Jess Sixth Form Application: Fill & Download for Free

I did mine during AS (Year 12) and it was difficult but I coped… if possible, get it out of the way in sixth form but if not, you have to do it in year 12 before university applications begin in year 13.

The short answer: No. However, blues scales and minor scales happen to share some notes in common.The long answer: The most common explanation for blues is that it’s a kind of modal mixture, the insertion of minor-key melody notes over chords from the parallel major key. This is not, historically, how the blues came about. Blues descends from West African vocal musics via the vernacular traditions of enslaved African-Americans and their descendants. In its modern form, blues tonality is a mapping of non-Western scales and intervals to twelve-tone equal temperament. This mapping happens to include some characteristic minor-key notes and some characteristic major-key harmony. That is a coincidence, not the historical derivation of the blues.Modern blues tonality consists of a scale, the blues scale, accompanied by characteristic microtonal blue notes in between the scale tones. Blues harmony comprises chords whose roots are blues scale notes, but whose other constituent pitches may be drawn from the entire chromatic scale.There are several scales referred to as “blues scales.” The scale most commonly referred to by that name consists of the following intervals: minor third, whole step, half step, half step, minor third, whole step. The C blues scale would therefore be the pitches C, E-flat, F, F-sharp, G, and B-flat.This definition is a commonly used one among musicians and scholars, including Levine (1995), Harrison (2001), and Jaffe (2011). However, Jaffe adds the caveat that the “blues scale” is not a clearly defined scale, but rather a pedagogical convenience, the most prevalent pitches in a larger and more complex set common to blues practice. Whether or not it is a “true” scale, the blues scale as defined above is certainly a richly generative one for creating a sound that registers to most listeners as blues.Some authors describe two distinct blues scales, a “major blues scale” and “minor blues scale.” Jaffe (2011, p. 35) defines the “Major Blues scale” as the second mode of the standard (“minor”) blues scale. The C “major” blues scale would be C, D, E-flat, E, G, and A—the second mode of the A “minor” blues scale.Greenblatt (2005) uses the same definitions of the minor and major blues scales as Jaffe. Sutcliffe (2006) concurs that there is not a single blues scale. Instead, he understands blues melodies as deriving from the major scale with a flattened third and seventh, i.e., the Dorian mode. However, Sutcliffe also describes blues melodies as including both the major and minor third scale degrees. He further describes a ‘Blues Pentatonic Scale,’ his term for the minor pentatonic scale played over a dominant seventh chord. Intriguingly, he also describes ♭6^ as “an additional blues 3rd against the major subdominant chord” (n.p.).Blues practitioners use all of the above scales and more. Nevertheless, it is useful to define a singular blues scale, even if it is merely a pedagogical convenience. While there are many scales used in the blues, we do not need a special term for the ones that are already well-described using standard terminology. Rather than referring to the minor pentatonic scale or the Dorian mode as “blues scales,” I believe that we should simply use their existing names, and reserve the term “blues scale” for the unique entity described above.There is less of a need to define a distinct “minor blues scale.” Minor-key blues has merged in modern practice with minor modality generally, to the point of the two being coextensive. John Coltrane’s “Equinox” (1960) is a classic example of minor-key blues.“Equinox” uses the characteristic minor blues subdominant, ♭VI7, which is comprised “almost exclusively” of the blues scale notes (Jaffe, 2011, p. 37), and can be used in any major or minor-key tune to impart blues feel.It is possible to imbue nearly any piece of music with blues feel by embellishing or replacing its melody notes with blues scale notes. For example, compare Simon and Garfunkel’s original recording of “Bridge Over Troubled Water” (1970) with the version recorded by Aretha Franklin (1971). The song as written is gospel-inflected pop. Franklin retains the gospel elements, but otherwise her interpretation is a wide stylistic departure. She interprets the melody so freely as to essentially rewrite it, replacing its diatonicism with the blues scale throughout. Franklin adds additional blues feel via rhythm and pitch play. The end result is a great deal “bluesier” than Simon and Garfunkel’s version.Blues violates several basic rules of common-practice tonality. Should we therefore consider it to be a set of exceptions to those rules, or an different rule set altogether? As McClary (2001) observes, “blues musicians privilege a vast palette of sounds that European-trained ears tend to hear as distorted or out of tune” (p. 35). Everett (2004) refers to the tritones and half-steps characteristic of blues as “intrinsically dissonant” (p. 17). Wagner (2003), like Everett, sees the blues as occupying the major-key system, and the blues scale as violating the rules of that system. (Like many authors, she uses the