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Magnesium-based bulk metallic glasses (BMG) have potential in applications ranging from biomedical to sports equipment and the Mg-Cu-Y system offers some of the most promising alloys. Phase relations and ternary solubility of the binary and ternary compounds of this system have been experimentally investigated. The Isothermal section of Mg-Cu-Y system at 673 K for the entire composition range has been constructed. Phase relations in the Cu-rich (>66 at.% Cu) region of the Mg-Cu-Y system has been determined for the first time. The homogeneity range of three ternary compounds has been determined. Solidifications behavior of several key alloys have been discussed based on the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) experiments and thermodynamic calculations. Extensive analysis of the DSC curves has been carried out to relate them to the corresponding phase transformation reactions and temperatures. Some of the most promising metallic glass forming regions have been analyzed using thermodynamic calculations.IntroductionResultsIsothermal section at 673 KFifteen key samples have been studied in this work to construct the isothermal section of the Mg-Cu-Y system at 673 K. The WDS analysis of the alloys is presented in Table 1. BSE images of some of the alloys (2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 15) are shown in figure 2. The phase relations in the central portion of the Mg-Cu-Y system were shown by dotted lines in the work of De Negri et al.18because the alloys were not in complete equilibrium even after annealing for four weeks. To resolve this, several alloys (3–6) have been prepared in the current work and annealed for 6 weeks at 673 K. The BSE image of sample 6 (53.2/16.6/30.2 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) is shown in figure 2(d). Still the sample is not in complete equilibrium and showing four phases. However, it was found that 3(white) always remains within τ4(grey) and never been in contact with τ6. This is a typical behavior for peritectic type reaction where τ3decompose to τ4and Mg2Y(δ). But complete decomposition of τ3will need very long annealing which was not possible to accomplish in this alloy as oxidation starts after 6 weeks. The non-equilibrium effect is more pronounced in this alloy because τ3is a higher melting temperature compound with a larger solidification region than τ4. It reflects the high thermal stability of τ3 and its sluggish decomposition kinetics. Therefore, it is decided that τ6has a phase triangulation with τ4and Mg2 Y(δ) and it is not in equilibrium with τ3.Table 1: SEM-WDS and XRD data on selected Mg-Cu-Y alloys annealed at 673 KFull size tableFigure 2: BSE images of selected Mg-Cu-Y alloys; (a) sample 2 (80.4/12.8/6.8 Mg/Cu/Y at.%); (b) sample 3 (70.5/15.3/14.2 Mg/Cu/Y at.%); (c) sample 4 (67.5/16.4/16.1 Mg/Cu/Y at.%); (d) sample 6 (53.2/16.6/30.2 Mg/Cu/Y at.%); (e) sample 7 (55.6/36.9/7.5 Mg/Cu/Y at.%); (f) sample 15 (7.5/57.4/35.1 Mg/Cu/Y at.%).Full size imageTernary solubility of all the binary compounds in the Cu-rich region has been identified. The Cu2Y, Cu7Y2, Cu4Y and Cu6Y compounds dissolve approximately 1 at.% Mg. Although in general the error of the WDS measurement is about ±1 at.% it was found that for these Cu-rich (10–15) alloys, the WDS measurement is more accurate with an error of about ±0.8 at.%. Therefore, it is decided to consider a small amount of Mg solubility (~1 at.%) in these Cu-Y binary compounds. No solubility of Y could be found in the Cu-fcc phase. However, Cu dissolves about 2 to 3 at.% Mg at 673 K which is in good agreement with the results of Rogel'berg22who reported ~3.5 at.% Mg solubility in the Cu-fcc phase. The solubility of Cu6Y has been found to be about 87 to 89 at.% Cu in sample 12 (1.1/93.7/5.2 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) which is consistent with the values 85 to 87 at.% Cu reported by Fries et al.23for the binary Cu-Y system. Two three-phase regions MgCu2+ τ1+ Cu-fcc and τ1+ Cu6Y + Cu-fcc have been determined. Also, three two-phase regions Cu2Y + Cu7Y2, Cu4Y + τ1and Cu6Y + Cu-fcc have been identified.The solubility of Cu in MgY(γ) and Mg2Y(δ) has been found to be about 1 at.% which is within the error limits of WDS measurement. However, it is decided to accept this value since De Negri et al.18, also reported the same amount of Cu solubility in MgY(γ), Mg2Y(δ) and Mg24Y5(ε). The solubility of Y in MgCu2 has been found to be about 6 at.%. Three of the ternary compounds τ2, τ3and τ11have been found to have solubility ranges. τ2has been found with a homogeneity range ~16.6–22.3 at.% Mg, 61.6–69.4 at.% Cu, and 13.4–16.3 at.% Y. For τ3, the solubility has been found to be from ~21.9–18.4 at.% Mg, 38.4–40.7 at.% Cu and 38.2–41.5 at.% Y. De Negri et al.18reported the solubility of τ11to be ~81 to 90 at.% Mg. Three key alloys (3–5) have been prepared in this region and all of them showed that the solubility is from ~84 at.% Mg which is in agreement with De Negri et al.18. The upper solubility limit of 90 at.% Mg has been adopted from De Negri et al.18.The phase equilibria of the Mg-Cu-Y system has been understood by combining the analysis of the key alloys from the present work with those reported by De Negri et al.18. The thermodynamic modeling of the Mg-Cu-Y system has been modified based on the current understanding of the phase equilibria. During modeling, the present DSC measurements have been used to optimize the thermodynamic model parameters. The isothermal section at 673 K for the whole composition range calculated in this work is shown in figure 1. The phase relations obtained in the present calculations reproduce all the experimental results from the present work as well as from the literature18.Solidification behavior of the Mg-Cu-Y systemThe Mg-Cu-Y is an important metallic glass system. Therefore, it is very important to understand the phase transformations to comprehend the glass forming ability of this system. In this section some of the most promising regions are analyzed in light of the new experiments and thermodynamic calculations. It was observed that most of the glass forming alloys of the Mg-Cu-Y systems contain about 0 to 15 at.% Y1,2,6,8,13.. Therefore, it is decided to explore this region by performing DSC, XRD and thermodynamic calculations on selected key samples to understand the solidification behavior.Analysis of the Mg2Cu + τ11phase fieldSample 1 (84.9/7.9/7.2 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) is located in the two-phase region of Mg2Cu + τ11. The phase constituents are summarized in Table 1. Negligible solubility of Y (0.31 ± 1 at.%) has been found in Mg2Cu. DSC spectra of this alloy are shown in figure 3. It shows three peaks during heating and three peaks during cooling. However, during cooling the 1stand 3rd peaks show shoulders. Similar results were observed in all the three heating and cooling cycles indicating that some of the peaks overlapped. The thermal arrest points observed during cooling are at temperatures of 774, 751 and 689 K. While during heating the peak temperatures are 752, 708 and 695 K. The first two peaks during cooling were very close and they overlapped during heating cycle and were not distinguishable. The reason for this can be seen in the vertical section corresponding to the sample composition in figure 3. This figure shows that two phase transformations [L/L + hcp-Mg and L + hcp-Mg/L + τ11] occur within a narrow temperature range of less than 5 K (from 758 to 755 K). Therefore, during heating these two peaks overlapped with the adjacent dominating peak. Also, areas under the curve between the first two cooling peaks (−144 J/g) and the first heating peak (154 J/g) are similar which confirms that the heating peak is in fact two overlapping peaks. Similar overlapping has been observed for the 3rd peak in the cooling cycle. This is because of another two very close phase transformations [L + τ11/L + τ11+ Mg2Cu and L + τ11+ Mg2Cu/τ11+ Mg2Cu] in this region as can be seen in figure 3.Figure 3: A vertical section calculated at constant 7.2 at.% Y with DSC thermal arrests of samples 1, 2, 7, 9 and 10.The solid phase boundary lines are obtained from the present thermodynamic calculation. The DSC heating and cooling spectra of samples 1, 2, 7 and 9 are shown above. The DSC signals are consistent with the calculated phase transformation temperatures. A deep eutectic region can be seen near 20 at.% Cu. Alloy compositions near this region should be good candidate for metallic glass.Full size imageAnalysis of the Mg2Cu + τ9+ τ11phase fieldIt has been observed from the literature survey that many promising glass forming alloys lie in the three-phase region of Mg2Cu + τ9+ τ11.. Therefore, 4 key samples (2–5) have been prepared in this 3-phase region in order to obtain better understanding of the solidification behavior as well as the phase relationships.The BSE image of sample 2 (80.4/12.8/6.8 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) in figure 2(a) shows the three-phase equilibrium between Mg2Cu, τ11and τ9.. According to the WDS analysis as listed in Table 1, the matrix is τ11which constitutes 84.7 at.% Mg, 7.1 at.% Cu and 8.2 at.% Y. Since the alloy is very close to τ11, large amount of this phase formed in the microstructure. The grey phase is Mg2Cu. Small amount of the white phase which is another ternary compound τ9, constitutes 68.6 at.% Mg, 16.1 at.% Cu and 15.3 at.% Y. The DSC spectra of this alloy are shown in figure 3. Two exotherms appear in the cooling curve at 726 and 698 K, which correspond to the endotherms that appear in the heating spectrum at 735 and 704 K. Another endothermic signal was revealed in the heating curve at 687 K, but could not be identified in the cooling spectrum. This is because of the supercooling effect which leads to the overlapping of two adjacent cooling peaks. The liquidus temperature of this sample should be in between 726 and 735 K. The calculated vertical section in figure 3 shows good agreement with the DSC signals. The measured thermal arrests of sample 2 correspond to the following phase transformations in the vertical section: L/L + τ11/L + τ11+ Mg2Cu/τ11+ Mg2Cu + τ9. A detailed comparison between the DSC results and the thermodynamic calculations is presented in Table 2.Table 2: Phase constituents by XRD and WDS and DSC measurements and calculated transformation temperature of the investigated samples (h denotes heating and c denotes cooling)Full size tableThe next sample in this three-phase field is sample 3 (70.5/15.3/14.2 Mg/Cu/Y at.%). The BSE image, in figure 2(a) clearly shows the existence of the two ternary compounds τ9and τ11along with Mg2Cu. The DSC spectra of this alloy are shown in figure 4. Four thermal events during heating as well as cooling are identified. The liquidus temperature is found at 781 K during heating and 769 K during cooling. The thermal arrests are projected on the vertical section in figure 4 which illustrates reasonable agreement. According to the thermodynamic calculation the liquidus temperature is 752 K at which temperature the precipitation of the τ7phase starts. The next thermal arrest is due to the reaction: L + τ7/L + τ8, which occurs at 734 K compared to the DSC signal at 736 K. Later τ8dissolves more Mg to obtain the stable τ9phase according to L + τ8/L + τ9reaction. Thermodynamic calculation shows that this transformation takes place at 721 K. But a clear thermal peak for this reaction could not be identified in the DSC spectra. However, the 2nd thermal event shows a long tail which is probably due to the overlapping of two consecutive peaks and was not separable.Figure 4: A vertical section calculated at constant 17.2 at.% Cu with DSC thermal arrests of samples 2, 3, 4, 5 and 8.The solid phase boundary lines are obtained from the present thermodynamic calculation. The DSC heating and cooling spectra of samples 3, 4 and 8 are also shown above. The DSC signals are consistent with the calculated phase transformation temperatures.Full size imageThe last two samples (4 and 5) in this phase field are even closer to the ternary compound τ9. BSE image of sample 4 (67.5/16.4/16.1 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) in figure 1(c) clearly shows the three phases with massive amount of τ9. The growth of τ9with the decrease of Mg content from 70.5 at.% to about 67 at.% can be understood by comparing this alloy in figure 1(c) with sample 3 in figure 1(b). It can be seen that the amount of Mg2Cu remains almost the same in these alloys. The amount of τ9increased from ~70% to ~95% in samples 4 and 5 whereas τ11decreased significantly. By comparing these four alloys (2–5), it can be said that for any alloy containing more than ~75 at.% Mg with approximately equal amount of Cu and Y, τ11will be dominant.The DSC spectra of sample 4 (67.5/16.4/16.1 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) are shown in figure 4. The presence of several thermal events suggests the occurrence of a rather complicated melting behavior. Similar DSC spectra are observed for sample 5 (66.7/17.3/16.0 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) as well. In order to identify the phase transformations more accurately, these two samples have been prepared close to each other. The DSC arrests of samples 4 and 5 are projected on the vertical sections at constant 17.2 at.