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Good Question By zahid Ahmed .Read the entire article carefully.Travel and tourism’s growthTourism is not only a growth engine but also an employment generator. According to the Economic Survey 2011-12, the sector has the capacity to create large scale employment both direct and indirect, for diverse sections in society, from the most specialized to unskilled workforce. It provides 6-7 per cent of the world'' s total jobs directly and millions more indirectly through the multiplier effect as per the UN''s World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).Completely skipping India because of so many incidents of rape and molestation that came to light last year,” he said. The travel companies were hoping that because of the rupee depreciation, inbound tourism would get a major boost in 2013. Figure 2 shows the Plummeting growth of Foreign Tourist Travels. However, as challenges persist, most are now pinning their hopes on 2014. “In the last one year, inbound tourism has not grown to our expectations due to sluggish economic climate in source markets. We believe this will change and Indian tour operators will reap the benefits of this revival. Another factor that will help India is the depreciation of the rupee by 12 per cent, which will boost inbound tourism in the 2014-15 seasons,” said Arup Sen, director (special projects), Cox & Kings. Figure 3 shows the decreasing trend of GDP as compared to2010-11.Foreign exchange earnings from tourism in 2013 grew 2.2 per cent to $18.1 billion, compared to a growth of seven percent in the previous yearsTravel and tourism’s contribution to GDPTravel and tourism play an important role in India’s economy; compared with other nations, India ranks 14th in the world in terms of its tourism sector’s contribution to the GDP. At time of publication, the World Travel and Tourism Council predict India will sustain the fifth largest amount of growth in the tourism sector of any country. Tourism can offer direct and indirect aid to a nation’s economy. Direct benefits include economic support for hotels, retail shops, transportation services, entertainment venues and attractions, while indirect benefits include government spending on related infrastructure, plus the domestic spending of Indians employed in the tourism sector. The share of Travel & Tourism spending or employment in the equivalent economy-wide concept in the published national income accounts or labour market statistics.Impacts of tourism on the economyTourism can bring many economic and social benefits, particularly in rural areas and developing countries, but mass tourism is also associated with negative effects. Tourism can only be sustainable if it is carefully managed so that potential negative effects on the host community and the environment are not permitted to outweigh the financial benefits. Tourism industry in India has several positive and negative impacts on the economy and society. These impacts are highlighted below.Positive impacts1. Generating Income and Employment: Tourism in India has emerged as an instrument of income and employment generation, poverty alleviation and sustainable human development. It contributes 6.23% to the national GDP and 8.78% of the total employment in India. Almost 20 million people are now working in the India’s tourism industry.2. Source of Foreign Exchange Earnings: Tourism is an important source of foreign exchange earnings in India. This has favorable impact on the balance of payment of the country. The tourism industry in India generated about US$100 billion in 2008 and that is expected to increase to US$275.5 billion by 2018 at a 9.4% annual growth rate.3. Preservation of National Heritage and Environment: Tourism helps preserve several places which are of historical importance by declaring them as heritage sites. For instance, the Taj Mahal, the Qutab Minar, Ajanta and Ellora temples, etc. would have been decayed and destroyed had it not been for the efforts taken by Tourism Department to preserve them. Likewise, tourism also helps in conserving the natural habitats of many endangered species.4. Developing Infrastructure: Tourism tends to encourage the development of multiple-use infrastructure that benefits the host community, including various means of transports, health care facilities, and sports centers, in addition to the hotels and high-end restaurants that cater to foreign visitors. The development of infrastructure has in turn induced the development of other directly productive activities.5. Promoting Peace and Stability: Honey and Gilpin suggests that the tourism industry can also help promote peace and stability in developing country like India by providing jobs, generating income, diversifying the economy, protecting the environment, and promoting cross-cultural awareness. However, key challenges like adoption of regulatory frameworks, mechanisms to reduce crime and corruption, etc, must be addressed if peace-enhancing benefits from this industry are to be realized.Negative impacts1. Undesirable Social and Cultural Change: Tourism sometimes led to the destruction of the social fabric of a community. The more tourists coming into a place, the more the perceived risk of that place losing its identity. A good example is Goa. From the late 60’s to the early 80’s when the Hippy culture was at its height Goa was a haven for such hippies. Here they came in thousands and changed the whole culture of the state leading to a rise in the use of drugs, prostitution and human trafficking. This had a ripple effect on the country.2. Increase Tension and Hostility: Tourism can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion between the tourists and the local communities when there is no respect and understanding for each other’s culture and way of life. This may further lead to violence and other crimes committed against the tourists. The recent crime committed against Russian tourist in Goa is a case in point.3. Creating a Sense of Antipathy: Tourism brought little benefit to the local community. In most all-inclusive package tours more than 80% of travelers’ fees go to the airlines, hotels and other international companies, not to local businessmen and workers. Moreover, large hotel chain restaurants often import food to satisfy foreign visitors and rarely employ local staff for senior management positions, preventing local farmers and workers from reaping the benefit of their presence. This has often created a sense of antipathy towards the tourists and the government.4. Adverse Effects on Environment and Ecology: One of the most important adverse effects of tourism on the