term “blue notes” to refer to blues scale notes, not to the microtonal pitches discussed below.)Blue notes, by nature, are alienated from their harmonic environment and have a dissonant relationship with them, giving the blues and all its derivatives a rough, angry character. Nevertheless, the hostility of blue notes toward the surrounding world may be mitigated–“domesticated”–through consonantization (p. 353).Wagner describes blues scale notes as “spoiling” the diatonicism of “clean” chords. By reharmonizing blues scale notes with chords from parallel minor, they become “family” notes that are “at home” in their chords, thus giving them “legitimacy” (p. 354). Reharmonizing a blues scale note “improves” its status because “instead of being an outsider, it becomes a distinguished member of the club” (p. 355). Reharmonized blues scale notes are transformed into “respected members of the community,” although their African roots remain “imprinted on their identity cards” (p. 356). Wagner’s choice of language reveals an implicit assumption, widespread in the music academy, that blues is not native to Western harmony, but rather is foreign, and of lower status.Tymoczko (2011) echoes Everett and Wagner in his implicit assumption that Western tonality is the “correct” set of rules, and that blues must therefore be in violation of those rules. He understands blues to be an example of the intentional dissonances commonly used in jazz: “polytonality, sidestepping and ‘playing out’” (p. 374). In Tymoczko’s view, blues is the origin of jazz musicians’ willful flouting of tonal rules, part of a larger practice of deliberate asynchrony between melody and underlying harmony.The origins of [harmonic asynchrony] can perhaps be traced to the blues, which is characterized by ‘blue notes’ that create a delicious dissonance with the underlying harmony… The music thus suggests a kind of polytonality, or clash between independent harmonic streams, in which an upper-register (African-American) ‘blues scale’ contrasts with a lower-register European harmony (p. 374).Tymoczko immediately follows his discussion of blues with the example of jazz improviser Warne Marsh playing an E major chord over E-flat major tonality. He is no doubt correct that Marsh is intentionally violating his listeners’ harmonic expectations in order to create tension. However, few blues players believe themselves to be playing intentionally “wrong” notes; quite to the contrary.Stoia (2010) joins the above authors in regarding the blues as essentially dissonant, in conflict with its underlying diatonic harmony. He acknowledges, however, that this dissonance does not have the same emotional effect that it does in European-descended music. While blues melodies fall outside of the diatonic system, they do not create the feeling of unease or conflict that they would in a classical context. Stoia uses the term “dissonance” as being coextensive with “notes outside the European tonal system.” However, in a blues context, such “dissonant” notes sound perfectly correct and natural. Weisethaunet (2001) points out that in blues, ♭3^ can sound more correct over a major chord than 3^.Blues players will also employ the major third in their solos and phrases; however, if this is overdone, it will take the feeling away from that of the blues and make the music sound more ‘jazzy’ or ‘country-like’. From the perspective of the blues performer and listener, the major third against the major chord may thus sound more ‘dissonant’ than the application of the minor third over the major chord (p. 105)!Blues freely blends major and minor tonality. Hooker’s 1967 recording of “I’m Bad Like Jesse James” is an excellent example: the piano chords contain minor thirds, while the dominant seventh chords in the guitar contain major thirds.Note that the tritones in the dominant seventh chords never resolve. In fact, Hooker’s song never departs from the tonic dominant chord, E7. The song’s blend of major and minor, its unresolved tritones, and its static harmony all sound perfectly correct to Western blues listeners. How are we to make sense of this fact? We must look outside of common-practice tonality to find our answer.Since the blues freely combines elements of diatonic major and minor tonality, some authors understand it as a kind of modal mixture. For example, van der Merwe (1992) characterizes blues as a “modality,” not a tonality (p. 118). Turek and McCarthy (2013) see blues as arising from the adding of the flat seventh to diatonic chords:The lowered seventh present above each root imparts a dominant seventh quality to each chord. The blues and its offspring are the only Western vernacular music in which the Mm7 is routinely divorced from its function as a dominant in need of resolution (p. 584).By this logic, major blues is merely borrowing elements of parallel minor. Turek and McCarthy regard minor blues to be coextensive with diatonic minor, aside from the addition of #4^, which acts as the only point of harmonic “friction” (p. 594). Tagg (2009) sees blues not as the importing of minor mode materials into major tonality, but rather the reverse. He describes blues tonality as the practice of substituting a major triad for the tonic chord in diatonic minor or Dorian mode.While explaining blues as modal mixture is an ingenious solution, this rationale is predicated on