% Cu as shown in figure 4. The complexity arises because of the presence of six ternary intermetallic compounds (τ4to τ9) in close proximity. All these compounds are incongruent and decompose in a narrow temperature range as can be seen in the corresponding vertical section. However, an effort has been made to separate these thermal events according to the equilibrium phase transformation which has been listed in Table 2. The experiments and thermodynamic calculations show reasonable agreement.One of the criteria for BMG forming alloys is to create chaos where confusion is generated by adding several elements in the alloy to have a sluggish equilibrium7,24. It can be seen in this vertical section that several phase transformations occur in a relatively narrow temperature range which unsettles the alloys and prevents equilibrium. This slow kinetics can produce a desirable condition for metallic glass.Analysis of the Mg2Cu + τ2+ τ7phase fieldSample 7 (55.6/36.9/7.5 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) is located in the three-phase region of Mg2Cu, τ2and τ7. The SEM image figure 2(e) clearly shows these three phases. These phases have also been confirmed using XRD analysis. The solubility of Mg in τ2has been found to be ~22.3 at.% which is close to that of De Negri et al.18who reported ~24.0 at.%. The dark matrix in the microstructure is Mg2Cu which has negligible Y solubility. The third phase in this sample is τ7which can be seen as a network of the grey phase in the SEM image. The relative weight fractions of the three phases, resulting from Rietveld analysis, are 37% Mg2Cu, 24% τ2and 39% τ7which is in qualitative agreement with the microstructure.The DSC spectra of this alloy are shown in figure 3. Three thermal events are observed and they have been projected on the corresponding vertical section. The predicted phase transformation temperatures are in accord with the DSC measurements. Two thermal arrests are observed at 793 and 720 K during cooling and 780 and 724 K during heating. These two events occurred due to the phase transformation: L + τ2/L + τ2+ Mg2Cu/τ2+ Mg2Cu + τ7. The experimental measurements agree well with the thermodynamic calculations which showed the transformation temperatures at 785 and 731 K, respectively.Analysis of the Mg2Cu + τ2+ MgCu2phase fieldThe BSE image of Sample 9 (28.0/63.3/8.7 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) in figure 5 shows the three-phase relationship among MgCu2, Mg2Cu and τ2. The dominating phase is τ2as the sample composition is near to this ternary compound. The DSC spectra in figure 3 show three thermal events during cooling as well as heating. According to the cooling signal the liquidus temperature is 1075 K which agrees well with the thermodynamic calculation of 1081 K where the precipitation of τ2starts. The next transformation occurs at 1046 K (cooling) according to the reaction L + τ2/L + τ2+ MgCu2. The last thermal event is due to the precipitation of the Mg2Cu. This signal is very weak because of the small amount of Mg2Cu. According to the phase assemblage diagram in figure 5(b) only 6 wt.% of the sample is Mg2Cu. The DSC signals have been projected on the vertical section in figure 3 which shows good agreement.Figure 5: (a) BSE image; (b) phase assemblage diagram; (c) XRD pattern sample 9 (28.0/63.3/8.7 Mg/Cu/Y at.%).Full size imageFigure 5(b) shows the phase assemblage diagram of sample 9, where the relative mass versus temperature is calculated. The proportion of each phase at any temperature of interest can easily be interpreted from this figure. For instance, at 673 K, 100 g of the overall material consists of 59 g of τ2, 6 g of Mg2Cu and 35 g of MgCu2. It also shows that while cooling this sample from the melt, τ2solidify first at 1081 K, followed by MgCu2at 1025 K, and then Mg2Cu at 802 K. A comparison between the DSC thermal arrest points and the thermodynamic calculations is presented in Table 2. The XRD pattern in figure 5(c) positively identified these three phases. The relative mass fractions of the phases, resulting from Rietveld analysis, are 73 wt.% τ2, 5 wt.% Mg2Cu and 22 wt.% MgCu2which is in reasonable agreement with the thermodynamic prediction.Analysis of the MgCu2+ τ1+ Cu-fcc phase fieldSample 10 (16.9/77.3/5.8 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) is located in the three-phase region of MgCu2+ τ1+ Cu-fcc. These phases were detected in the WDS and XRD analyses as listed in Table 1. MgCu2existed in this alloy in two different morphologies having two different concentrations of Y due to the large solubility of MgCu2. The alloy undergoes a eutectic reaction. The eutectic structure can be seen in the microstructure (figure S5, supplementary information online). During solidification MgCu2forms first at 1010 K according to the following transformation reaction: L + τ1/L + τ1+ MgCu2. This form of MgCu2dissolved ~5.2 at.% Y. Later due to the eutectic reaction at 985 K MgCu2formed again which was found to dissolve ~1.5 at.% Y. MgCu2has a large ternary solubility which varies with temperature. This is why when it formed at higher temperature it gives different composition than at lower temperature eutectic transformation. In the present work, this indirect information is used to assess the maximum solubility of Y in MgCu2. This is in agreement with De Negri et al.18who reported about 5 at.% Y solubility in MgCu2at 673 K. The DSC thermal arrests of this alloy are projected on the vertical section in figure 3 which shows good agreement. Detailed comparison with the thermodynamic predictions is given in Table 2.Analysis of the Cu6Y + τ1+ Cu-fcc phase fieldSample 11 (4.1/91.6/4.3 Mg/Cu/Y at.%) is located in the Cu-rich corner as can be seen in figure 1. It is prepared mainly to establish the phase triangulation in this area since De Negri et al.18did not perform any experiments with more than 66.67 at.% Cu. The WDS and XRD analysis confirmed a three-phase relation of Cu-fcc, Cu6Y and τ1. Three thermal arrests in heating as well as cooling are detected in the DSC spectra as shown in figure 3. The heating signals: 1256, 1101 and 1022 K correspond well with the cooling signals: 1263, 1126 and 1015 K, respectively. These measured thermal events correspond to the following phase transformations in the vertical section: L/L + Cu-fcc/L + Cu-fcc + Cu6Y/τ1+ Cu-fcc + Cu6Y.The location of Sample 11 is on the slope of a steep liquidus surface as can be seen in figure 3. This liquid is going towards a deep eutectic and generates a possible glass forming zone. As can be seen in figure 1 some of the fully amorphous alloys are located near this region. According to the current thermodynamic calculations, alloys with 74 to 80 at.% Cu with approximately 5 to 10 at.% Y should be promising candidates for metallic glass.Analysis of some important glass forming alloysInoue et al.2reported Mg65Cu25Y10to be the most favorable composition for glass formation. They used conventional mold casting and could produce samples up to 4 mm in diameter. They also referred to this composition as eutectic. Later Ma et al.3,10reported that they found Mg58Cu30.5Y11.5and Mg58.5Cu30.5Y11.0compositions which show higher glass forming ability. They produced fully amorphous samples of upto 9 mm diameter. However, they found these compositions little bit away from the eutectic point. Therefore, they suggested that the optimum glass forming alloys should be found at off-eutectic locations. Satta et al.24investigated the Mg65Cu25Y10alloy and compared their results with preliminary thermodynamic understanding of the ternary system. To obtain equilibrium state they annealed the amorphous alloy at 713 K for two weeks. But during annealing the sample lost 4 at.% Mg and obtained a final composition of Mg61Cu29Y10. They recognized three different phases in the sample but only could identify Mg2Cu in the XRD pattern. According to their EDS analysis these two phases have compositions of 60/23/17 and 65/20/15 Mg/Cu/Y at.%. Based on the current work, these two phases can be identified as τ7and τ8, respectively. Both Ma et al.3and Satta et al.24used DSC experiments to identify the liquidus and solidus temperatures of the amorphous alloys. These measurements were done at relatively high heating rate of 20 K/min and mostly on non-equilibrium samples. Also, the reproducibility of these measurements was not confirmed. Therefore these results were not considered during the thermodynamic optimization but are compared with the current calculations. A vertical section at 10 at.% Y is presented in figure 6 with the DSC measurements of Ma et al.3and Satta et al.24which shows good agreement. According to Ma et al.3,10the best glass forming alloys should be found at an off-eutectic composition which is not far from the deep eutectic point. One of the ternary eutectic points has been found near 75.3/15.2/9.5 Mg/Cu/Y at.% composition in the present calculation. Considering this and observing the vertical section in figure 6, it can be said that alloys with around 10 at.% Y and 10 to 20 at.% Cu are promising candidate for metallic glass. Some of the metallic glass alloys have been reported14in the Cu-rich region of the Mg-Cu-Y system as shown by the blue triangle in figures 1 and 6. The liquidus or solidus temperature of these alloys could not be found in the literature. However, it can be seen in figure 6 that the liquidus is going towards a eutectic point generating a suitable glass forming region.Figure 6: Vertical section at constant 10% Y with DSC results from the literature3,24.Full size imag

Unlike Other religions, where Religion and Science are two separate elements, the study of Science has always been compatible with Islam.In fact one notable observation is that The more the educated a muslim person is, the closer it is he gets to his religion. in fact this very trait is also cited as one of the uniue features in the Modern Muslim World which is the reason why it is growing fastest and there'll be equal Number of Christians and Muslims around the globe by the year 2050.Many young Muslims are discouraged when they see the poor standard of living of Muslims throughout the world and their limited opportunities. They also know the undeveloped status of technology within the Muslim countries in comparison with the West. From these observations, they immediately leap to the conclusion that the Muslim countries are ‘backward’, because Islam cannot adapt itself to the changing conditions; cannot assimilate new knowledge. Some even go so far as to say that Islam is actually against progress and against scientific advancement. However, those Muslims who have studied the later part of Islamic history will know that this is a complete fallacy and misconception.And the West was in dark ages only to be illuminated by Islamic Renaissance. That and lot's more to learn:enjoy reading!Let us do a brief review of the contribution of Islam to civilization as we know it.1 The story goes that an Arab named Khalid was tending his goats in the Kaffa region of southern Ethiopia, when he noticed his animals became livelier after eating a certain berry. He boiled the berries to make the first coffee. Certainly the first record of the drink is of beans exported from Ethiopia to Yemen where Sufis drank it to stay awake all night to pray on special occasions. By the late 15th century it had arrived in Mecca and Turkey from where it made its way to Venice in 1645. It was brought to England in 1650 by a Turk named Pasqua Rosee who opened the first coffee house in Lombard Street in the City of London. The Arabic qahwa became the Turkish kahve then the Italian caffé and then English coffee.2 The ancient Greeks thought our eyes emitted rays, like a laser, which enabled us to see. The first person to realise that light enters the eye, rather than leaving it, was the 10th-century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haitham. He invented the first pin-hole camera after noticing the way light came through a hole in window shutters. The smaller the hole, the better the picture, he worked out, and set up the first Camera Obscura (from the Arab word qamara for a dark or private room). He is also credited with being the first man to shift physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental one.3 A form of chess was played in ancient India but the game was developed into the form we know it today in Persia. From there it spread westward to Europe - where it was introduced by the Moors in Spain in the 10th century - and eastward as far as Japan. The word rook comes from the Persian rukh, which means chariot.4 A thousand years before the Wright brothers a Muslim poet, astronomer, musician and engineer named Abbas ibn Firnas made several attempts to construct a flying machine. In 852 he jumped from the minaret of the Grand Mosque in Cordoba using a loose cloak stiffened with wooden