environment is increased pressure on the carrying capacity of the ecosystem in each tourist locality. Increased transport and construction activities led to large scale deforestation and destabilization of natural landforms, while increased tourist flow led to increase in solid waste dumping as well as depletion of water and fuel resources. Flow of tourists to ecologically sensitive areas resulted in destruction of rare and endangered species due to trampling, killing, disturbance of breeding habitats. Noise pollution from vehicles and public address systems, water pollution, vehicular emissions, untreated sewage, etc. also have direct effects on bio-diversity, ambient environment and general profile of tourist spots.Environmental degradation, (Pollution) due to tourism should be taken into consideration while promoting tourism. Eco-friendly tourism should be promoted. Wildlife environment should be taken into consideration while promoting tourism. Because Wildlife viewing puts stress on animals and has changed their behavioral patterns. Noise and commotion created by tourists have adverse effect on their behavioral pattern. Litter, impact on tourism should be taken into consideration while promoting tourism. Because the most common impact of tourism is litter, and its effect is almost instant. By employing local people to help clean it up, making their lives slightly easier and more comfortable.Aggressive advertisement campaigns on the tourist destinations should be made to attract more and more tourist. Airport procedures should be simplified. In nutshell if one wants to enjoy nature one must preserve it, otherwise all the exotic destinations will become extinct and the world will not be a beautiful place to live in. Eco friendly tourism should be promoted all over the world and if marvels of nature should be preserved, tourism should take into account the principle and process of sustainable consumption.There are various definitions of tourism. Theobald (1994) suggested that etymologically, the word "tour" is derived from the Latin 'tornare' and the Greek'tornos,' meaning 'a lathe or circle; the movement around a central point or axis.' This meaning changed in modern English to represent 'one's turn.' The suffix -ism is defined as 'an action or process; typical behavior or quality' whereas the suffix -ist denotes one that performs a given action. When the word tour and the suffixes -ism and -ist are combined, they suggest the action of movement around a circle. One can argue that a circle represents a starting point, which ultimately returns back to its beginning. Therefore, like a circle, a tour represents a journey that is a round trip, i.e., the act of leaving and then returning to the original starting point, and therefore, one who takes such a journey can be called a touristThe Macmillan Dictionary defines tourism as the business of providing services for people who are travelling for their holiday. Wikipedia defines it as travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. The OECD glossary of statistical terms defined tourism as the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited.Over the decades, tourism has experienced continued growth and deepening ?diversification to become one of the fastest growing economic sectors in the world. Tourism has become a thriving global industry with the power to shape developing countries in both positive and negative ways. No doubt it has become the fourth largest industry in the global economy.Similarly, in developing countries like India tourism has become one of the major sectors of the economy, contributing to a large proportion of the National Income and generating huge employment opportunities. It has become the fastest growing service industry in the country with great potentials for its further expansion and diversification. However, there are pros and cons involved with the development of tourism industry in the country. Let us discuss the development as well as the negative and positive impacts of tourism industry in India.DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM IN INDIAEarly DevelopmentThe first conscious and organized efforts to promote tourism in India were made in 1945 when a committee was set up by the Government under the Chairmanship of Sir John Sargent, the then Educational Adviser to the Government of India (Krishna, A.G., 1993). Thereafter, the development of tourism was taken up in a planned manner in 1956 coinciding with the Second Five Year Plan. The approach has evolved from isolated planning of single unit facilities in the Second and Third Five Year Plans. The Sixth Plan marked the beginning of a new era when tourism began to be considered a major instrument for social integration and economic development.But it was only after the 80’s that tourism activity gained momentum. The Government took several significant steps. A National Policy on tourism was announced in 1982. Later in 1988, the National Committee on Tourism formulated a comprehensive plan for achieving a sustainable growth in tourism. In 1992, a National Action Plan was prepared and in 1996 the National Strategy for Promotion of Tourism was drafted. In 1997, the New Tourism Policyrecognises the roles of Central and State governments, public sector undertakings and the private sector in the development of tourism were. The need for involvement of Panchayati Raj institutions, local bodies, non-governmental organisations and the local youth in the creation of tourism facilities has also been recognised.Present Situation and Features of Tourism in IndiaToday tourism is the largest service industry in India, with a contribution of 6.23% to the national GDP and providing 8.78% of the total employment. Indiawitnesses more than 5 million annual foreign tourist arrivals and 562 million domestic tourism visits. The tourism industry in India generated about US$100 billion in 2008 and that is expected to increase to US$275.5 billion by 2018 at a 9.4% annual growth rate. The Ministry of Tourism is the nodal agency for the development and promotion of tourism in Indiaand maintains the "Incredible India" campaign.According to World Travel and Tourism Council, Indiawill be a tourism hotspot from 2009-2018, having the highest 10-year growth potential. As per the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2009 by the World Economic Forum, India is ranked 11th in the Asia Pacific region and 62nd overall, moving up three places on the list of the world's attractive destinations. It is ranked the 14th best tourist destination for its natural resources and 24th for its cultural resources, with many World Heritage Sites, both natural