the underlying expectation that major and minor are inviolably distinct entities. However, “I’m Bad Like Jesse James” defies analysis in this way. Which tonality is the “native” one here, major or minor? Which tonality is being imported in? Hooker treats major and minor as interchangeable. Blues is not in violation of or an exception to the Western tonal system; rather, it gratifies an alternative set of harmonic expectations. Our ears have been conditioned by the blues to hear the breakdown of the major/minor binary as unremarkable. That is why a pop song like Janet Jackson’s “What Have You Done For Me Lately” (1986) can freely mix major and minor without putting off mainstream listeners. In the chorus, the line “What have you done for me lately” is minor, and “ooo-ooo-ooo-oooh yeah” is major. Neither sounds like it is “borrowed” from a parallel modality; they sound like they belong together within blues harmony.If the blues scale is a disputed term, the “blue note” is even more so. We must distinguish blues scale notes (♭3^, ♯4^, and ♭7^) from blue notes (microtonal pitches that lie between the piano keys.) As mentioned above, theorists and practitioners alike frequently refer to ♭3^ and ♭7^ (and sometimes ♯4^) as blue notes. Quite a few theorists use the term “blue notes” both for microtonal and piano-key notes. For example, Turek and McCarthy (2013) define blue notes both as the equal-tempered ♭3^ and ♭7^, and, later, as “pitches, most notably the third and seventh scale degrees, slightly flatter than their equal-tempered counterparts” (p. 593). Stoia (2013) is one of several theorists who describe the “blue third” both as being minor, and as lying between minor and major. These contradictory usages are needlessly confusing. We can impose some clarity by reserving the term “blue note” exclusively for microtonal pitches.While the blues scale is consonant within the context of blues tonality, the blue notes do create the feeling of tension and instability that we usually ascribe to dissonance: “So close is the parallel that it is not misleading to use the term ‘melodic dissonance’” (van der Merwe, 1992, p. 120). Blues musicians treat pitches “as mobile, unstable units instead of treating them as discrete points in a scale” (Tallmadge, 1984, p. 155). Should we consider blue notes to be stable units, of equal significance to the blues scale itself? Or are they best thought of as embellishments, the consequences of blues musicians’ pitch play? I am inclined to think of the blue notes as embellishments, but there is no consensus on this question.The most commonly referred-to microtonal blue note in the literature is the “neutral” third, the pitch lying mid-way between ♭3^ and 3^. Van der Merwe (1992) asserts boldly that, in blues practice, “[i]nstead of the major and minor thirds of the printed page, most of the thirds will be neutral in actual performance” (p. 123). Furthermore, he observes that the third is not the only microtonal note in common blues usage. Several other pitches can be flattened by a quarter tone or a full semitone: “The degrees of the mode treated in this way are, in order of frequency, the third, seventh, fifth, and sixth” (p. 119). These are empirical statements that might or might not be substantiated through analysis of recordings, but van der Merwe does at least categorize the blue notes consistently as microtones.Titon (1977) believes that blue notes should be included in the basic definition of the blues scale. Using a corpus of recordings of “downhome” or country blues made between 1926 and 1930, Titon identifies the set of the most commonly occurring pitches as the “downhome blues scale” (p. 155). The downhome blues scale in C consists of the following pitches: C; D; “E complex” (E-flat, E, and two distinct intermediate pitches); F; “G complex” (F-sharp, G, and one distinct intermediate pitch); A; “B complex” (B-flat, B, and one distinct intermediate pitch); C’; D’; and E’ complex. Titon maintains that the scale should span a tenth rather than an octave, because the blues musicians in his study treat the lower octave differently than the higher one. He identifies this practice as the basis for the bluesy sound of the 7#9 chord, with ^3 in the lower octave and ♭3^ on top. Titon also tallies the most frequent movements from one blues scale pitch to another within his corpus, and proposes a generative system for blues melodies by cataloging melodic contours derived from them.Weisethaunet (2001) sees blue notes as a central component of blues tonality, but is reluctant to define them so strictly. In his view, blue notes are a consequence of performers’ pitch play. Rather than viewing them as distinct entities, Weisethaunet argues that we should understand blue notes to be inseparable from the other expressive devices comprising the feel of the blues.