struts. He hoped to glide like a bird. He didn't. But the cloak slowed his fall, creating what is thought to be the first parachute, and leaving him with only minor injuries. In 875, aged 70, having perfected a machine of silk and eagles' feathers he tried again, jumping from a mountain. He flew to a significant height and stayed aloft for ten minutes but crashed on landing - concluding, correctly, that it was because he had not given his device a tail so it would stall on landing. Baghdad international airport and a crater on the Moon are named after him.5 Washing and bathing are religious requirements for Muslims, which is perhaps why they perfected the recipe for soap which we still use today. The ancient Egyptians had soap of a kind, as did the Romans who used it more as a pomade. But it was the Arabs who combined vegetable oils with sodium hydroxide and aromatics such as thyme oil. One of the Crusaders' most striking characteristics, to Arab nostrils, was that they did not wash. Shampoo was introduced to England by a Muslim who opened Mahomed's Indian Vapour Baths on Brighton seafront in 1759 and was appointed Shampooing Surgeon to Kings George IV and William IV.6 Distillation, the means of separating liquids through differences in their boiling points, was invented around the year 800 by Islam's foremost scientist, Jabir ibn Hayyan, who transformed alchemy into chemistry, inventing many of the basic processes and apparatus still in use today - liquefaction, crystallisation, distillation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation and filtration. As well as discovering sulphuric and nitric acid, he invented the alembic still, giving the world intense rosewater and other perfumes and alcoholic spirits (although drinking them is haram, or forbidden, in Islam). Ibn Hayyan emphasised systematic experimentation and was the founder of modern chemistry.7 The crank-shaft is a device which translates rotary into linear motion and is central to much of the machinery in the modern world, not least the internal combustion engine. One of the most important mechanical inventions in the history of humankind, it was created by an ingenious Muslim engineer called al-Jazari to raise water for irrigation. His 1206 Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices shows he also invented or refined the use of valves and pistons, devised some of the first mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, and was the father of robotics. Among his 50 other inventions was the combination lock.8 Quilting is a method of sewing or tying two layers of cloth with a layer of insulating material in between. It is not clear whether it was invented in the Muslim world or whether it was imported there from India or China. But it certainly came to the West via the Crusaders. They saw it used by Saracen warriors, who wore straw-filled quilted canvas shirts instead of armour. As well as a form of protection, it proved an effective guard against the chafing of the Crusaders' metal armour and was an effective form of insulation - so much so that it became a cottage industry back home in colder climates such as Britain and Holland.9 The pointed arch so characteristic of Europe's Gothic cathedrals was an invention borrowed from Islamic architecture. It was much stronger than the rounded arch used by the Romans and Normans, thus allowing the building of bigger, higher, more complex and grander buildings. Other borrowings from Muslim genius included ribbed vaulting, rose windows and dome-building techniques. Europe's castles were also adapted to copy the Islamic world's - with arrow slits, battlements, a barbican and parapets. Square towers and keeps gave way to more easily defended round ones. Henry V's castle architect was a Muslim.10 Many modern surgical instruments are of exactly the same design as those devised in the 10th century by a Muslim surgeon called al-Zahrawi. His scalpels, bone saws, forceps, fine scissors for eye surgery and many of the 200 instruments he devised are recognisable to a modern surgeon. It was he who discovered that catgut used for internal stitches dissolves away naturally (a discovery he made when his monkey ate his lute strings) and that it can be also used to make medicine capsules. In the 13th century, another Muslim medic named Ibn Nafis described the circulation of the blood, 300 years before William Harvey discovered it. Muslims doctors also invented anaesthetics of opium and alcohol mixes and developed hollow needles to suck cataracts from eyes in a technique still used today.11 The windmill was invented in 634 for a Persian caliph and was used to grind corn and draw up water for irrigation. In the vast deserts of Arabia, when the seasonal streams ran dry, the only source of power was the wind which blew steadily from one direction for months. Mills had six or 12 sails covered in fabric or palm leaves. It was 500 years before the first windmill was seen in Europe.12 The technique of inoculation was not invented by Jenner and Pasteur but was devised in the Muslim world and brought to Europe from Turkey by the wife of the English ambassador to Istanbul in 1724. Children in Turkey were vaccinated with cowpox to fight the deadly smallpox at least 50 years before the West discovered it.13 The fountain pen was invented for the Sultan of Egypt in 953 after he demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes. It held ink in a reservoir and, as with modern pens, fed ink to the nib by a combination of gravity and capillary action.14 The system of numbering in use all round the world is probably Indian in origin but the style of the numerals is Arabic and first appears in print in the work of the Muslim mathematicians al-Khwarizmi and al-Kindi around 825. Algebra was named after al-Khwarizmi's book, Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, much of whose contents are still in use. The work of Muslim maths scholars was imported into Europe 300 years later by the Italian mathematician Fibonacci. Algorithms and much of the theory of trigonometry came from the Muslim world. And Al-Kindi's discovery of frequency analysis rendered all the codes of the ancient world soluble and created the basis of modern cryptology.15 Ali ibn Nafi, known by his nickname of Ziryab (Blackbird) came from Iraq to Cordoba in the 9th century and brought with him the concept of the three-course meal - soup, followed by fish or meat, then fruit and nuts. He also introduced crystal glasses (which had been invented after experiments with rock crystal by Abbas ibn Firnas - see No 4).16 Carpets were regarded as part of Paradise by medieval Muslims, thanks to their advanced weaving techniques, new tinctures from Islamic chemistry and highly developed sense of pattern and arabesque which were the basis of Islam's non-representational art. In contrast, Europe's floors were distinctly earthly, not to say earthy, until Arabian and Persian carpets were introduced. In England, as Erasmus recorded, floors were "covered in rushes, occasionally renewed, but so imperfectly that the bottom layer is left undisturbed, sometimes for 20 years, harbouring expectoration, vomiting, the leakage of dogs and men, ale droppings, scraps of fish, and other abominations not fit to be mentioned". Carpets, unsurprisingly, caught on quickly.17 The modern cheque comes from the Arabic saqq, a written vow to pay for goods when they were delivered, to avoid money having to be transported across dangerous terrain. In the 9th century, a Muslim businessman could cash a cheque in China drawn on his bank in Baghdad.18 By the 9th century, many Muslim scholars took it for granted that the Earth was a sphere. The proof, said astronomer Ibn Hazm, "is that the Sun is always vertical to a particular spot on Earth". It was 500 years before that realisation dawned on Galileo. The calculations of Muslim astronomers were so accurate that in the 9th century they reckoned the Earth's circumference to be 40,253.4km - less than 200km out. The scholar al-Idrisi took a globe depicting the world to the court of King Roger of Sicily in 1139.19 Though the Chinese invented saltpetre gunpowder, and used it in their fireworks, it was the Arabs who worked out that it could be purified using potassium nitrate for military use. Muslim incendiary devices terrified the Crusaders. By the 15th century they had invented both a rocket, which they called a "self-moving and combusting egg", and a torpedo - a self-propelled pear-shaped bomb with a spear at the front which impaled itself in enemy ships and then blew up.20 Medieval Europe had kitchen and herb gardens, but it was the Arabs who developed the idea of the garden as a place of beauty and meditation. The first royal pleasure gardens in Europe were opened in 11th-century Muslim Spain. Flowers which originated in Muslim gardens include the carnation and the tulip.Edit: Added below section :)lets check out more...Trigonometry, Sine, Tangent, Co-TangentThe Arabs developed these functions in trigonometry and Ibn Moosaa's work Hisaab-Al Jab-Wal Muqaabala (The Calculation of Integration and Equation) presented 800 examples in the 8thcentury CE. His work was translated from Arabic into Latin and until the 16th century CE, it was Europe's main textbook on the subject.Algebra and GeometryMuhammad bin Moosaa Al-Khawaarizmi is considered to be one of the founders of Algebra. The word ‘Algorithm’ or 'Algorizm' is a corruption of his name or the name of the town Khwaarizm (Kheva), in what is now Uzbekistan, where he wasborn. He adopted the use of ‘cipher’ (zero), that was devised in India some centuries earlier, a numeral of fundamental importance, leading up to the so-called arithmetic of positions and the decimal system. The very word ‘zero’ is a derivative of the Arabic ‘sifr’ or ‘cipher’. His pioneering work on the system of numerals is well known as "Algorithm," or "Algorizm." In addition to introducing the Arabic numerals, he developed several arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions.Another great mathematician was Omar Khayyaam, who offered to the world geometric and algebraic solutions of the second degree. Naseeruddeen wrote the treatise on quadrilateral trigonometry, as well as plain and spherical geometry.Physics and ChemistryKamaaluddeen examined the refraction of sunlight in raindrops and offered an explanation of the genesis of primary and secondary rainbows. The story of the invention of the pendulum and the presentation of a water clock to Emperor Charlemagne by Haaroon Ar-Rasheed is well known.The great historian Gibbons wrote in his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Volume 5) that the science of chemistry owes its origin and improvements to the Muslims.Science of MechanicsThe development of the science of mechanics in Islam is an act of genius. Moosaa bin Shaakir described one hundred pieces of mechanical equipment in his book of artifices. Other outstanding Muslim treatises included Al Kitaab Fi Ma`rifat Al-Hiya Al-Handasiyyah (The Book of the Knowledge of Ingenious Geometrical Contrivances) by Abul Fiaz bin Al Raz and Al Kitaab Meezanal-Hikmah (The Book of Balance and Wisdom) by Al-Khazini. He also did work on accurate weighing, and determination of the specific gravity of substances.Camera ObscuraIn the field of optics, Camera Obscura was invented by Ibn Haytham in 1038 CE. (We already talked about it above)Theory of RelativityQaadhi Abu Bakr had developed the theory of relativity in the 8th century CE in terms of time and space by means of mathematical equations and astrophysics. Imagine, Einstein was not even born in the Western world, who propounded the same theory of relativity much later in the 20th century CE.GeographyAs far as geography was concerned, Muslim scientists established that the world was round in the 9th century CE, and the first map of the globe was made during the Caliphate of Ma’moon.Paper MakingThis was one of the earliest skills attained by the Muslims. As early as the 8th century CE, high quality paper was being manufactured in Samarqand. Egypt was known to have its first paper mill in the year 900 CE. The earliest Arabic manuscript written on paper that has been discovered is the Ghareeb Al Hadeeth by Abu ‘Ubayed, dated 837 CE. It can be seen in Hollandpreserved in the library at the University of Leyden.Advances in IndustryUnder Islamic rule, Spain was an industrial center. It was one of the wealthiest and most thickly populated of the European countries. Muslims were leading in weaving wool, producing silk, pottery, jewelry, leather and perfume industry. In the Middle Ages, world trade was commanded by Muslims and Baghdad Bukhaara and Samarqand remained centers for world fairs until the 16th century CE. The Bayt Al-Hikmah at Cairo contained two million books, the library at Tripoli contained some three million, but this library was burned down by the Christians during the first Crusade.Miracles of the QuranLet us consider the hundreds of scientific facts mentioned in the Holy Quran. For example,the fact that the earth was previously a part of the sun and after its separation, it became a habitable place for