and cultural, rich fauna, and strong creative industries in the country. India also bagged 37th rank for its air transport network. The India travel and tourism industry ranked 5th in the long-term (10-year) growth and is expected to be the second largest employer in the world by 2019. The 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi are expected to significantly boost tourism in India further.Moreover, India has been ranked the "best country brand for value-for-money" in the Country Brand Index (CBI) survey conducted by Future Brand, a leading global brand consultancy. India also claimed the second place in CBI's "best country brand for history", as well as appears among the top 5 in the best country brand for authenticity and art & culture, and the fourth best new country for business. India made it to the list of "rising stars" or the countries that are likely to become major tourist destinations in the next five years, led by the United Arab Emirates, China.Tourist Attractions in India: India is a country known for its lavish treatment to all visitors, no matter where they come from. Its visitor-friendly traditions, varied life styles and cultural heritage and colourful fairs and festivals held abiding attractions for the tourists. The other attractions include beautiful beaches, forests and wild life and landscapes for eco-tourism; snow, river and mountain peaks for adventure tourism; technological parks and science museums for science tourism; centres of pilgrimage for spiritual tourism; heritage, trains and hotels for heritage tourism. Yoga, ayurveda and natural health resorts and hill stations also attract tourists.The Indian handicrafts particularly, jewellery, carpets, leather goods, ivory and brass work are the main shopping items of foreign tourists. It is estimated through survey that nearly forty per cent of the tourist expenditure on shopping is spent on such items.Despite the economic slowdown, medical tourism inIndia is the fastest growing segment of tourism industry, according to the market research report “Booming Medical Tourism in India”. The report adds that India offers a great potential in the medical tourism industry. Factors such as low cost, scale and range of treatments provided in the country add to its attractiveness as a medical tourism destination.Initiatives to Boost Tourism: Some of the recent initiatives taken by the Government to boost tourism include grant of export house status to the tourism sector and incentives for promoting private investment in the form of Income Tax exemptions, interest subsidy and reduced import duty. The hotel and tourism-related industry has been declared a high priority industry for foreign investment which entails automatic approval of direct investment up to 51 per cent of foreign equity and allowing 100 per cent non-resident Indian investment and simplifying rules regarding the grant of approval to travel agents, tour operators and tourist transport operators.The first-ever Indian Tourism Day was celebrated on January 25, 1998. The Year 1999 was celebrated asExplore India Millennium Year by presenting a spectacular tableau on the cultural heritage of India at the Republic Day Parade and organising India Tourism Expo in New Delhi and Khajuraho. Moreover, the campaign ‘Visit India Year 2009’ was launched at the International Tourism Exchange in Berlin, aimed to project India as an attractive destination for holidaymakers. The government joined hands with leading airlines, hoteliers, holiday resorts and tour operators, and offered them a wide range of incentives and bonuses during the period between April and December, 2009.Future Prospects: According to the latest Tourism Satellite Accounting (TSA) research, released by the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) and its strategic partner Oxford Economics in March 2009:The demand for travel and tourism in India is expected to grow by 8.2 per cent between 2010 and 2019 and will place India at the third position in the world.India's travel and tourism sector is expected to be the second largest employer in the world, employing 40,037,000 by 2019.Capital investment in India's travel and tourism sector is expected to grow at 8.8 per cent between 2010 and 2019.The report forecasts India to get capital investment worth US$ 94.5 billion in the travel and tourism sector in 2019.India is projected to become the fifth fastest growing business travel destination from 2010-2019 with an estimated real growth rate of 7.6 per cent.Constraints: The major constraint in the development of tourism in India is the non-availability of adequate infrastructure including adequate air seat capacity, accessibility to tourist destinations, accommodation and trained manpower in sufficient number.Poor visitor experience, particularly, due to inadequate infrastructural facilities, poor hygienic conditions and incidents of touting and harassment of tourists in some places are factors that contribute to poor visitor experience.IMPACT OF TOURISM IN INDIATourism industry in India has several positive and negative impacts on the economy and society. These impacts are highlighted below.POSITIVE IMPACTS1. Generating Income and Employment: Tourism in India has emerged as an instrument of income and employment generation, poverty alleviation and sustainable human development. It contributes 6.23% to the national GDP and 8.78% of the total employment in India. Almost 20 million people are now working in the India’s tourism industry.3. Source of Foreign Exchange Earnings: Tourism is an important source of foreign exchange earnings in India. This has favourable impact on the balance of payment of the country. The tourism industry in India generated about US$100 billion in 2008 and that is expected to increase to US$275.5 billion by 2018 at a 9.4% annual growth rate.4. Preservation of National Heritage and Environment: Tourism helps preserve several places which are of historical importance by declaring them as heritage sites. For instance, the Taj Mahal, the Qutab Minar, Ajanta and Ellora temples, etc, would have been decayed and destroyed had it not been for the efforts taken by Tourism Department to preserve them. Likewise, tourism also helps in conserving the natural habitats of many endangered species.5. Developing Infrastructure: Tourism tends to encourage the development of multiple-use infrastructure that benefits the host community, including various means of transports, health care facilities, and sports centers, in addition to the hotels and high-end restaurants that cater to foreign visitors. The development of infrastructure has in turn induced the development of other