and have discovered that not only distinguish between harmonic and dissonant sounds, but prefer the former to be more pleasant.Sakura is the name of the protagonist of the story, a female chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) that at the beginning of the investigation was barely 4 months old. Because of his mother's rejection, he had always lived among humans at the Itozu-no-Mori zoo in Fukuoka, Japan, but despite his constant dealings with his caretakers he had never heard music before the experiment.Tasuku Sugimoto and Kazuhide Hashiya, scientists from the Kyushu University of Hakozaki and main responsible for the investigation, placed a cloth band on Sukura's wrist that was connected to a music device, so that according to the movement in one way or another, generated a harmonic or dissonant melody (the latter obtained by modification of the first).Play it again, SakuraThey verified that the animal moved more times his arm to return to listen to pleasant music, which shows a clear preference. In addition, the tests were repeated six different times, one per week and with a duration of 20 minutes, always obtaining the same type of result. "He quickly learned the mechanism and moved the wrist to get harmonious music of longer duration," says Hashiya.”“Many experiments have been conducted in order to study the relationship between primates and music, and the results have never ceased to amaze, although rarely, if ever, in a positive way. Primates react to music like many other animals, but seem to interpret it as mere background noise. For example, on one occasion loudspeakers were placed in an area inhabited by tamarin monkeys who had never heard human music to check not only their initial reaction, but also what styles were more to their liking, if any. The results would have ruined any bet. For example, they were quiet listening to Metallica, which did not seem to disturb them in the least, while they seemed to actively avoid Mozart's music, to the point of moving away to find a quiet area in which to relax out of reach of (for them) ) Horrible Austrian composer. With other music the opposite happened and they left the silent zones to approach the speakers, indicating that they sometimes appreciated it.The reaction of these monkeys had nothing to do with a musical taste, at least not with one similar to that of humans. As I said, it seems that apes react to music in a similar way to cats. That is, depending on whether the music they hear contains sounds similar to those that they themselves emit, or to those that they associate with situations of alarm, tranquility, happiness, etc. Both with cats and with primates the experiment has been done or to compose music performed with human instruments but that imitates the inflections and cadences of the "language" of these animals; both felines and primates have responded as expected, interpreting music as an environmental sound that has no emotional meaning except when they pick up frequencies and cadences that in advance already meant something to them. However, they do not seem to capture intrinsic elements of music like rhythm. This distinction is important, because some people will have seen their cat or their dog react to music and may have attributed it to an anthropomorphic explanation, believing that music affects them in the same way as we do. So, although it is true that different pieces can provoke different responses in animals, it is wrong to think that they awaken in them feelings similar to ours.”Do any non-human primates make music? Eg, rythyms, humming or singing or the equivalent. Do they enjoy music or dance (without being trained to)?Dancing Animals Help Tell Us Why Music EvolvedAre non-human primates capable of rhythmic entrainment? Evidence for the gradual audiomotor evolution hypothesisA los simios no les gusta la músicaMonkey Drumming Suggests the Origin of MusicWhy Humans Can, But Apes and Monkeys Can’t Sync to the BeatLos gustos musicales de los chimpancésLa música que más les gusta a los chimpancés — Noticias de la Ciencia y la Tecnología (Amazings® / NCYT®)Chimpancés prefieren escuchar música clásica que a Justin Bieber