[I]n blues performance every note may be bent or altered, but in different ways depending on style and how such notes appear in the harmonic texture. One of the most frequently heard ‘blue notes’ as regards pitch discrepancy in post-war electric guitar playing may be that of the bent fourth: this is commonly bent to include different pitches between the fourth and the fifth (and higher pitches as well). The second (which does not even appear in what scholars have named the blues scale) also seems to be a very common ‘blue note’ feature of most blues guitarists’ repertoires: moving between the second and the minor third in innumerable ways. In fact every note of the twelve-tone chromatic scale may appear in a blues tune, possibly also as ‘blue notes’, because microtonality, attack, and timbre variation are such essential parts of blues expression (Weisethaunet, 2001, p. 101).Is Titon correct that there is a finite number of blue notes that can be formalized into a scale, or should we be convinced by Weisethaunet that the entire pitch continuum is available to blues musicians, making it impossible to define a discrete set of blue notes? For the sake of pedagogical clarity, perhaps we should take the view that the blues scale is more than a straightforward set of equal-tempered piano-key notes; rather, that it is a group of islands in the midst of the pitch continuum, home bases from which to explore the surrounding microtones. This issue requires considerable further study.We can treat the blues scale as the roots of a set of accompanying chords, the same way we do with diatonic scales and modes. Unlike diatonic scales and modes, however, the chords built from the blues scale need not be comprised solely of pitches found within the scale (Sutcliffe, 2006). The chords associated with the C blues scale are: C7♯9, E♭maj7, F7, F♯dim7, G7♯9, and B♭7. In Roman numeral notation, that gives us I7♯9, ♭IIImaj7, IV7, ♯IVdim7, V7♯9, and ♭VII7. (The ♭VII chord could also plausibly be defined as a major seventh chord.)There are several diminished chords commonly used in blues tonality aside from ♯IVdim7. A ubiquitous turnaround/embellishment figure uses I7/iii, ♭IIIdim7, IIdim7, and I7, or those same chords in the reverse order. Furthermore, the pitches in Idim7 are highly idiomatic to blues melodies. In Janet Jackson’s “What Have You Done For Me Lately” (1986), the keyboard line that repeats throughout the choruses uses a diminished arpeggio that lends blues feel to the track’s glossy pop sound. Should we consider Idim7 and IIdim7 to be as fundamental to blues tonality as ♯IVdim7, or are they merely adornments? There is no clear consensus among theorists or practitioners.The blues treats dominant seventh chords in a strikingly different way than common-practice tonal harmony. In the blues, dominant sevenths can be tonic chords, destinations for harmonic closure. The V7/I cadence also appears in blues. Did the blues I7 and IV7 derive from the common-practice V7? Both Stoia (2010) and Everett (2004) think so. Stoia in particular bolsters his case by citing the frequently-used blues device of treating I7 as V7/IV in anticipation of the fifth bar of a twelve-bar blues form. However, we cannot understand every dominant chord in the blues to be cadential. Blues songs routinely begin and end on I7, with a feeling of resolution that is as satisfying as a perfect authentic cadence is in classical music. Should the I7 chord’s tritone be considered dissonant or unstable in this context?Let us consider Michael Jackson’s “Don’t Stop ‘Til You Get Enough” (1979). The song is largely in B Mixolydian mode, and the very first interval of the vocal melody is 3^ dropping a tritone to ♭7^. Each line of the verses begins with this tritone, and it never “resolves.” The tritone’s prominence gives the song a bluesy edge, reinforced by the blues scale used in the keyboard solo. Questions of genre in popular music are densely intertwined with questions of racial identity. In 1979, Michael Jackson was beginning the process of bridging the racial divide in American pop, a process that would culminate in the unprecedented crossover success of Thriller (1982). His most popular albums struggled to reconcile “black” and “white” music (Roberts, 2011, p. 29). We can hear that struggle manifest in his fusion of blues tonality with more anodyne modal and diatonic harmonies.Most blues songs use chord progressions, but the chords do not function in the same way that they do in Western tonal music. The V7 chord is frequently absent, especially in rural blues (Kubik, 2005, p. 207). Country blues musicians’ implicit rejection of the V7-I cadence was made explicit by bebop musicians in the 1940s. While their source material of Tin Pan Alley songs was full of cadences, musicians like Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie disguised and obscured those cadences by means of tritone substitutions and other reharmonization techniques. Later jazz musicians abandoned the harmonic skeletons of standards entirely in favor of modes, atonality, and exotic scales. Indeed, the sole consistent thread through all jazz styles is the blues.Even though so many blues songs eschew V7-I cadences, some theorists continue to insist that blues harmony fundamentally adheres to the norms of Euroclassical tonality. One such theorist is Everett (2004), who describes blues as minor pentatonic melodies lying atop functional diatonic harmony.