directly productive activities.6. Promoting Peace and Stability: Honey and Gilpin (2009) suggests that the tourism industry can also help promote peace and stability in developing country like India by providing jobs, generating income, diversifying the economy, protecting the environment, and promoting cross-cultural awareness. However, key challenges like adoption of regulatory frameworks, mechanisms to reduce crime and corruption, etc, must be addressed if peace-enhancing benefits from this industry are to be realized.NEGATIVE IMPACTS1. Undesirable Social and Cultural Change: Tourism sometimes led to the destruction of the social fabric of a community. The more tourists coming into a place, the more the perceived risk of that place losing its identity. A good example is Goa. From the late 60's to the early 80's when the Hippy culture was at its height, Goa was a haven for such hippies. Here they came in thousands and changed the whole culture of the state leading to a rise in the use of drugs, prostitution and human trafficking. This had a ripple effect on the country.2. Increase Tension and Hostility: Tourism can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion between the tourists and the local communities when there is no respect and understanding for each other’s culture and way of life. This may further lead to violence and other crimes committed against the tourists. The recent crime committed against Russian tourist inGoa is a case in point.3. Creating a Sense of Antipathy: Tourism brought little benefit to the local community. In most all-inclusive package tours more than 80% of travelers’ fees go to the airlines, hotels and other international companies, not to local businessmen and workers. Moreover, large hotel chain restaurants often import food to satisfy foreign visitors and rarely employ local staff for senior management positions, preventing local farmers and workers from reaping the benefit of their presence. This has often created a sense of antipathy towards the tourists and the government.4. Adverse Effects on Environment and Ecology: One of the most important adverse effects of tourism on the environment is increased pressure on the carrying capacity of the ecosystem in each tourist locality. Increased transport and construction activities led to large scale deforestation and destabilisation of natural landforms, while increased tourist flow led to increase in solid waste dumping as well as depletion of water and fuel resources. Flow of tourists to ecologically sensitive areas resulted in destruction of rare and endangered species due to trampling, killing, disturbance of breeding habitats. Noise pollution from vehicles and public address systems, water pollution, vehicular emissions, untreated sewage, etc. also have direct effects on bio-diversity, ambient environment and general profile of tourist spots.ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TOURISM IN INDIAThe tourism industry in India can have several positive and negative impact on the environment which are discuss below.POSITIVE IMPACTS1. Direct Financial ContributionsTourism can contribute directly to the conservation of sensitive areas and habitat. Revenue from park-entrance fees and similar sources can be allocated specifically to pay for the protection and management of environmentally sensitive areas. Special fees for park operations or conservation activities can be collected from tourists or tour operators.2. Contributions to Government RevenuesThe Indian government through the tourism department also collect money in more far-reaching and indirect ways that are not linked to specific parks or conservation areas. User fees, income taxes, taxes on sales or rental of recreation equipment, and license fees for activities such as rafting and fishing can provide governments with the funds needed to manage natural resources. Such funds can be used for overall conservation programs and activities, such as park ranger salaries and park maintenance.3. Improved Environmental Management and PlanningSound environmental management of tourism facilities and especially hotels can increase the benefits to natural environment. By planning early for tourism development, damaging and expensive mistakes can be prevented, avoiding the gradual deterioration of environmental assets significant to tourism. The development of tourism has moved the Indian government towards this direction leading to improved environmental management.4. Raising Environmental AwarenessTourism has the potential to increase public appreciation of the environment and to spread awareness of environmental problems when it brings people into closer contact with nature and the environment. This confrontation heightens awareness of the value of nature among the community and lead to environmentally conscious behavior and activities to preserve the environment.6. Protection and Preservation of EnvironmentTourism can significantly contribute to environmental protection, conservation and restoration of biological diversity and sustainable use of natural resources. Because of their attractiveness, pristine sites and natural areas are identified as valuable and the need to keep the attraction alive can lead to creation of national parks and wildlife parks.In India, new laws and regulations have been enacted to preserve the forest and to protect native species. The coral reefs around the coastal areas and the marine life that depend on them for survival are also protected.Negative Impacts1. Depletion of Natural Resources: Tourism development can put pressure on natural resources when it increases consumption in areas where resources are already scarce.(i) Water resources: Water, especially fresh water, is one of the most critical natural resources. The tourism industry generally overuses water resources for hotels, swimming pools, golf courses and personal use of water by tourists. This can result in water shortages and degradation of water supplies, as well as generating a greater volume of waste water. (Environmental Impacts of Tourism). In dryer regions like Rajasthan, the issue of water scarcity is of particular concern.(ii) Local resources: Tourism can create great pressure on local resources like energy, food, and other raw materials that may already be in short supply. Greater extraction and transport of these resources exacerbates the physical impacts associated with their exploitation. Because of the seasonal character of the industry, many destinations have ten times more inhabitants in the high season as in the low season. A high demand is placed upon these resources to meet the high expectations tourists often have (proper heating, hot water, etc.).