humankind, as mentioned in chapter 21, verse 30.That matter is made up of sub-atomic particles (chapter 10, verse 61).That the embryo in the mother's womb in enclosed by three epithelial coverings (chapter 39, verse 6).That each human being has a unique fingerprint (chapter 75, verse 4) etc.There are thousands of other scientific facts in the Holy Quran.now domain wise lets summarizeContributions to educationFemale empowering? read onTwo Muslim women, Fatima and Miriam al-Firhi, created the world's first university, Al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco, in 859 AD. For several years, students were schooled here in a plethora of secular and religious subjects. At the end of their education, teachers evaluated students and awarded degrees based on satisfactory performances. The concept of awarding degrees would spread from Fez to Andalucía, Spain, and later to the Universities of Bologna in Italy and Oxford in England, among other places of learning.Spanish Muslims of Andalucía were especially strong advocates of education and helped to dispel the gloom that had enveloped Europe during the Dark Ages. Between the 8th and 15th centuries, Andalucía was perhaps the world's epicenter for education and knowledge. Spanish universities such as those in Cordoba, Granada, and Seville, had Christian and Jewish students who learned science from Muslims. Women were also encouraged to study in Muslim Spain. Yes, this educational environment that stressed tolerance would not reach the "Western world" until the 19th and 20th centuries.Contributions to philosophyOne of the greatest Muslim contributions to civilization began in the 8th century when Muslim scholars inherited volumes of Greek philosophy. The wisdom in ancient Greece texts, which had been lost to Europeans, was translated from Latin to Arabic by Muslim scholars, thus creating one of the greatest transmissions of knowledge in world history. Muslims scholars would eventually bring the ideas of great ancient Greek minds such as Socrates, Aristotle and Plato into Europe, where their philosophy was translated into other European languages. This is why Muslims are the main threshold behind the European Renaissance and the Enlightenment, two movements that resurrected Greek philosophy and gave new life into a European continent that was bogged down with religious dogma and bloody internal conflicts.Many Muslim scholars made acquiring knowledge their life goal. Perhaps the most notable of these scholars is Al-Ghazali, a Sufi Muslim who in the 11th and 12th centuries revolutionized early Islamic philosophy by helping develop Neoplatonism, which is often described as the "mystical" or "religious" interpretation of Greek philosophy. At the time of Al-Ghazali's writing, Muslim philosophers had read about the ideas of ancient Greece, but these ideas were generally perceived to be in conflict with Islamic teachings. Al-Ghazali helped synthesize these elements by adopting the techniques of Aristotelian logic and the Neoplatonic ways to diminish the negative influences of excessive Islamic rationalism.Ibn Khaldun is another one of the most important Muslim thinkers in history. Recognized as one of the greatest historians ever and the founder of sociological sciences in the 14th and 15th centuries, Khaldun created one of the earliest nonreligious philosophies in history in his work, the Muqaddimah. He also paved the way for our expectations of modern-day Presidents and Prime Ministers by creating a framework for evaluating "good rulers," stating "the sovereign exists for the good of the people... The necessity of a Ruler arises from the fact that human beings have to live together and unless there is some one to maintain order, society would break to pieces."Contributions to health careMedicine is another crucial contribution to civilization made by Muslims in addition to education and the university system. In 872 in Cairo, Egypt, the Ahmad ibn Tulun hospital was created and equipped with an elaborate institution and a range of functions. Like other Islamic hospitals that soon followed, Tulun was a secular institution open to men and women, adults and children, the rich and poor, as well as Muslims and non-Muslims. Tulun is also the earliest hospital to give care to the mentally ill.One hundred years after the founding of Tulun, a surgeon named Al-Zahrawi, often called the "father of surgery," wrote an illustrated encyclopedia that would ultimately be used as a guide to European surgeons for the next five hundred years. Al-Zarawhi's surgical instruments, such as scalpels, bone saws, and forceps are still used by modern surgeons. Al-Zahrawi is also reportedly the first surgeon to perform a caesarean operation.Another significant Muslim discovery came in the 13th century, when the Muslim medic Ibn Nafis described the pulmonary circulation almost three hundred years before William Harvey, the English physician who is believed by many Westerners to have "discovered" it. The technique of inoculation, or the introduction of an antigenic substance or vaccine into the body to induce immunity to a disease, is also said to have been designed by Muslims in Turkey and brought to Europe by the wife of England's Turkish ambassador in 1724.Protecting and cleansing the body has always been a priority for Muslims. Perhaps then it is no surprised that Muslim scientists combined vegetable oils with sodium hydroxide and aromatics such as thyme oil to create a recipe for soap, which is still used today. Shampoo was also introduced to England on the Brighton seafront in 1759 at Mahomed's Indian Vapour Baths.Contributions to scienceThere is also little doubt that the development of astronomy owes a great deal to the work of Muslim astronomers. As far back as the early 9th century, the Caliph Al-Ma'mum founded an astronomical observatory in Shammasiya in Baghdad and Qasiyun in Damascus. Five hundred years later, in 1420, Prince Ulugh Bey built a massive observatory in Samarqand, which was then followed in 1577 by another observatory built by Sultan Murad III in Istanbul.The Ottomans had particularly well-organized astronomical institutions such as the post of chief-astronomer and time-keeping houses. Taqi al-Din, a 16th century Ottoman astronomer, created astronomical tables and observational instruments that helped measure the coordinates of stars and the distances between them.Muslims have also made contributions in the field of chemistry by inventing many of the basic processes and apparatuses used by modern-day chemists. Working in the 8th and 9th centuries in Andalucía, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, the founder of modern chemistry, transformed alchemy into chemistry through distillation, or separating liquids through differences in their boiling points. In addition to developing the processes of crystallization, evaporation, and filtration, he also discovered sulphuric and nitric acid. The historian Erick John Holmyard stated that Hayyan's work is as important, if not more, than that of Robert Boyle and Antoine Lavoisier, two European chemists who are frequently attributed to creating modern chemistry.Indeed our very modern and globalized world today would not be able to move so quickly if it were not for the genius of Ibn Firnas, a Muslim engineer of Andalucía who in the 9th century constructed a flying machine, thus becoming the world's first aviator. In 852 he jumped from the minaret of the Grand Mosque in Cordoba, Spain, using a loose cloak stiffened with wooden struts. Although he hoped to glide like an eagle, Ibn Firnas did not, though he is credited for creating the first parachute.Muslims have also influenced the study of physics, a closely linked field to flying and aviation. Mohammad Abdus Salam, a Pakistani theoretical physicist, shared a 1979 Nobel Prize for his contribution to the field of theoretical physics, specifically in unifying electromagnetic and weak forces.Dear Muslims today,Today the West is at its peak and we have lagged behind so far. However, our downfall is not due to Islam, as the West would like us to believe, but due to our sheer neglect of Islamic principles. We must realize that Islam is undeniably the most progressive religion, which is in fact a way of life with a very wide scope.An epic Example Dear Everyone,Just like Caliph Omar wrote in his letter to one of the leaders of his battalion on the eve of going to war,'Remember yourself and convey this to each companion in the camp, for thou should not fear the enemy for God will be with you if you remain on the siratummustaaeem(the right path). Their numbers should not worry you nor should you be scared of their armor, but what thou should instead fear of are the sins of your heart, of failing to be the kind of person Allah wants us to be, for victory shall come to you because of your strength of character, and so you will lose if pride stains your soul and you stray away from being on the path Allah asked you to walk on'From the many things we learned today, you must have observed that when it came to learning, Muslims didn't find shame in translating so much of useful work from Greeks. This means that we never need to envy but learn from everyone and keep progressing humanity.Of course, life is a very hard struggle. However, struggle is an inbuilt instinct of human nature. Struggle is a way but not an accomplishment or attainment in itself. We should make an effort and struggle but at the same time make Du'aa. This is where Tawakkul, i.e. trust in Allaah comes because destiny supersedes thought. We must trust in Allaah for our betterment, because if success depended merely upon one’s personal struggle, then nobody in the world would be unsuccessful. Furthermore, struggle is itself predestined by Allaah. Man should do his best, then leave the rest to Allaah, Most HighReferences:"1001 Inventions: Discover the Muslim Heritage in Our World" is a new exhibition which began a nationwide tour this week. It is currently at the Science Museum in Manchester. For more information, go to www.1001inventions.com.source: independent.co.uk, huffpost. islamwebMy answer on another quora questionWritten 5 Apr

Dear Tristan Walker,Thank you so much for the question. I think all the world should be informed for the Giant Founder and 1st Governor of the contemporary Hellenic Republic as an independent and functioning State. His name is Ioannis-Antonios KapodistriasI will transfer here the Wikipaedia content for Ioannis Kapodistrias baced mainly on the research of British historian David Brewer, which story is very soft and “gendly kind” saying nothing for the evil role of British Authorities in the assassination of the Giant GovernorIoannis Kapodistrias: his father Antonios Maria Kapodistrias was from Corfu, while his mother Adamantine Gonemis (Αδαμαντία (Διαμαντίνα) Γονέμη was from CyprusHis Excellency CountIoannis KapodistriasΙωάννης ΚαποδίστριαςGovernor of the First Hellenic RepublicIn office18 January 1828 – 27 September 1831Preceded byAndreas Zaimisas President of the Governmental CommissionSucceeded byAugustinos KapodistriasForeign Minister of RussiaIn office1816–1822Preceded byNikolay RumyantsevSucceeded byKarl NesselrodePersonal detailsBorn11 February 1776 Corfu, Venetian Ionian IslandsDied9 October 1831 (aged 55) Nafplion, GreeceNationalityGreekPolitical partyRussian PartySignatureCount Ioannis Antonios Kapodistrias (10[1][2][3] or 11 February 1776[4][5] – 9 October 1831), sometimes anglicized as John Capodistrias (Greek: Κόμης Ιωάννης Αντώνιος Καποδίστριας, romanized: Komis Ioannis Antonios Kapodistrias;[5] Russian: граф Иоанн Каподистрия, romanized: Graf Ioann Kapodistriya; Italian: Giovanni Antonio Capodistria, Conte Capo d'Istria), was a Greek statesman who served as the Foreign Minister of the Russian Empireand was one of the most distinguished politicians and diplomats of Europe.[6][7][8][9] After a long and distinguished career in European politics and diplomacy he was elected as the first head of state of independent Greece(1827–31). He is considered the founder of the modern Greek state,[10][11][12][13] and the architect of Greek independence.[14]Background and early careerIoannis Kapodistrias was born in Corfu, the most populous Ionian Island (then under Venetian rule) to a distinguished Corfiote family.[15] Kapodistrias's father was the nobleman, artist and politician Antonios Maria Kapodistrias (Αντώνιος Μαρία Καποδίστριας). [5][16] An ancestor of Kapodistrias had been created a conte (count) by Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy, and the title was later (1679) inscribed in the Libro d'Oro of the Corfu nobility;[17] the title originates from the city of Capodistria (now Koper/Capodistria) in Slovenia, [18][19] then part of the Republic of Venice and the place of origin of Kapodistrias's paternal family before they moved to Corfu in the 13th century, where they changed their religion from Catholic to Orthodox and became hellenized.[20][21] His family's name in Capodistria had been Vitori or Vittori.[20][21] His mother was Adamantine Gonemis (Αδαμαντία (Διαμαντίνα) Γονέμη, Diamantina Gonemi), a countess,[16] and daughter of the noble Christodoulos Gonemis (Χριστόδουλος Γονέμης).