[T]he blues has an essentially major-mode structure. In the twelve-bar-based “School Days,” Chuck Berry’s vocal and lead guitar parts are thoroughly pentatonic, but the structure-expressing bass and piano boogie in the major mode. The rarity of exceptions, as found in B. B. King’s minor-mode “The Thrill is Gone,” proves the rule. If this seems out of line with prevailing descriptions, which typically rely on reference to a “blues scale” and don’t seem to discriminate between tonal characteristics of melody and backing, consider the rhythm section’s accompaniment aside from all vocal and solo melodic lines. It is in the supportive major-mode instrumental chordal backing, not in the soloistic melodic material, that structural harmony is expressed ([16]).Everett acknowledges that not all blues songs use structural dominants, which poses a problem for his analysis. His solution is to propose that even when the V7 is absent in blues, it is nevertheless implicit because “it is of structural value in the major system that is inhabited by that blues” ([18]). This seems like a stretch. When we listen to a song like “Spoonful” by Willie Dixon (1960), which consists entirely of minor riffs over a single static dominant chord, are we really supposed to imagine that functional major harmony is hidden somewhere underneath?Everett’s theory is further weakened by the fact that wildly non-diatonic chord progressions can nevertheless possess blues feel. For example, the chords in Charles Mingus’ “Goodbye Pork Pie Hat” (1959) are drawn from the entire chromatic scale, but it nevertheless registers as strongly “bluesy.”Aside from a frequently reasserted tonic, the chords in blues need not follow any functional rules at all.In blues harmonic practice, unresolved tritones can appear over any root, sometimes generating an impetus for motion and sometimes not. A one-chord blues can be based on a seventh chord over a repeating bass figure, and can easily accommodate extensions beyond the seventh. The addition of the sharp ninth merely adds colour to the tonic in this case, rather than a tension requiring resolution (van der Bliek, 2007, p. 346).Blues chord progressions may not be “functional,” but they are not random either. While the chords may not lead to one another with the inevitability of classical harmonies, blues chords are more satisfying in some combinations and sequences than others. The issue of functionality within blues harmony is complicated by the fact that, unlike any other scale in common Western use, the blues scale is a kind of “universal harmonic solvent.” It sounds reasonably correct over any chord in any tune in any American vernacular style (Levine, 1995, p. 230). While the combination of the scale against the chords in a typical blues or pop song produces a great deal of dissonance, in the blues context, the dissonance is perfectly acceptable. The clash of adjacent chromatic pitches in blues sounds right, not wrong. We will need a new and broader concept of chord/scale function in order to make sense of blues harmony.Blues tonality is a set of harmonic practices distinct from those of Western common-practice tonality. Having made some steps toward understanding what specifically those harmonic practices are, we can now turn our attention to the question of blues tonality’s origins. It is a truism that the blues is a fusion of African rhythms with European harmonies. While this is true to an extent, the previous sections detail the many ways that blues tonality differs from classical practice. So where did blues tonality come from? We may never have a single unambiguous answer, but there are several plausible theories.Tagg (2009) is one of many authors who explain the blues scale as an extension of the minor pentatonic scale. Harrison (2001) posits that the blues scale descends from the minor pentatonic scale by adding a chromatic “connector” between 4^ and 5^ (p. 35). These theories are reasonable enough, but they do not explain why such minor sonorities came to be used over major chords in the first place. Jaffe (2011) moves closer to an explanation by surmising that the blues scale emerged from the practice of flatting the diatonic 3^, 5^ and 7^—in blues, these pitches can either replace or coexist with their diatonic counterparts. Characteristic jazz sonorities like 7#9 would then emerge out of superimposition of the flatted diatonic scale notes onto the diatonic I, IV and V chords (p. 37).A more complex explanation of the blues scale can be found in van der Merwe’s concept of the African-descended “ladder of thirds” (1992). By this theory, the blues scale originated by stacking minor thirds above and below a central pitch. Adding a minor third to the tonic gives the blues scale’s ♭3^, and adding another minor third gives #4^. Adding a minor third on top of the major triad gives the blues scale’s ♭7^. Van der Merwe supports his theory with the observation that in blues, the minor third interval has a similar function to the leading tone in Western tonal theory. In blues melodies, ♭3^ can be heard as resolving down to tonic, and 6^ can resolve up to tonic.Kubik (2005) has observed that listeners to certain field recordings from various regions in Africa find them to be particularly “bluesy,” and that those recordings share particular musical properties.I discovered that in many cases, the impression was created by just a few traits that appeared in those musical styles in various combinations and configurations: (a) music with an ever-present drone (bourdon), (b) intervals that included minor thirds and semitones, (c) a sorrowful, wailing song style, and (d) ornamental intonation. Songs with a prominent minor seventh in a pentato-hexatonic framework also sometimes received this designation, as did pieces that