(iii) Land degradation: Important land resources include minerals, fossil fuels, fertile soil, forests, wetland and wildlife. Increased construction of tourism and recreational facilities has increased the pressure on these resources and on scenic landscapes. Direct impact on natural resources, both renewable and nonrenewable, in the provision of tourist facilities is caused by the use of land for accommodation and other infrastructure provision, and the use of building materials (Environmental Impacts of Tourism)Forests often suffer negative impacts of tourism in the form of deforestation caused by fuel wood collection and land clearing e.g. the trekking in the Himalayan region, Sikkim and Assam.2. PollutionTourism can cause the same forms of pollution as any other industry: air emissions, noise, solid waste and littering, releases of sewage, oil and chemicals, even architectural/visual pollution .(i) Air and Noise Pollution: Transport by air, road, and rail is continuously increasing in response to the rising number of tourist activities in India. Transport emissions and emissions from energy production and use are linked to acid rain, global warming and photochemical pollution. Air pollution from tourist transportation has impacts on the global level, especially from carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions related to transportation energy use. And it can contribute to severe local air pollution. Some of these impacts are quite specific to tourist activities where the sites are in remote areas like Ajanta and Ellora temples. For example, tour buses often leave their motors running for hours while the tourists go out for an excursion because they want to return to a comfortably air-conditioned bus.Noise pollution from airplanes, cars, and buses, as well as recreational vehicles is an ever-growing problem of modern life. In addition to causing annoyance, stress, and even hearing loss for humans, it causes distress to wildlife, especially in sensitive areas .(ii) Solid waste and littering: In areas with high concentrations of tourist activities and appealing natural attractions, waste disposal is a serious problem and improper disposal can be a major despoiler of the natural environment - rivers, scenic areas, and roadsides.In mountain areas of the Himalayas and Darjeeling, trekking tourists generate a great deal of waste. Tourists on expedition leave behind their garbage, oxygen cylinders and even camping equipment. Such practices degrade the environment particularly in remote areas because they have few garbage collection or disposal facilities .(iii) Sewage: Construction of hotels, recreation and other facilities often leads to increased sewage pollution. Wastewater has polluted seas and lakes surrounding tourist attractions, damaging the flora and fauna. Sewage runoff causes serious damage to coral reefs because it stimulates the growth of algae, which cover the filter-feeding corals, hindering their ability to survive. Changes in salinity and siltation can have wide-ranging impacts on coastal environments. And sewage pollution can threaten the health of humans and animals. Examples of such pollution can be seen in the coastal states of Goa, Kerela,Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, etc.3. Destruction and Alteration of EcosystemAn ecosystem is a geographic area including all the living organisms (people, plants, animals, and micro-organisms), their physical surroundings (such as soil, water, and air), and the natural cycles that sustain them. Attractive landscape sites, such as sandy beaches in Goa, Maharashtra, Kerela, Tamil Nadu; lakes, riversides, and mountain tops and slopes, are often transitional zones, characterized by species-rich ecosystems. The threats to and pressures on these ecosystems are often severe because such places are very attractive to both tourists and developers. Examples may be cited from Krushedei Island near Rameswaram. What was once called paradise for marine biologists has been abandoned due to massive destruction of coral and other marine life. Another area of concern which emerged at Jaisalmer is regarding the deterioration of the desert ecology due to increased tourist activities in the desert.Moreover, habitat can be degraded by tourism leisure activities. For example, wildlife viewing can bring about stress for the animals and alter their natural behavior when tourists come too close. Safaris and wildlife watching activities have a degrading effect on habitat as they often are accompanied by the noise and commotion created by tourists.CONCLUSIONIndia could be a country with varied culture and traditions. The natural fantastic thing about India, festivals, dresses, heritage sites of India area unit extremely popular among tourists. Kerala, Darjeeling, Goa, Kashmir, Shimla (I am simply having few names) and Manali area unit best scenic places in India. Commercial enterprise business in India has large potential for generating employment and earning great amount of interchange besides giving a positive stimulus to the country’s overall economic and social development. Promotion of touristy ought to be done in order that commercial enterprise in India helps in protective and sustaining the variety of the India’s natural and cultural environments. commercial enterprise in India ought to be developed in such means how some way the way the simplest way} that it accommodates and entertains guests in an exceedingly way that’s minimally intrusive or harmful to the setting and sustains & supports the native cultures within the locations it’s operational in. commercial enterprise could be a multi-dimensional activity, and essentially an industry. All wings of the Central and State governments, non-public sector and voluntary organizations ought to become active partners within the endeavour to realize property growth in commercial enterprise if India is to become a world player within the commercial enterprise business.Tourism industry in India is growing and it has vast potential for generating employment and earning large amount of foreign exchange besides giving a fillip to the country’s overall economic and social development. But much more remains to be done. Eco-tourism needs to be promoted so that tourism in India helps in preserving and sustaining the diversity of the India's natural and cultural environments. Tourism in India should be developed in such a way that it accommodates and entertains visitors in a way that is minimally intrusive or destructive to the environment and sustains & supports the native cultures in the locations it is operating in. Moreover, since tourism is a multi-dimensional activity, and basically a service industry, it would be necessary that all wings of the Central and State governments, private sector and voluntary organisations become active partners in the endeavour to attain sustainable growth in tourism if India is to become a world player in the tourism industry.Good Luck!G. M. R