[22] The Gonemis were a Greek[22][23][24] family originally from the island of Cyprus,[14] they had migrated to Crete when Cyprus fell to the Ottomans in the 16th century. [14] They then migrated to Epirus when Crete fell in the 17th century, finally settling on the Ionian island of Corfu.[14] Kapodistrias family home in Corfu. The plaque between the two windows to the left of the entrance mentions he was born there. The Gonemis family, like the Kapodistriases, had been listed in the Libro d'Oro(Golden Book) of Corfu.[25][26] Kapodistrias, though born and raised as a nobleman,[27] was throughout his life a liberal thinker and had democratic ideals.[8] His ancestors fought along with the Venetians during the Turkish sieges of Corfu and had received a title of nobility from them.[6][28][29] Kapodistrias studied medicine, philosophy and law at the University of Padua in 1795–97. When he was 21 years old, in 1797, he started his medical practice as a doctor in his native island of Corfu.[5][6][30][31][32] In 1799, when Corfu was briefly occupied by the forces of Russia and Turkey, Kapodistrias was appointed chief medical director of the military hospital. In 1802 he founded an important scientific and social progress organisation in Corfu, the "National Medical Association", of which he was an energetic member.Minister of the Septinsular RepublicStatue of Ioannis Kapodistrias (by Georgios Bonanos) in Panepistimiou street, in front of the National and Kapodistrian University, Athens. After two years of revolutionary freedom, triggered by the French Revolution and the ascendancy of Napoleon, in 1799 Russia and the Ottoman Empire drove the French out of the seven Ionian islands and organised them as a free and independent state – the Septinsular Republic – ruled by its nobles.[5] Kapodistrias, substituting for his father, became one of two ministers of the new state. Thus, at the age of 25, Kapodistrias became involved in politics. In Kefalonia he was successful in convincing the populace to remain united and disciplined to avoid foreign intervention and, by his argument and sheer courage, he faced and appeased rebellious opposition without conflict. With the same peaceful determination, he established authority in all the seven islands.When Russia sent an envoy, Count George Mocenigo (1762–1839), a noble from Zakynthos who had served as Russian Diplomat in Italy, Kapodistrias became his protégé. Mocenigo later helped Kapodistrias to join the Russian diplomatic service. When elections were carried for a new Ionian Senate, Kapodistrias was unanimously appointed as Chief Minister of State. In December, 1803, a less feudal and more liberal and democratic constitution was voted by the Senate. As minister of state, he organised the public sector, putting particular emphasis on education. In 1807 the French re-occupied the islands and dissolved the Septinsular Republic. [5]Russian diplomatic serviceIn 1809 Kapodistrias entered the service of Alexander I of Russia.[33] His first important mission, in November 1813, was as unofficial Russian ambassador to Switzerland, with the task of helping disentangle the country from the French dominanceimposed by Napoleon. He secured Swiss unity, independence and neutrality, which were formally guaranteed by the Great Powers, and actively facilitated the initiation of a new federal constitution for the 19 cantons that were the component states of Switzerland, with personal drafts.[34] In the ensuing Congress of Vienna, 1815, as the Russian minister, he counterbalanced the paramount influence of the Austrian minister, Prince Metternich, and insisted on French state unity under a Bourbon monarch. He also obtained new international guarantees for the constitution and neutrality of Switzerland through an agreement among the Powers. After these brilliant diplomatic successes, Alexander I appointed Kapodistrias joint Foreign Minister of Russia (with Karl Robert Nesselrode).In the course of his assignment as Foreign Minister of Russia, Kapodistrias's ideas came to represent a progressive alternative to Metternich's aims of Austrian domination of European affairs.[33] Kapodistrias's liberal ideas of a new European order so threatened Metternich that he wrote in 1819:[33]Kapodistrias is not a bad man, but honestly speaking he is a complete and thorough fool, a perfect miracle of wrong-headedness...He lives in a world to which our minds are often transported by a bad nightmare.— Metternich on Kapodistrias, [33]Realising that Kapodistrias's progressive vision was antithetical to his own, Metternich then tried to undermine Kapodistrias's position in the Russian court.[33] Although Metternich was not a decisive factor in Kapodistrias's leaving his post as Russian Foreign Minister, he nevertheless attempted to actively undermine Kapodistrias by rumour and innuendo. According to the French ambassador to Saint Petersburg, Metternich was a master of insinuation, and he attempted to neutralise Kapodistrias, viewing him as the only man capable of counterbalancing Metternich's own influence with the Russian court.More than anyone else he possesses the art of devaluing opinions that are not his own; the most honourable life, the purest intentions are not sheltered from his insinuations. It is thus with profound ingenuity that he knew how to neutralize the influence of Count Capodistrias, the only one who could counterbalance his own— French ambassador on Metternich, [33] Metternich, by default, succeeded in the short term, since Kapodistrias eventually left the Russian court on his own, but with time, Kapodistrias's ideas and policies for a new European order prevailed.[33]He was always keenly interested in the cause of his native country, and in particular the state of affairs in the Seven Islands, which in a few decades' time had passed from French revolutionary influence to Russian protection and then to British rule. He always tried to attract his Emperor's attention to matters Greek. In January 1817, an emissary from the Filiki Eteria, Nikolaos Galátis, arrived in St. Petersburg to offer Kapodistrias leadership of the movement for Greek independence.[35] Kapodhistrias rejected the offer, telling Galátis:You must be out of your senses, Sir, to dream of such a project. No one could dare communicate such a thing to me in this house, where I have the honour to serve a great and powerful sovereign, except a young man like you, straight from the rocks of Ithaka, and carried away by some sort of blind passion. I can no longer continue this discussion of the objects of your mission, and I assure you that I shall never take note of your papers. The only advice I can give to you to is to tell nobody about them, to return immediately where you have come from, and to tell those who sent you that unless they want to destroy themselves and their innocent and unhappy nation with them, they must abandon their revolutionary course and continue to live as before under their present government until Providence decrees otherwise.[36]In December 1819, another emissary from the Filiki Eteria, Kamarinós, arrived in St. Petersburg, this time representing Petrobey Mavromichalis with a request that Russia support an uprising against the Ottomans.[37] Kapodistrias wrote a long and careful letter, which while expressing support for Greek independence in theory, explained that at present it was not possible for Russia to support such an uprising and advised Mavromichalis to call off the revolution before it started.[38] Still undaunted, one of the leaders of the Filiki Eteria, Emmanuel Xánthos arrived in St. Petersburg to again appeal to Kapodistrias to have Russia support the planned revolution and was again informed that the Russian Foreign Minister "...could not become involved for the above reasons and that if the arkhigoi knew of other means to carry out their objective, let them use them".[39]When Prince Alexander Ypsilantis asked Kapodistrias to support the planned revolution, Kapodistrias advised against going ahead, saying: "Those drawing up such plans are most guilty and it is they who are driving Greece to calamity. They are wretched hucksters destroyed by their own evil conduct and now taking money from simple souls in the name of the fatherland they do not possess. They want you in their conspiracy to inspire trust in their operations. I repeat: be on your guard against these men".[40] Kapodistrias visited his Ionian homeland, by then under British rule, in 1818, and in 1819 he went to London to discuss the islanders' grievances with the British government, but the British gave him the cold shoulder, partly because of the fact that, uncharacteristically, he refused to show them the memorandum he wrote to the czar about the subject. [41] In 1821, when Kapodistrias learned that Prince Alexander Ypsilantis had invaded the Ottoman protectorate of Moldavia (modern north-eastern Romania) with the aim of provoking a general uprising in the Balkans against the Ottoman Empire, Kapodistrias was described as being "like a man struck by a thunderbolt".[35] Czar Alexander, committed to upholding the established order in Europe, had no interest in supporting a revolt against the Ottoman Empire, and it thus fell to Kapodistrias to draft a declaration in Alexander's name denouncing Ypsilantis for abandoning "the precepts of religion and morality", condemning him for his "obscure devices and shady plots", ordering him to leave Moldavia at once and announcing that Russia would offer him no support.[35] As a fellow Greek, Kapodistrias found this document difficult to draft, but his sense of loyalty to Alexander outweighed his sympathy for Ypsilantis.[35] On Easter Sunday, 22 April 1821, the Sublime Porte had the Patriarch Grigorios V publicly hanged in Constantinople at the gate of his residence in Phanar.[42] This, together with other news that the Ottomans were killing Orthodox priests, led Alexander to have Kapodistrias draft an ultimatum accusing the Ottomans of having trampled on the rights of their Orthodox subjects, of breaking treaties, insulting the Orthodox churches everywhere by hanging the Patriarch and of threatening "to disturb the peace that Europe has bought at so great a sacrifice".[43]Kapodistrias ended his ultimatum:"The Ottoman government has placed itself in a state of open hostility against the Christian world; that it has legitimized the defense of the Greeks, who would thenceforth be fighting to save themselves from inevitable destruction; and that in view of the nature of that struggle, Russia would find herself strictly obliged to offer them help because they were persecuted; protection, because they would be in need of it; assistance, jointly with the whole of Christendom; because she could not surrender her brothers in religion to the mercy of a blind fanaticism".[44] As the Sublime Porte declined to answer the Russian ultimatum within the seven day period allowed after it was presented by the ambassador Baron Georgii Stroganov on 18 July 1821, Russia broke off diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire. [43] Kapodistrias became increasingly active in support of Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire, but did not succeed in obtaining Alexander's support for the Greek revolution of 1821.[5] This put Kapodistrias in an untenable situation and in 1822 he took an extended leave of absence from his position as Foreign Minister and retired to Geneva where he applied himself to supporting the Greek revolution by organising material and moral support.[5]Return to Greece[edit]Bust of Ioannis Kapodistrias, National Historical Museum, Athens.The election of Kapodistrias at the Third National Assembly at TroezenKapodistrias moved to Geneva, where he was greatly esteemed, having been made an Honorary Citizen for his past services to Swiss unity and particularly to the cantons.[45]In 1827, he learned that the newly formed Greek National Assembly had, as he was the most illustrious Greek-born politician in Europe, elected him as the first head of state of newly liberated Greece, with the title of Kyvernetes (Κυβερνήτης – Governor). A visitor to Kapodistrias in Geneva described him thus: "If there is to be found anywhere in the world an innate nobility, marked by a distinction of appearance, innocence, and intelligence in the eyes, a graceful simplicity of manner, a natural elegance of expression in any language, no one could be more intrinsically aristocratic than Count Capo d'Istria [Kapodistrias] of Corfu".[46]Under the aristocratic veneer, Kapodistrias was an intense workaholic, a driven man and "an ascetic bachelor" who worked from dawn until late at night without a break, a loner whom few really knew well.[46]Despite his work ethic, Kapodistrias had what the British historian David Brewer called an air of "melancholy fatalism" about him.[46]Kapodistrias once wrote about the cause of Greek freedom that "Providence will decide and it will be for the best".[46]After touring Europe to rally support for the Greek cause, Kapodistrias landed in Nafplion on 7 January 1828, and arrived in Aegina on 8 January 1828.