featured instrumental play with a clash between a major and minor third or with a specific vocal style (pp. 191-192).Kubik therefore sees blues and jazz as the effort of black musicians to recreate African tonal practice on instruments designed for European scales. Specifically, the African practices he believes to have led to the blues include the “span” process (a kind of harmonic parallelism), the use of equiheptatonic tunings and scales, and tuning systems derived from the natural overtone series.African practices are not the only plausible roots of the blues scale. Various European folk musics, particularly those of the United Kingdom, use thirds lying between the equal-tempered minor and major thirds. The “ladder of thirds” is also common to British folk music. It is quite possible that the myriad African musical practices imported to the United States by the slave trade became established due to the “catalytic influence” of British folk styles over the course of the 19th century (van der Merwe, 1992, p. 145). Given the hybrid nature of all other American music, we should expect nothing different for the history of blues tonality.ReferencesFeld, S. (1988). Notes on World Beat. Public Culture Bulletin, 1(1), 31–37.Greenblatt, D. (2005). The blues scales. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co.Harrison, M. (2001). Contemporary music theory level three: A complete harmony and theory method for the pop and jazz musician. Hal Leonard.Jaffe, A. (2011). Something borrowed something blue: Principles of jazz composition. Advance Music GmbH.Kubik, G. (2005). The African matrix in jazz harmonic practices. Black Music Research Journal, 25(1), 167–222.Levine, M. (1995). The jazz theory book. Sher Music.McClary, S. (2001). Conventional wisdom: The content of musical form. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.Stoia, N. (2010). Mode, harmony, and dissonance treatment in American folk and popular music, c. 1920–1945. Music Theory Online, 16(3). Retrieved from Stoia, Mode, Harmony, and Dissonance TreatmentSutcliffe, T. (2006). Chord Progressions in Tonal Music. Retrieved November 24, 2014, from Chord Progressions in Tonal MusicTagg, P. (2009). Everyday tonality. New York & Huddersfield: The Mass Media Scholars Press. Retrieved from Everyday Tonality II.Titon, J. T. (1977). Early downhome blues: A musical and cultural analysis. University of North Carolina Press.Turek, R., & McCarthy, D. (2013). Theory for today’s musician (2nd ed.). New York & London: Routledge.Tymoczko, D. (2011). Geometry of music: Harmony and counterpoint in the extended common practice. Oxford University Press.Van der Bliek, R. (2007). The Hendrix Chord: Blues, flexible pitch relationships, and self-standing harmony. Popular Music, 26(2), 343–364.Wagner, N. (2003). “Domestication” of blue notes in the Beatles’ songs. Music Theory Spectrum, 25(2), 353–365.Weisethaunet, H. (2001). Is there such a thing as the “blue note”? Popular Music, 20(01), 99–116.

This image represents Bekenstein’s approach to what became Holographic Theory. It started off as Black Hole physics, then turned into thermodynamics. Bekenstein then turned it into information.It was based on an equation by Bekenstien, after a few generations evolved to:In this equation, N refers to bits of information. However, as of yet that remains undefined, but I will derive what a ‘bit’ of information is a little further on.Lp is the Planck length (10^-35 meters), tp will be the Planck unit of time (10^-44 seconds). These are the smallest slice of space and of time possible in normal space-time. They are the Zero Point for space and time, in a quazi logical way.For those who suspect space-time is infinitely divisible, not quantized, see my former discussion at Bill Bray's answer to Why is it impossible for anything to be smaller than the Planck length?Where N refers to the number of ‘bits’ of information and AΩ is our world-sheet, as we fill that empty void with information (N) we inadvertently create the world-sheet AΩ. In order to derive the value of what 1 ‘bit’ of information is, we can simply do this:Setting ‘c’ as a natural number and equal to 1: Lp = tpthenGiven Einstein’s filed equationsreduces the geometry of space-time toNoting that G on the left referring to the geometry of G(uv), as well as G being on the right hand side of the equation, leads to a self-similar (fractal)we end up withThe geometry of space-time is an emergent phenomenon of Information, as a fractal.Also, the term T(uv) is supposed to represent the tensor that describes the forceful bending of space-time. However, since its internal components (uv) are on both sides of the equation (u and v represent rows and columns of values) these values are also fractals. Thus, the term (the tensor) is a highly localized phenomenon. This is what Wheeler was searching for but never found. The tensor is a fractal that starts nearly flat, then becomes increasingly fracked. THIS DOES NOT HAPPEN BECAUSE OF MASS - IT HAPPENS BECAUSE OF THE DENOMINATOR, N. AKA, the presence of information.The error for the past century was to assume that because mass and gravitation seem to always be in the same place, that there is a needy relationship. However, the recent discovery that Gravity Waves exist by the LIGO interferometer proves Wheeler’s description: Gravitation without mass, as he was