Hi.Thanks for A2AThe syllabus of civil engineering for cse as follows-Paper-I1. Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials and Structural Analysis:1.1 Engineering Mechanics: Units and Dimensions, SI Units, Vectors, Concept of Force, Concept of particle and rigid body. Concurrent, Non Concurrent and parallel forces in a plane, moment of force, free body diagram, conditions of equilibrium, Principle of virtual work, equivalent force system. First and Second Moment of area, Mass moment of Inertia. Static Friction. Kinematics and Kinetics: Kinematics in Cartesian Co-ordinates, motion under uniform and nonuniform acceleration, motion under gravity. Kinetics of particle: Momentum and Energy principles, collision of elastic bodies, rotation of rigid bodies.1.2 Strength of Materials: Simple Stress and Strain, Elastic constants, axially loaded compression members, Shear force and bending moment, theory of simple bending, Shear Stress distribution across cross sections, Beams of uniform strength. Deflection of beams: Macaulay's method, Mohr's Moment area method, Conjugate beam method, unit load method. Torsion of Shafts, Elastic stability of columns, Euler's Rankine's and Secant formulae.1.3 Structural Analysis: Castiglianio's theorems I and II, unit load method of consistent deformation applied to beams and pin jointed trusses. Slopedeflection, moment distribution, Rolling loads and Influences lines: Influences lines for Shear Force and Bending moment at a section of beam. Criteria for maximum shear force and bending Moment in beams traversed by a system of moving loads. Influences lines for simply supported plane pin jointed trusses. Arches: Three hinged, two hinged and fixed arches, rib shortening and temperature effects. Matrix methods of analysis: Force method and displacement method of analysis of indeterminate beams and rigid frames. Plastic Analysis of beams and frames: Theory of plastic bending, plastic analysis, statical method, Mechanism method. Unsymmetrical bending: Moment of inertia, product of inertia, position of Neutral Axis and Principle axes, calculation of bending stresses.2. Design of Structures: Steel, Concrete and Masonry Structures:2.1 Structural Steel Design: Structural Steel: Factors of safety and load factors. Riveted, bolted and welded joints and connections. Design of tension and compression member, beams of built up section, riveted and welded plate girders, gantry girders, stancheons with battens and lacings.2.2 Design of Concrete and Masonry Structures: Concept of mix design. Reinforced Concrete: Working Stress and Limit State method of design-Recommendations of I.S. codes Design of one way and two way slabs, stair-case slabs, simple and continuous beams of rectangular, T and L sections. Compression members under direct load with or without eccentricity, Cantilever and Counter fort type retaining walls. Water tanks: Design requirements for Rectangular and circular tanks resting on ground. Prestressed concrete: Methods and systems of prestressing, anchorages, Analysis and design of sections for flexure based on working stress, loss of prestress. Design of brick masonry as per I.S. Codes3. Fluid Mechanics, Open Channel Flow and Hydraulic Machines:3.1 Fluid Mechanics: Fluid properties and their role in fluid motion, fluid statics including forces acting on plane and curved surfaces. Kinematics and Dynamics of Fluid flow: Velocity and accelerations, stream lines, equation of continuity, irrotational and rotational flow, velocity potential and stream functions. Continuity, momentum and energy equation, Navier-Stokes equation, Euler's equation of motion, application to fluid flow problems, pipe flow, sluice gates, weirs.3.2 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude: Buckingham's Pi-theorem, dimensionless parameters.3.3 Laminar Flow: Laminar flow between parallel, stationary and moving plates, flow through tube.3.4 Boundary layer: Laminar and turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate, laminar sub layer, smooth and rough boundaries, drag and lift. Turbulent flow tthrough pipes: Characteris-tics of turbulent flow, velocity distribution and variation of pipe friction factor, hydraulic grade line and total energy line.3.5 Open channel flow: Uniform and non-uniform flows, momentum and energy correction factors, specific energy and specific force, critical depth, rapidly varied flow, hydraulic jump, gradually varied flow, classification of surface profiles, control section, step method of integration of varied flow equation.3.6 Hydraulic Machines and Hydropower: Hydraulic turbines, types classification, Choice of turbines, performance parameters, controls, characteristics, specific speed. Principles of hydropower development.4. Geotechnical Engineering: Soil Type and structure - gradation and particle size distribution - consistency limits. Water in soil - capillary and structural - effective stress and pore water pressure - permeability concept - field and laboratory determination of permeability - Seepage pressure - quick sand conditions - Shear strength determination - Mohr Coulomb concept. Compaction of soil - Laboratory and field tests. Compressibility and consolidation concept - consolidation theory - consolidation settlement analysis. Earth pressure theory and analysis for retaining walls, Application for sheet piles and Braced excavation. Bearing capacity of soil - approaches for analysis - Field tests - settlement analysis - stability of slope of earth walk. Subsurface exploration of soils - methods Foundation - Type and selection criteria for foundation of structures - Design criteria for foundation - Analysis of distribution of stress for footings and pile - pile group action-pile load test. Ground improvement techniques.Paper-II1. Construction Technology, Equipment, Planning and Management:1.1 Construction Technology: Engineering Materials: Physical properties of construction materials with respect to their use in construction - Stones, Bricks and Tiles; Lime, Cement, different types of Mortars and Concrete. Specific use of ferro cement, fibre reinforced C.C, High strength concrete. Timber, properties and defects - common preservation treatments. Use and selection of materials for specific use like Low Cost Housing, Mass Housing, High Rise Buildings.1.2 Construction: Masonry principles