[47]It was the first time he had ever set foot on the Greek mainland, and he found a discouraging situation there. Even while fighting against the Ottomans continued, factional and dynastic conflicts had led to two civil wars, which ravaged the country. Greece was bankrupt, and the Greeks were unable to form a united national government. Wherever Kapodistrias went in Greece, he was greeted by large and enthusiastic welcomes from the crowds.[48]Kapodistrias asked the Senate to give him full executive powers and to have the constitution suspended while the Senate was to be replaced with a Panhellenion, whose 27 members were all to be appointed by the governor, requests that were granted.[49]Kapodistrias promised to call a National Assembly for April 1828, but in fact it took 18 months for the National Assembly to meet.[50]From the first capital of Greece, Nafplion, he ushered in a new era in the country, which had just been liberated from a 400-year Turkish occupation. He founded schools, established Foundations for young women to work, and inaugurated the first university.These Institutes educated the first teachers of a liberated Greece. In September 1828, Kapodistrias at first restrained General Sir Richard Church from advancing into the Roumeli, hoping that the French would intervene instead.[51]After learning that French help was not forthcoming, Kapodistrias ordered Church to resume his advance, and by April 1829, Church had taken all of Greece up to the Gulf of Árta and the Makrinóros mountains.[51]Kapodistrias insisted on involving himself closely in military operations, much to the intense frustration of his generals.[51]General Demetrios Ypsilantis was incensed when Kapodistrias visited his camp to accuse him to his face of incompetence, and later refused a letter from him under the grounds it was "a monstrous and unacceptable communication".[51]Church was attacked by Kapodistrias for being insufficiently aggressive, as the governor wanted him to conquer as much land as possible, to create a situation that would favor the Greek claims at the conference tables of London.[51]In February 1829, Kapodistrias made his brother Agostino lieutenant-plenipotentiary of Roumeli, with control over pay, rations and equipment, and a final say over Ypsilantis and Church.[51]Church wrote to Kapodistrias: "Let me ask you seriously to think of the position of a General in Chief of an Army before the enemy who has not the authority to order a payment of a sou, or the delivery of a ration of bread".[51]Kapodistrias also appointed another brother, Viaro, to rule over the islands off eastern Greece, and sent a letter to the Hydriots reading: "Do not examine the actions of the government and do not pass judgement on them, because to do so can lead you into error, with harmful consequences to you".[51]AdministrationPhoenix, the first currency of the modern Greek StateThe most important task facing the governor of Greece was to forge a modern state and with it a civil society, a task in which the workaholic Kapodistrias toiled at mightily, working from 5 am until 10 pm every night.[52]Upon his arrival, Kapodistrias launched a major reform and modernisation programme that covered all areas. Kapodistrias distrusted the men who led the war of independence, believing them all to be self-interested, petty men whose only concern was power for themselves.[50]Kapodistrias saw himself as the champion of the common people, long oppressed by the Ottomans, but also believed that the Greek people were not ready for democracy yet, saying that to give the Greeks democracy at present would be like giving a boy a razor; the boy did not need the razor and could easily kill himself as he did not know to use it properly.[50]Kapodistrias argued that what the Greek people needed at present was an enlightened autocracy that would lift the nation out of the backwardness and poverty caused by the Ottomans and once a generation or two had passed with the Greeks educated and owning private property could democracy be established.[50]Kapodistrias's role model was the Emperor Alexander I of Russia, whom he argued had been gradually moving Russia towards the norms of Western Europe during his reign, and he had unfortunately died before he had finished his work.[50]Kapodistrias often expressed his feelings towards the other Greek leaders in harsh language, at one point saying he would crush the revolutionary leaders: "Il faut éteindre les brandons de la revolution".[50]The Greek politician Spyridon Trikoupiswrote: "He [Kapodistrias] called the primates, Turks masquerading under Christian names; the military chiefs, brigands; the Phanariots, vessels of Satan; and the intellectuals, fools. Only the peasants and the artisans did he consider worthy of his love and protection, and he openly declared that his administration was conducted solely for their benefit".[53]Trikoúpis described Kapodistrias as átolmos (cautious), a man who liked to move methodically and carefully with as little risk as possible, which led him to micro-manage the government by attempting to be the "minister of everything" as Kapodistrias only trusted himself to govern properly.[54]Kapodistrias alienated many in the Greek elite with his haughty, high-handed manner together with his open contempt for the Greek elites, but he attracted support from several of the captains, such as Theodoros Kolokotronis and Yannis Makriyannis who provided the necessary military force to back up Kapodistrias's decisions.[55]Kapodistrias, an elegant, urbane diplomat, educated in Padua and accustomed to the polite society of Europe formed an unlikely, but deep friendship with Kolokotronis, a man of peasant origins and a former klepht (bandit).[56]Kolokotronis described Kapodhistrias as the only man capable of being president as he was not tied to any of the Greek factions, admired him for his concern for the common people who had suffered so much in the war, and liked Kapodistrias's interest in getting things done, regardless of the legal niceties.[56]As Greece had no means of raising taxes, money was always in short supply and Kapodistrias was constantly writing letters to his friend, the Swiss banker Jean-Gabriel Eynard, asking for yet another loan.[52]As a former Russian foreign minister, Kapodistrias was well connected to the European elite and he attempted to use his connections to secure loans for the new Greek state and to achieve the most favorable borders for Greece, which was being debated by Russian, French and British diplomats.[54]Kapodistrias re-established military unity, bringing an end to the second phase of the civil war; re-organised the military, which was then able to reconquer territory lost to the Ottoman military during the civil wars; introduced the first modern quarantine system in Greece, which brought epidemics like typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery under control for the first time since the start of the War of Independence; negotiated with the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire the borders and the degree of independence of the Greek state and signed the peace treaty that ended the War of Independence with the Ottomans; introduced the phoenix, the first modern Greek currency; organised local administration; and, in an effort to raise the living standards of the population, introduced the cultivation of the potato into Greece.[57]According to legend, although Kapodistrias ordered that potatoes be handed out to anyone interested, the population was reluctant at first to take advantage of the offer. The legend continues, that he then ordered that the whole shipment of potatoes be unloaded on public display on the docks of Nafplion, and placed it under guard to make the people believe that they were valuable. Soon, people would gather to look at the guarded potatoes and some started to steal them. The guards had been ordered in advance to turn a blind eye to such behaviour, and soon the potatoes had all been "stolen" and Kapodistrias' plan to introduce them to Greece had succeeded.[57]Furthermore, as part of his programme he tried to undermine the authority of the traditional clans or dynasties which he considered the useless legacy of a bygone and obsolete era.[58]However, he underestimated the political and military strength of the capetanei (καπεταναίοι – commanders) who had led the revolt against the Ottoman Turks in 1821, and who had expected a leadership role in the post-revolution Government. When a dispute between the capetanei of Laconia and the appointed governor of the province escalated into an armed conflict, he called in Russian troops to restore order, because much of the army was controlled by capetanei who were part of the rebellion.Hydriot rebellion and the Battle of PorosHydra became the center of the opposition to the Kapodistrias' policiesGeorge Finlay's 1861 History of Greek Revolution records that by 1831 Kapodistrias's government had become hated, chiefly by the independent Maniates, but also by the Roumeliotes and the rich and influential merchant families of Hydra, Spetses and Psara. The Hydriots' customs dues were the chief source of the municipalities' revenue, so they refused to hand these over to Kapodistrias. It appears that Kapodistrias had refused to convene the National Assembly and was ruling as a despot, possibly influenced by his Russian experiences. The municipality of Hydra instructed Admiral Miaoulis and Mavrocordatos to go to Poros and to seize the Hellenic Navy's fleet there. This Miaoulis did, the intention being to prevent a blockade of the islands, so for a time it seemed as if the National Assembly would be called.Kapodistrias called on the British and French residents to support him in putting down the rebellion, but this they refused to do, but the Russian Admiral, Pyotr Ivanovich Ricord, took his ships north to Poros. Colonel (later General) Kallergis took a half-trained force of Greek Army regulars and a force of irregulars in support. With less than 200 men, Miaoulis was unable to make much of a fight; Fort Heideck on Bourtzi Island was overrun by the regulars and the corvette Spetses (once Laskarina Bouboulina's Agamemnon) sunk by Ricord's force. Encircled by the Russians in the harbor and Kallergis's force on land, Poros surrendered. Miaoulis was forced to set charges in the flagship Hellas and the corvette Hydra, blowing them up when he and his handful of followers returned to Hydra. Kallergis's men were enraged by the loss of the ships and sacked Poros, carrying off plunder to Nafplion.The loss of the best ships in the fleet crippled the Hellenic Navy for many years, but it also weakened Kapodistrias's position. He did finally call the National Assembly but his other actions triggered more opposition and this led to his downfall.AssassinationThe murder of Kapodistrias by Charalambos Pachis.St Spyridon church in Nafplion, murder site of KapodistriasIn 1831, Kapodistrias ordered the imprisonment of Petrobey Mavromichalis, who had been the leader of the successful uprising against the Turks.[59]Mavromichalis was the Bey of the Mani Peninsula, one of the wildest and most rebellious parts of Greece—the only section that had retained its independence from the Ottoman Empire and whose resistance had spearheaded the successful revolution.[60]The arrest of their patriarch was a mortal offence to the Mavromichalis family, and on September 27, Kapodistrias was assassinated by Petrobey's brother Konstantis and son Georgios Mavromichalis on the steps of the church of Saint Spyridon in Nafplion.[61]Kapodistrias woke up early in the morning and decided to go to church although his servants and bodyguards urged him to stay at home.[61]When he reached the church he saw his assassins waiting for him.[61]When he reached the church steps, Konstantis and Georgios came close as if to greet him.[54]Suddenly Konstantis drew his pistol and fired, missing, the bullet sticking in the church wall where it is still visible today. Georgios plunged his dagger into Kapodistrias's chest while Konstantis shot him in the head.[61]Konstantis was shot by General Fotomaras, who watched the murder scene from his own window.[62]Georgios managed to escape and hide in the French Embassy; after a few days he surrendered to the Greek authorities.[61]He was sentenced to death by a court-martial and was executed by firing squad.[61]His last wish was that the firing squad not shoot his face, and his last words were "Peace Brothers!"Ioannis Kapodistrias was succeeded as Governor by his younger brother, Augustinos Kapodistrias. Augustinos ruled only for six months, during which the country was very much plunged into chaos. Subsequently, King Otto was given the throne of the newly founded Kingdom of Greece.Legacy and honoursKapodistrias' grave at the Platytera monastery of Corfu. To the right is the grave of his brother Augustinos.Statue in Saint PetersburgPersonal items at the National Historical Museum, AthensKapodistrias is greatly honoured in Greece today. In 1944 Nikos Kazantzakis wrote the play "Capodistria" in his honour. It is a tragedy in three acts and was performed at the Greek National Theatre in 1946 to celebrate the anniversary of 25 March.