referring to Gravity Waves. The Gravity Wave has information present, but no information that describes mass.If there were information in the gravity wave that described mass, then the gravity wave would possess mass, it does not. LIGO is an interferometer, just like the Michelson moerley, that functions by detecting its own change of state under a Schwarzschild transformation in General Relativity, which incontrovertible dismisses all prior art regarding frame of reference in General Relativity. All mythos regarding falling into a black hole, spinning black holes, black holes with magnetic fields, Hawking radiation, are collectively dismissed, and no evidence has ever supported such null hypotheses.The urban myth, mass brings about gravity and gravity tells mass where to go is incorrect. Gravitation is a fractal that results from the presence of information that may or may not describe mass. A Gravity Wave represents the fractal above, but the information in the wave does not describe the presence of mass.The termCan only be interpreted as:However, a triangle is impossible because of the hypotenuse and height not being integers of LpWe run into the same problem with a cube (your pixel) because it is wrought with non-integers of LpA circle has pi (not even a rational number)Since every possible shape is wrought with values that are not integers of Lp, no shape is possible on a Planck Scale.On a Planck scale, space-time is shapeless. In 1957 Wheeler derived the equations for Lp and tp, in the study of the propagation of Gravity Waves, and found what he referred to as the ‘Quantum Foam.’ It is a turbulent, dynamic shapeless domain where virtual particles pop in and out f existence at a very high rate.In 2004 Wilczek (a friend of Wheeler’s) earned the Nobel in Physics for measuring the effect of the Quantum Foam on the Strong and Weak forces.As for ‘pixelation,’ we can only regard the cosmos as a 2-dimensional rendering of a 4-dimensional facade. And in this 2-dimensional, holographic construct, time is not a valid dimension.That statement is fully compatible with the AdS description.This is Holographic Theory. From Holographic Theory we are finding emergent space-time, mass-energy, and the forces of nature. For instance, above we saw the short version of how space-time actually emerges from Information along with its geometry (gravitation). Note that we are on our way to a Quantum Description of Gravitation without any Higg’s Bosons. In fact, if the Higg’s really does exist (I’m not a ‘believer’) it is emergent from the description above.Mass-energy arises from quantum entanglement and superposition within this geometry we have made out of our world-sheet AΩ. Let me find that - wait; here it is:If we take into account Wheeler’s Space-time Foam on a quantum scale, [John Archibald Wheeler with Kenneth Ford. Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam.1995 ISBN 0-393-04642-7.] we might conclude that as a part of this foamy characteristic of space-time on a quantum scale is the motion of a macroscopic object progressing forward in this go-stop-go fashion described above at v=c and v=0. In today’s vernacular we might say that the object were moving as though pixelated, and as we back out from the quantum to the macroscopic we no longer see the pixelated but a ‘normal’ progression of a macroscopic object. However, there can be no ‘pixelation’ on a quantum scale, as I will describe later on, because of the foamy characteristic of space-time on a quantum scale. In fact, there can be no shape, again, this will be described.Wheeler first describes the Quantum Foam as early as 1955 [Wheeler, J. A. (January 1955). "Geons". Physical Review. 97 (2): 511. Bibcode:1955PhRv...97..511W. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.97.511]The Quantum Foam in short, is an extension of the existence of Virtual Particles that come into existence via the Uncertainty Principle. The very brief and over simplified description of this Quantum Foam is that in any volume of empty space, virtual particle-antiparticle pairs are being created and annihilated constantly. The other characteristic is that space-time on a Planck scale can conform to no shape, because every plausible shape has characteristics that are not integer values of the Planck interval. We discussed this characteristic at length in The Holographic Principle of Quantum Mechanics. These particle-antiparticle pairs arise from the Quantum Electro Dynamic Vacuum Energy, that is, they 'borrow' energy from Heisenberg's Uncertainty principle. The virtual particle-antiparticle pairs exist for extremely brief periods of time, and recombine to annihilate themselves back into nothingness again. This occurs at a very high rate of speed and is constant, on the order of 10-44 seconds. We say that space, therefore, has foam like character that is referred to as the Quantum Foam. The Quantum foam plays a direct role in the Quantum Electrodynamic Vacuum Energy, on the order of 10120 joules of energy per cubic centimeter of absolute nothingness (described in the glossary).However, borrow is a metaphor. They merely exist for a short time.The effect they have on a Planck scale (of size, 10-35 meters) is to curve Space-Time in such a way as to give space-time a 'foamy' characteristic. A few -1.Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps.2.W. W. Norton. pp. 494–496. ISBN 0-393-31276-3.3.Ian H., Redmount; Wai-Mo Suen (1994). "Quantum Dynamics of Lorentzian Space-time Foam". Physical Review D 49: 5199. Doi: 10.1103/PhysRevD.49.5199. arXiv:gr-qc/93090174.Moyer, Michael (17 January 2012). "Is Space Digital?:". Scientific American. Retrieved 3 February 2013.5.Baez, John (2006-10-08). "What's the Energy Density of the Vacuum?". Retrieved 2007-12-18.6.John Archibald Wheeler with Kenneth Ford. Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam. 1995 ISBN 0-393-04642-7This describes the ‘quantum foam,’ a characteristic of space-time that describes the dynamic structure on the Planck scale. There is a short review of this by wilczek, who actually measured the quantum foam’s effect on the strong and weak forces (for which he earned a Nobel, at 48 minutes into: https://youtu.be/914jzZ4LXcUIn this 4Lp^2, we either have information in it, or there is no information in it. That is, it is a shapeless bit of space-time (but we use the trigonal pyramid for visual purposes) is either empty or filled.If there is information in it, it by definition is entangled with some other bit of information somewhere in the universe; because they (we’ll call the two N and N’) were created as a particle/antiparticle pair vie the HUP. However, they do not have to be a particle/antiparticle pair. As we saw with the Gravity Wave, the information (N) does not have to describe mass. It will describe energy, but although we can stick the energy in an equation (E=mc^2, the Compton Wavelength, DeBroglie Wavelength, and so on) that doesn’t mean it actually has mass. In fact, it does suggest momentum either. As an example, a Gravity Wave can and does (see Lin-Shu Density Wave) keep a spiral galaxy and all of the massive stars in place, it possesses neither mass nor momentum.As the distance between these two bits N and N’ increases, the probability that they are quantum entangled decreases, because the wave function in the HUP limits the amount of time such a thing can exist, and thus the distance. If N is entangled with N’, then each has an element a or its symmetric partner a’.We’ll call the information in N has two possibilities (such as spin) a and a’. We’ll use a real particle for a moment and say they are an electron positron pair. Spin +1/2 is a, spin -1/2 is a’. So, each N can have a or a’. Also, N’ can have a or a’. So I’ll use an over simplified braket notation and refer to the systems as<a|N|a’> and <a|N’|a’>If N has a, then N’ has a’, If N has a’, then N’ has a. It’s either/or.If there is no N’ then there is no space-time in this scenario. If there is an N’, then time limits us to the probability that it contains either a or a’. From this time constraint, the number of possible superpositions is defined, and so the size of our world sheet, AΩ.That is, as the number of superpositions increases, we have entropy, as the number of superpositions decreases, we have Ordiny. Gravitation is unidirectional Ordiny. So is a magnetic dipole. The Strong Force has two components, the Internal Strong Force that binds hypothetical ‘quarks’ together; Ordiny, and the Intermediate Strong Force (mediated by mesons) the binds protons and neutrons together, more Ordiny.The Weak force can be viewed as a form of entropy, as a W boson escapes the nucleus, decaying into an electron and electron-antineutrino.This interplay between entropy and riding is the direct observation of force, and displaced the mythos of delta S as some ‘arrow of time' which is a non sequitur. A 19th century gas law does not describe the visible cosmos. The notion that entropy is ‘the loss of information regarding the Microsystems of a system' is obviously a pure technological limitation, not a priority of nature. It is less of a limitation every year, in fact. Every limit, every unexplained thing becomes the magic black box for physics, sad.The number of available superposition describes the entropy vs ordiny that yields force. this I laid out in a series of papers on Researchgate.For the most part, the forces of nature represent Ordiny. Entropy occurs under extreme conditions only, such as the Big Bang and Black Holes. Irreversible entropy that is.To simplify again, the surface of our world-sheet AΩ is defined by the number of Lp^2 available on this 2-dimensional surface. As the number increases, the number of possible superpositions increases and entropy emerges. If the number decreases, the number of possible superpositions decreases, and Ordiny emerges.This is how space-time is then an emergent form from information entropy vs. Ordiny. You may also note that ‘c’ is not a velocity, it defines the relationship between the world-sheet AΩ with respect to Lp and tp (space and time). It is not a ‘speed limit’ it is the definition of space-time. The ‘speed limit’ is actually the result of c=1Lp/1tp.At such time you are at c, you are superposition across the AdS horizon. There is no velocity other than c, only c exists, all else is a facade velocity. That was derived by Einstein Maric in the original 1905 paper, but no one has read it, that is true. There are only 50 citations to it, none in a century. There are millions of citations to papers about it, none of those papers have read the original, which bears no resemblance to modern convention whatsoever. 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