using Brick, stone, Blocks - construction detailing and strength characteristics. Types of plastering, pointing, flooring, roofing and construction features. Common repairs in buildings. Principles of functional planning of building for residents and specific use - Building code provisions. Basic principles of detailed and approximate estimating - specification writing and rate analysis - principles of valuation of real property. Machinery for earthwork, concreting and their specific uses - Factors affecting selection of equipments - operating cost of Equipments.1.3 Construction Planning and Management: Construction activity - schedules- organization for construction industry - Quality assurance principles. Use of Basic principles of network - analysis in form of CPM and PERT - their use in construction monitoring, Cost optimization and resource allocation. Basic principles of Economic analysis and methods. Project profitability - Basic principles of Boot approach to financial planning - simple toll fixation criterions.2. Surveying and Transportation Engineering :2.1 Surveying: Common methods and instruments for distance and angle measurement for CE work - their use in plane table, traverse survey, leveling work, triangulation, contouring and topographical map. Basic principles of photogrammetry and remote sensing.2.2 Railway Engineering: Permanent way - components, types and their functions - Functions and Design constituents of turn and crossings - Necessity of geometric design of track - Design of station and yards.2.3 Highway Engineering: Principles of Highway alignments - classification and geometrical design elements and standards for Roads. Pavement structure for flexible and rigid pavements - Design principles and methodology of pavements. Typical construction methods and standards of materials for stabilized soil, WBM, Bituminous works and CC roads. Surface and sub-surface drainage arrangements for roads - culvert structures. Pavement distresses and strengthening by overlays. Traffic surveys and their applications in traffic planning - Typical design features for channelized, intersection, rotary etc - signal designs - standard Traffic signs and markings.3. Hydrology, Water Resources and Engineering:3.1 Hydrology: Hydrological cycle, precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, infiltration, overland flow, hydrograph, flood frequency analysis, flood routing through a reservoir, channel flow routing-Muskingam method.3.2 Ground water flow: Specific yield, storage coefficient, coefficient of permeability, confined and unconfined equifers, aquifers, aquitards, radial flow into a well under confined and unconfined conditions.3.3 Water Resources Engineering: Ground and surface water resource, single and multipurpose projects, storage capacity of reservoirs, reservoir losses, reservoir sedimentation.3.4 Irrigation Engineering: (i) Water requirements of crops: consumptive use, duty and delta, irrigation methods and their efficiencies. (ii) Canals: Distribution systems for canal irrigation, canal capacity, canal losses, alignment of main and distributory canals, most efficient section, lined canals, their design, regime theory, critical shear stress, bed load. (iii) Water logging: causes and control, salinity. (iv) Canal structures: Design of, head regulators, canal falls, aqueducts, metering flumes and canal outlets. (v) Diversion headwork: Principles and design of weirs of permeable and impermeable foundation, Khosla's theory, energy dissipation. (vi) Storage works: Types of dams, design, principles of rigid gravity, stability analysis. (vii) Spillways: Spillway types, energy dissipation. (viii) River training: Objectives of river training, methods of river training.4. Environmental Engineering:4.1 Water Supply: Predicting demand for water, impurities of water and their significance, physical, chemical and bacteriological analysis, waterborne diseases, standards for potable water.4.2 Intake of water: Water treatment: principles of coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation; slow-; rapid-, pressure-, filters; chlorination, softening, removal of taste, odour and salinity.4.3 Sewerage systems: Domestic and industrial wastes, storm sewage-separate and combined systems, flow through sewers, design of sewers.4.4 Sewage characterization: BOD, COD, solids, dissolved oxygen, nitrogen and TOC. Standards of disposal in normal watercourse and on land.4.5 Sewage treatment: Working principles, units, chambers, sedimentation tanks, trickling filters, oxidation ponds, activated sludge process, septic tank, disposal of sludge, recycling of wastewater.4.6 Solid waste: Collection and disposal in rural and urban contexts, management of long-term ill effects.5. Environmental pollution: Sustainable development. Radioactive wastes and disposal. Environmental impact assessment for thermal power plants, mines, river valley projects. Air pollution. Pollution control acts.

Maybe that if 😁 rhizome solarization on ginger seeds for 2 to 4 h reduced bacterial wilt by 90–100% 120 d after planting, and that ginger seeds sterilized with discontinuous microwaving (10-s pulses) at 45°C reduced the incidence of wilt by 100%The aim of this study was to investigate the effects on the cell membranes of Escherichia coli of 2.45-GHz microwave (MW) treatment under various conditions with an average temperature of the cell suspension maintained at 37°C in order to examine the possible thermal versus nonthermal effects of short-duration MW exposure. To this purpose, microwave irradiation of bacteria was performed under carefully defined and controlled parameters, resulting in a discontinuous MW exposure in order to maintain the average temperature of the bacterial cell suspensions at 37°C. Escherichia coli cells were exposed to 200- to 2,000-W discontinuous microwave (DW) treatments for different periods of time. For each experiment, conventional heating (CH) in a water bath at 37°C was performed as a control. The effects of DW exposure on cell membranes was investigated using flow cytometry (FCM), after propidium iodide (PI) staining of cells, in addition to the assessment of intracellular protein release in bacterial suspensions. No effect was detected when bacteria were exposed to conventional heating or 200 W, whereas cell membrane integrity was slightly altered when cell suspensions were subjected to powers ranging from 400 to 2,000 W. Thermal characterization suggested that the temperature reached by the microwave-exposed samples for the contact time studied was not high enough to explain the measured modifications of cell membrane integrity. Because the results indicated that the cell