[63]The University of Athens is named "Kapodistrian" in his honour; the Greek euro coin of 20 lepta bears his face, as did the obverse of the 500 drachmas banknote of 1983–2001,[64]before the introduction of the euro, and a local re-organisation programme that reduced the number of municipalities in the late 1990s also carries his name. The fears that Britain, France and Russia had of any liberal and Republican movement at the time, because of the Reign of Terror in the French Revolution, led them to insist on Greece becoming a monarchy after Kapodistrias' death. His summer home in Koukouritsa, Corfu has been converted to a museum commemorating his life and accomplishments and has been named Kapodistrias Museum in his honour.[65][66]It was donated by his late grand niece Maria Desylla-Kapodistria, to three cultural societies in Corfu specifically for the aforementioned purposes.[66]On 8 December 2001 in the city Capodistria (Koper) of Slovenia a lifesize statue of Ioannis Kapodistrias was unveiled in the central square of the municipality.[19]The square was renamed after Kapodistrias,[67]since Koper was the place of Kapodistrias' ancestors before they moved to Corfu in the 14th century.[19][67]The statue was created by Greek sculptor K. Palaiologos and was transported to Koper by a Greek Navalvessel.[19]The ceremony was attended by the Greek ambassador and Eleni Koukou, a Kapodistrias scholar and professor at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens.[19]In the area of bilateral relations between Greece and Slovenia the Greek minister for Development Dimitris Sioufas met on 24 April 2007 with his counterpart Andrej Vizjak, Economy minister of Slovenia, and among other things he mentioned: "Greece has a special sentimental reason for these relations with Slovenia, because the family of Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first Governor of Greece, hails from Koper of Slovenia. And this is especially important for us."[68]On 24 February 2007, the cities of Aegina, Nafplion, Corfu, Koper-Capodistria, and Famagusta created the Ioannis Kapodistrias Network, a network of municipalities which are associated with the late governor. The network aims to promote the life and vision of Ioannis Kapodistrias across borders. The presidency of the network is currently held by the Greek municipality of Nafplion.[69]On 21 September 2009, the city of Lausanne in Switzerland inaugurated a bronze statue of Kapodistrias. The ceremony was attended by the Foreign Ministers of the Russian Federation, Sergei Lavrov and of Switzerland, Micheline Calmy-Rey.[70]On 19 June 2015 Prime minister of Greece Alexis Tsipras, in the first of that day's activities, addressed Russians of Greek descent at a statue of Ioannis Kapodistrias in St. Petersburg.[71][72][73]References1. Helenē E. Koukkou (2000). Iōannēs Kapodistrias, Rōxandra Stourtza: mia anekplērōtē agapē : historikē viographia. EkdoseisPatakē. p35.Στίς 10 Φεβρουαρίου τού 1776 τό ζεύγος Αντωνίου καί Διαμαντίνας Καποδίστρια έφερνε στόν κόσμο τό έκτο παιδί τους, μέσα στό άρχοντικό τους σπίτι, στόν παραλιακό δρόμο τού νησιού, κοντά στήν περίφημη πλατεία, τήν Σπιανάδα, πού ...2. Dionysios A. Zakythēnos (1978). Metavyzantina kai nea Hellēnika. Zakythēnos. p.500.ΙΩΑΝΝΗΣ ΚΑΠΟΔΙΣΤΡΙΑΣ ΤΑ ΠΡΟΟΙΜΙΑ ΜΙΑΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΗΣ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΗΣ ΣΤΑΔΙΟΔΡΟΜΙΑΣ Συνεπληρώθησαν διακόσια έτη άπό της ... και της Διαμαντίνας, τό γένος Γολέμη ή Γονέμη, έγεννήθη έν Κερκύρα την 31 Ίανουαρίου/10 Φεβρουαρίου 1776.3. Helenē E. Koukkou (1983). Historia tōn Heptanēsōn apo to 1797 mechri tēn Anglokratia. Ekdoseis Dēm.N. Papadēma. p.94.Ό Ιωάννης Καποδίστριας γεννήθηκε στήν Κέρκυρα, στίς 10 Φεβρουαρίου 1776, καί ήταν τό εκτο παιδί τοΰ Αντώνιου ...4. Michael Newton (17 April 2014). Famous Assassinations in World History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-1-61069-286-1.5. Kapodistrias, Ioannis Antonios, Count". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Retrieved 28 January 2008.Komis born February 11, 1776, Corfu [Greece] died October 9, 1831, Návplion, Greece. Quote: Count Kapodístrias, Ioánnis Antónios, Italian Conte Giovanni Antonio Capo D'istria Greek statesman who was prominent in the Russian foreign service during the reign of Alexander I (reigned 1801–25) and in the Greek struggle for independence. The son of Count Antonio Capo d'Istria, he was born in Corfu (at that time under Venetian rule), studied at Padua, and then entered government service. In 1799 Russia and Turkey drove the French…6. International Society on the History of MedicinePaper: JOHN CAPODISTRIAS (1776–1831): THE EMINENT POLITICIAN-DOCTOR AND FIRST GOVERNOR OF GREECE ISHM 2006, 40th International Congress on the History of Medicine. Quote: "John Capodistrias (1776–1831) was a notable politician-doctor. The son of one of the most aristocratic family of Corfu, he was sent to Italy by his family and studied medicine at the University of Padua." and: Ioannis Kapodistrias was the leading Greek politician and one of the most eminent politicians and diplomats in Europe. He was born in Corfu in 1776. He was son of an aristocratic family whose ascendants had been distinguished in during the Venetian wars against Ottoman Turks, having obtained many administrative privileges (1) (1)=1. Koukkou E. (ELENI KOUKKOU) The Greek State (1830–1832). In: History of the Greek Nation. Ekdotiki Athinon 1975, Vol. XXII: 549–561.7. William Philip Chapman (1993). Karystos: city-state and country town. Uptown Press. p. 163. Retrieved 3 August2012. Actually, Russia's distinguished diplomat and Foreign Minister, and later Greece's first president (1827-3 1)...8. Jump up to:a b Helenē E. Koukkou (2001). Ioannis A. Kapodistrias: the European diplomat and statesman of the 19th century; Roxanda S. Stourdza : a famous woman of her time : a historical biography. Society for the Study of Greek History. p. 9. Retrieved 3 August 2012. Kapodistrias distinguished himself in the diplomatic and political arena when he was still a young man...But he too sensed that his Liberal and Republican ideals were too advanced for his time9. Charles A. Frazee (1 February 1969). The Orthodox Church and Independent Greece, 1821–1852. CUP Archive. pp. 71–72. GGKEY:GTHG6TEJ1AX. Retrieved 3 August 2012. ...a distinguished career in political and diplomatic affairs...10. Gerhard Robbers (1 November 2006). Encyclopedia of World Constitutions. Infobase Publishing. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-8160-6078-8. Retrieved 25 November 2012. The foundations of the Greek state were built under the leadership of Ioannis Kapodistrias, a statesman of ...11. ΕΠΙΤΟΜΟ ΛΕΞΙΚΟ ΤΗΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗΣ ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑΣCompound Dictionary of Greek History from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Website Quote: 1776 Γεννιέται στην Κέρκυρα ο Ιωάννης Καποδίστριας, γιος του Αντωνίου και της Αδαμαντίνης -το γένος Γονέμη-, μία από τις μεγαλύτερες μορφές της Ευρώπης, διπλωμάτης και πολιτικός, πρώτος κυβερνήτης της Ελλάδας και θεμελιωτής του νεότερου Ελληνικού Κράτους. Έκδοση: ΤΟ ΒΗΜΑ, 2004. Επιμέλεια: Βαγγέλης Δρακόπουλος – Γεωργία Ευθυμίου Translation: 1776 In Corfu is born Ioannis Kapodistrias, son of Antonios and Adamantini – nee Gonemi – one of the greatest personalities of Europe, diplomat and politician, first Governor of Greece and founder of the Modern Greek State. Publisher To Vima 2004.12. Manos G. Birēs; Márō Kardamítsī-Adámī (2004). Neoclassical Architecture In Greece. Getty Publications. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-89236-775-7. Retrieved 5 December2012. Popular depictions of the leaders of the Greek struggle for independence: Ioannis Kapodistrias, founder of the modern Greek state, and Adamantios Korai's, herald of the Greek Enlightenment.13. Council of Europe (1999). Report on the Situation of Urban Archaeology in Europe. Council of Europe. p. 117. ISBN 978-92-871-3671-8. Retrieved 5 December 2012. The first legislative enactments dealing with Museums and the preservation of archaeological finds date from the formation of the modern Greek state (1828) and originated with the Governor of Greece, Ioannis Kapodistrias, who issued Order no. 2400/12.5.1828 "To the acting Commissaries in the Aegean Sea", and the Founding Law of 21.10.182914. Woodhouse, Christopher Montague (1973). Capodistria: the founder of Greek independence. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–5. OCLC 469359507. The family of Gonemis or Golemis, which originated in Cyprus, had moved to Crete when Cyprus fell in the 16th century; then to Epirus when Crete fell in the 17th, settling near Argyrokastro in modern Albania; and finally to Corfu.15. Pournara, E. (2003). Eikonographēmeno enkyklopaidiko lexiko & plēres lexiko tēs neas Hellēnikēs glōssas. Athēna: Ekdotikos Organismos Papyros. (Illustrated Encyclopaedic Dictionary and Full Dictionary of Modern Greek Papyros, Larousse Publishers) Quote (Translation): Ioannis Kapodistrias 1776 Corfu. Diplomat and politician. Scion of distinguished Corfiote Family p. 785 2003 Edition ISBN 960-8322-06-516. Kurt Fassmann; Max Bill (1976). Die Grossen der Weltgeschichte: Goethe bis Lincoln. Kindler. p. 358. Retrieved 24 November 2012. Februar 1776 als Sohn des Arztes und Politikers Graf Antonio Maria Kapodistrias und seiner Frau, einer Grafin Gonemi, in Korfu geboren. Er begann 1744 in Padua ein Medizinstudium und wurde Arzt und Politiker wie sein Vater, zunächst ...17. Ioannis Kapodistrias Archived 2008-09-30 at the Wayback Machine San Simera Retrieved 26-07-0818. (C. W. Crawley, "John Capodistrias and the Greeks before 1821" Cambridge Historical Journal, Vol. 13, No. 2 (1957), pp. 162–182: Quote: "John Capodistrias does not wholly fit into this picture. His ancestors' family, coming from Istria to Corfu in the fourteenth century...."19. Slovenia Honours Kapodistria (in Greek) From the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens website: "Η Σλοβενία τιμά τον Καποδίστρια Tα αποκαλυπτήρια ανδριάντα, ύψους 1.76μ., του Ιωάννη Καποδίστρια έγιναν στις 8 Δεκεμβρίου 2001 στην κεντρική πλατεία της πόλης Capo d'Istria της Σλοβενίας. Η ελληνική κυβέρνηση εκπροσωπήθηκε από τον Πρέσβη κ. Χαράλαμπο Χριστόπουλο, ενώ την τελετή παρακολούθησε η καθηγήτρια του Πανεπιστημίου μας κ. Ελένη Κούκου, η οποία με σχετικές εργασίες της έχει φωτίσει άγνωστες πτυχές της ζωής του μεγάλου πολιτικού, αλλά και του ευαίσθητου ανθρώπου Καποδίστρια. Με την ανέγερση του ανδριάντα και με την αντίστοιχη μετονομασία της πλατείας, η γη των προγόνων του πρώτου Κυβερνήτη της σύγχρονης Ελλάδας θέλησε να τιμήσει τη μνήμη του. Το έργο είναι από χαλκό και το φιλοτέχνησε ο γνωστός γλύπτης Κ. Παλαιολόγος. Η μεταφορά του στο λιμάνι της πόλης Κόμμες, όπως σήμερα ονομάζεται το Capo d'Istria, έγινε με πλοίο του Eλληνικού Πολεμικού Ναυτικού." ("The unveiling of the statue of Ioannis Kapodistrias of height 1.76 m took place on 8 December 2001 in the central square of the city Capo d'Istria of Slovenia. The Greek government was represented by ambassador Charalambos Christopoulos, while the ceremony was observed by the professor of our university Mrs. Eleni Koukou, who through her relevant works has shed light on unknown areas of the life of the great politician but also the sensitive man, Kapodistrias. With the raising of the statue and the renaming of the square, the land of the ancestors of the first governor of Modern Greece wished to honour his memory. The statue is made of bronze and was created by famous sculptor K. Palaiologos. Its transportation to the port of the city Kommes, as is the present name of Capo d'Istria, was carried out by a ship of the Greek Navy."20. circom-regional Archived 2008-06-27 at the Wayback Machine Quote: "The international port of Koper, the capital of Istria during Venetian rule in the 15th and 16th centuries, is situated on the Adriatic coast. Koper, then called Capo d' Istria, is linked with Greece. Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first Greek governor, came from here. In fact, his surname comes from the name of the city: Capo d' Istria. The initial name of the governor's ancestors was Vittori. In the 14th century, they immigrated from Capo d'Istria, discarded their surname and catholic dogma, converted into the orthodox dogma and were soon completely Hellenized." retrieved 21-06-200821. EFTHYMIOS TSILIOPOULOS, "This week in history. Changing the capital" Archived 2012-03-21 at the Wayback Machine, Athens News, 17 August 2007, page: A19. Article code: C13248A191, retrieved 21-06-2008. Quote: "Kapodistrias was born on Kerkyra (Corfu) in 1776, the second child of Count Antonios Maria Kapodistrias. His mother, Adamantia Genome, hailed from Epirus. Originally, the Kapodistrias family was from the Adriatic city of Capo d'Istria (a port of a small island near Trieste), and its original name was Vitori. Centuries before the birth of Ioannis the family had moved to Kerkyra, where it embraced Orthodoxy and changed its name to that of its town of origin."22. Crawley C. W. (1957). John Capodistrias and the Greeks before 1821. Cambridge Historical Journal. Cambridge University Press. p. 166. OCLC 478492658. …Capodistrias…his mother, Adamantine Gonemes, who came of a substantial Greek family in Epirus23. Center for Neo-Hellenic Studies (1970). Neo-Hellenika, Volumes 1–2. A. M. Hakkert. p. 73. OCLC 508157775. A predecessor of Soderini in the office of Venetian consul in Cyprus was "Sir Alessandro Goneme", who according to Pietro Della Valle, who met him at the Salines (Larnaca Scala) on 4 September 1625, was "not of their [the Venetians'] nobles but a man of that class of honorable citizens, which often supplies the Republic with secretaries." This may have been reflecting the fact that the Gonemes – a Greek family…24. Alberto Torsello, Letizia Caselli (2005). Ville venete: La provincia di Venezia. Marsilio. p. 113. ISBN 9788831787222. ...Gonemi, greci agiati venuti da Cipro...25. Helenē E. Koukkou (1983). Historia tōn Heptanēsōn apo to 1797 mechri tēn Anglokratia. Ekdoseis Dēm.N. Papadēma. Retrieved 24 May 2012. Ό Ιωάννης Καποδίστριας γεννήθηκε στήν Κέρκυρα, στίς 10 Φεβρουαρίου 1776, καί ήταν τό εκτο παιδί τοΰ Αντώνιου Καποδίστρια καί τής Διαμαντίνας, τό γένος Γονέμη.Καί οί δύο έκεί- νες οικογένειες ήταν γραμμένες στή χρυσή βίβλο τοΰ νησιοΰ26. Heidelberger Jahrbücher der Literatur. J.C.B. Mohr. 1864. p. 66. Retrieved 24 May 2012.27. ΤΟ ΠΑΡΟΝ Newspaper ΑΚΑΔΗΜΙΑ ΑΘΗΝΩΝ ΚΡΙΤΙΚΕΣ ΠΑΡΑΤΗΡΗΣΕΙΣ ΣΤΟ ΒΙΒΛΙΟ ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑΣ ΤΗΣ ΕΚΤΗΣ ΔΗΜΟΤΙΚΟΥ ("Academy of Athens Critical Observations about the 6th-Grade History Textbook"): "3.2.7. Σελ. 40: Δεν αναφέρεται ότι ο Καποδίστριας ήταν Κερκυραίος ευγενής." ("3.2.7. Σελ. 40 Page 40. It is not mentioned that Kapodistrias was a Corfiote Nobleman.") "...δύο ιστορικούς της Aκαδημίας κ.κ. Mιχαήλ Σακελλαρίου και Kωνσταντίνο Σβολόπουλο" ("Prepared by the two Academy Historians Michael Sakellariou and Konstantinos Svolopoulos 18 March 2007")28. To Vima online New Seasons (Translation) Article by Marios Ploritis (ΜΑΡΙΟΣ ΠΛΩΡΙΤΗΣ) : Δύο μεγάλοι εκσυγχρονιστές Παράλληλοι βίοι Καποδίστρια και Τρικούπη: "Two great modernizers : Parallel lives Kapodistrias and Trikoupis" Quote: Ηταν, κι οι δυο, γόνοι ονομαστών οικογενειών. Κερκυραίος και "κόντες" ο Καποδίστριας, που οι πρόγονοί του είχαν πολεμήσει μαζί με τους Βενετούς, κατά των Τούρκων. Translation: They were both scions of famous families. Corfiote and Count was Kapodistrias whose ancestors fought with the Venetians against the Turks.29. Rand Carter, "Karl Friedrich Schinkel's Project for a Royal Palace on the Acropolis", The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Mar. 1979), pp. 34–46: Quote: "Count John Capodistrias (his ancestors on Corfu had received a patent of nobility from the Venetian Republic)..."30. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright© 2004, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Lernout & Hauspie Speech Products N.V. All rights reserved. Quote: CAPO D'ISTRIA, GIOVANNI ANTONIO, COUNT kä'pō dē'strēä, Gr. Joannes Antonios Capodistrias or Kapodistrias, 1776–1831, Greek and Russian statesman, b. Corfu. See study by C. M. Woodhouse (1973).31. "Ioánnis Antónios Kapodístrias," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia, 2007 Archived 2009-11-01 at WebCite © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.Archived 2009-10-31 at WebCite Quote: Ioánnis Antónios Kapodístrias (1776–1831), Greek-Russian statesman and provisional president of Greece. A native of Corfu (Kérkira), Greece, Kapodístrias was secretary of state in the Russian-controlled republic of the Ionian Islands from 1803 to 1809, when he entered the Russian diplomatic service. He soon became one of the chief advisers of Tsar Alexander I, and from 1816 to 1822 shared the conduct of Russian foreign affairs with Count Karl Robert Nesselrode. In the 1820s he became active in the movement for Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire. Elected head of the rebel Greek government in 1827, he was assassinated by political rivals in 1831. In early life he was known by the Italian name Capo d'Istria.. Archived 2009-10-31.32. JSTOR Cambridge University Press Book Review: Capodistria: The Founder of Greek Independence by C. M. Woodhouse London O.U.P. 1973 ISBN 0-19-211196-5ISBN 978-0192111968 Author(s) of Review: Agatha Ramm The English Historical Review, Vol. 89, No. 351 (Apr., 1974), pp. 397–400 This article consists of 4 page(s). Quote: Capodistrias was born in Corfu in 1776 into the aristocracy of a subjected people...33. The Journal of Modern History Capodistrias and a "New Order" for Restoration Europe: The "Liberal Ideas" of a Russian Foreign Minister, 1814–1822 Patricia Kennedy Grimsted Radcliffe Institute for Advanced StudyThe Journal of Modern History, Vol. 40, No. 2 (Jun., 1968), pp. 166–192 Quote: (Metternich's comments): Kapodistrias is not a bad man, but honestly speaking he is a complete and thorough fool, a perfect miracle of wrong-headedness...He lives in a world to which our minds are often transported by a bad nightmare. and Such in 1819 was Metternich's estimate of John Capodistrias, the young Greek patriot who served Alexander I as Russian foreign secretary. Capodistrias' world was a nightmare for the Austrian chancellor because it held the possibilities of reform in domestic and international order and suggested a degree of Russian influence which clearly threatened Metternich's aims for Austrian domination in European politics. If Metternich were to succeed he realised the importance of undermining Capodistrias' position as the only man of real influence in the Russian cabinet who presented a progressive alternative to his own system. When Metternich spoke of the struggle as "the conflict between a positive and a negative force," he recognised Capodistrias' world as antithetical to his own. Metternich, of course, won the immediate struggle; Capodistrias left the Russian foreign office in 1822. Yet time vindicated Capodistrias' sense of a new European... also: The stage was well set for his transfer to Russia when the French overran his native Corfu in 1807. Capodistrias entered the Russian service in 1809; ...34. Gründervater der modernen Schweiz – Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler Quote: Die Annahme des Bundesvertragsentwurfs durch die Kantone suchte eine Note Kapodistrias günstig zu beeinflussen. Sie stellte in Aussicht, der Wiener Kongress werde in einem Zusatzartikel zum ersten Pariser Frieden (vom 30. Mai 1814) die Unabhängigkeit und Verfassung der Schweiz garantieren und einen schweizerischen Gesandten am Kongress zulassen, falls dieser den neuen Bundesvertrag mit sich bringe. and Trotz der wiederholten Versicherung des Selbstkonstituierungsrechtes der Schweiz wollten auch die Diplomaten der europäischen Grossmächte ein Wort zur künftigen Verfassung mitreden. "Wir haben vor", schrieb der russische Geschäftsträger Johannes Kapodistrias (1775–1831; in Schweizer Geschichtsbüchern oftmals nach seinem Heimatort als Capo d'Istria tituliert), "die Kantone nicht sich selbst zu überlassen. Ihre in Zürich versammelten Deputierten bieten uns die erste Handhabe dar. Wir versuchen ihnen die Verhaltungslinien vorzuschreiben. Wir zeigen den Patriziern, dass die Rückkehr zur alten reinen Aristokratie absurd und unzulässig wäre. Wir lassen umgekehrt die Demokraten fühlen, dass der Geist der französischen Legislation für immer aus den schweizerischen Verfassungen verschwinden müsse."35. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 57.36. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 pages 31-32.37. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 32.38. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 3239. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 34.40. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 49.41. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911)."Capo d'Istria, Giovanni Antonio, Count". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press."CAPO D'ISTRIA, GIOVANNI ANTONIO [Joannes], Count (1776–1831), Russian statesman and president of the Greek republic, was born at Corfu on the 11th of February 1776. He belonged to an ancient Corfiot family which had immigrated from Istria in 1373, the title of count being granted to it by Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy, in 1689".42. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 105.43. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 pages 100-107.44. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 107.45. Ioannis Capodistrias, guardian angel of independence of the Vaud, Capodistrias-Spinelli-Europe, 27 September 200946. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 302.47. Notes on Kapodistrias Quote: Την 7 Ιανουαρίου 1828 έφθασεν ο Καποδίστριας εις Ναύπλιον και την 8 έφθασεν εις Αίγινα, και εβγήκεν µετά µεγάλης υποδοχής, και αφού έδωκεν τον όρκον, άρχισε τας εργασίας. Translation: On 7 January 1828 Kapodistrias arrived in Nafplion and on the 8th in Aegina48. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 337.49. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 pages 337-338.50. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 338.51. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 343.52. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 339.53. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 pages 338-339.54. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 344.55. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 pages 339-340.56. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 340.57. Elaine Thomopoulos (31 December 2011). The History of Greece. ABC-CLIO. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-313-37511-8.58. John S. Koliopoulos, Brigands with a Cause – Brigandage and Irredentism in Modern Greece 1821–1912, Clarendon Press Oxford (1987), p. 67.59. For a fascinating description of the Mani region, the Mavromichalis family, and the tragic falling out between two great men, see Fermor, Patrick Leigh, "Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese," at 57-65 (NYRB, 2006)(ISBN 9781590171882).60. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 348.61. Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 page 349.62. Vassilis Lambropoulos, "C. P. Cavafy, The Tragedy of Greek Politics: Nikos Kazantzakis’ play 'Capodistria'". Quote: Ioannis Capodistria (1776–1831) was a Greek from Corfu who had a distinguished diplomatic career in Russia, reaching the rank of Foreign Minister under Czar Alexander I.63. Bank of Greece Archived 2009-03-28 at the Wayback Machine. Drachma Banknotes & Coins: 500 drachmasArchived 2007-10-05 at the Wayback Machine. – Retrieved on 27 March 2009.64. Helene E. Koukkou, John Capodistrias: The Man—The Fighter,National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Capodistrias and Education, 1803–1822. Helene E. Koukkou, Volume I, The Vienna Society of the Friends of the Muses.Quote: ...and the Capodistrias Papers on Corfu, Capodistrias' native island.65. Eleni Bistika Archived 2017-10-07 at the Wayback Machine Kathimerini Article on Ioannis Kapodistrias 22-02-2008 Quote: Η γενέτειρά του Κέρκυρα, ψύχραιμη, απολαμβάνει το προνόμιο να έχει το γοητευτικό Μουσείο Καποδίστρια στη θέση Κουκουρίσα, Translation: His birthplace, Corfu, cool, enjoys the privilege to have the charming Museum Kapodistria in the location Koukourisaand εξοχική κατοικία με τον μαγευτικό κήπο της οικογενείας Καποδίστρια, που η Μαρία Δεσύλλα – Καποδίστρια δώρισε στις τρεις κερκυραϊκές εταιρείες Translation: summer residence with the enchanting garden of the Kapodistrias family, which Maria Dessyla Kapodistria donated to the three Corfiote societies66. John Capodistrias and the Greeks before 1821 C. W. Crawley Cambridge Historical Journal, Vol. 13, No. 2 (1957), pp. 162–182: "John Capodistrias does not wholly fit into this picture. His ancestors' family, coming from Istria to Corfu in the fourteenth century...."67. "Greek Ministry of Development". Archived from the original on 2007-05-11. Retrieved 2008-06-21.Announcement (In Greek) Quote: "Η Ελλάδα έχει κι έναν ιδιαίτερο συναισθηματικό λόγο για αυτές τις σχέσεις μαζί με τη Σλοβενία, γιατί η οικογένεια του πρώτου κυβερνήτη της Ελλάδας, του Ιωάννη Καποδίστρια, κατάγεται από την πόλη Κόπερ της Σλοβενίας. Και αυτό είναι ιδιαίτερα σημαντικό για μας." Retrieved 21-06-200868. "Την προεδρία του Ναυπλίου στο "Δίκτυο πόλεων Ιωάννης Καποδίστριας" εξασφάλισε ο Δήμαρχος Ναυπλιέων Δημήτρης Κωστούρος".Municipality of Nafplio. Retrieved 13 June 2016.69. "Ioannis Kapodistrias bust unveiled". World Council of Hellenes Abroad. 23 September 2009. Retrieved 9 October2009.70. "Kremlin: Russian loan not discussed in Tsipras-Putin talks". Associated Press. AP. 19 June 2015.71. "Greek Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras (C) speaks with Greek expatriates in front of the statue of the founder of modern Greek state Ioannis Kapodistrias in St. Petersburg, Russia, June 19, 2015. REUTERS/Maxim Shemetov". Reuters.72. "ECB boosts emergency funding as Greek banks bleed, Tsipras calm". Reuters. 21 June 2015.