response is power dependent, the hypothesis of a specific electromagnetic threshold effect, probably related to the temperature increase, can be advanced.The interaction of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and various life processes has been studied and debated for more than half a century. Identifying and evaluating the biological effects of microwaves (MW) is complex and controversial. Whereas one of the current theories is that heat generation induced by microwaves is responsible for biological effects, there has been a persistent view in the physical and engineering sciences that microwave fields are unable to induce bioeffects other than by heating (1) (2). Because of the scarcity of information on the mechanism of interaction between microwave and biological systems, this controversy endures.A great number of studies of the thermal versus nonthermal bioeffects of low-power MW were performed with various cellular functions, including gene expression (3) and mutation (4), enzyme activity (5), unfolding of proteins (6), biochemical cell systems (7), cell wall (8), cell morphology (9), and cell proliferation (10,–13). Whereas several authors showed nonthermal effects, safety standards have been set based solely upon the thermal effect of MW. The main reason was that no satisfactory mechanism was proposed to explain the nonthermal bioeffects.When applied at high power, MW bioeffects induced by heating constitute one of the modern approaches for sterilization and decontamination processes in the food industry. In fact, microwaves have long been known to induce a rapid rise of temperature due to intermolecular friction (14, 15). Several studies which have dealt with the effect of microwaves on microorganisms (16,–21) showed that the bactericidal effect of microwaves was due to thermal mechanisms. However, possible nonthermal effects of microwaves on biological systems had been discussed in numerous reports. Some authors (22,–25) have mentioned nonthermal or enhanced thermal effects of microwaves, while others (26, 27) have refuted the nonthermal effects of microwaves.One of the main reasons for these conflicting conclusions, for either low- or high-power MW, is the difficulty in keeping and controlling isothermal conditions during MW irradiation.Home - Université de LillePrésidence Direction générale des services Retrouvez les organigrammes des directions et services Direction générale des services adjointe - projets transversaux Direction aide au pilotage et qualité Direction données personnelles et archives Direction générale déléguée recherche et valorisation Direction appui à la recherche Direction valorisation de la recherche Direction transversale ingénierie et management de projets Direction générale déléguée relations internationales Direction mobilités internationales Direction développement international et pilotage Direction générale déléguée formation tout au long de la vie Direction ingénierie de formation Direction scolarité Direction formation continue et alternance Direction innovation pédagogique Observatoire de la direction des formations Direction entrepreneuriat étudiant Service universitaire d’aide, d’insertion et d’orientation (SUAIO) Bureau d’aide à l’insertion professionnelle (BAIP) Centre de langues de l’Université de Lille (CLIL) (Rattachement fonctionnel - service commun) Direction générale déléguée vie universitaire Direction vie étudiante Direction culture Direction développement durable responsabilité sociale Service universitaire médecine de prévention et de promotion de la santé (SUMPPS) (rattachement fonctionnel - service commun) Service universitaire activités physiques et sportives (SUAPS) (rattachement fonctionnel - service commun) Direction générale déléguée relations humaines (DRH) Direction gestion des personnels enseignants Direction gestion des personnels BIATSS Direction développement et gestion prévisionnelle des compétences Direction environnement social au travail Direction pilotage et affaires générales RH Service inter universitaire des pensions Service social des personnels Service santé au travail Service commun affaires sociales (SCAS)(rattachement fonctionnel - service commun) Direction générale déléguée immobilier logistique Direction stratégie, programmation et maîtrise d’ouvrage Service valorisation des installations sportives Imprimerie Direction campus Cité Scientifique Direction campus Pont-de-Bois Direction site Lille centre Direction site Roubaix-Tourcoing Direction site Grande région Direction générale déléguée affaires financières (DAF) Direction commande publique Direction budget Direction gestion Direction générale déléguée systèmes d’information (DSI) Direction développement et exploitation des systèmes d’information Direction infrastructure et support informatique Services centraux - les directions : Direction communication Direction affaires juridiques Direction prévention des risques Direction U-link Direction sécurité défense Coordonnateur médecine de prévention Conseiller de prévention Fonctionnaire sécurité défense Agence comptable Maison de la médiation Délégué à la protection des données Les services communs (au sens de l'article 714-1 du code de l'éducation) Service commun de documentation Service universitaire d’activités physiques et sporthttps://www.univ-lille.fr/home/SCIENTIFIC CITE CAMPUShttps://www.univ-lille.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/autres/Plan-site-Ulille-contact-cite%CC%81-scientifique.pdfFaculty of Science and Technology (FST)Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences (FSES)UFR of Geography and PlanningUFR of Mathematics, Computer Science, Management and EconomicsDepartment of Adult Education and Training (SEFA)Cité Scientifique - 59650 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 43 43 43Polytech'LilleCité Scientifique, avenue Paul Langevin59655 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 28 76 73 00University Institute of Technology - IUT ACité Scientifique, avenue Paul Langevin - BP 9017959653 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 59 63 21 00IUT A, The collectionRue de la Recherche - BP 9017959653 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 67 73 10/73 20Visites virtuelles Université de LilleLoading... Please enable Javascript!https://visites-virtuelles.univ-lille.fr/jpo2021/in 360 ° immersive versionFLERS-CHATEAU CAMPUSHigher National Institute for Teaching and Education365 bis rue Jules Guesde59650 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 79 86 00MOULINS-LILLE CAMPUSFaculty of Legal, Political and Social Sciences (FSJPS) Institute of Criminology and Criminal Sciences Institute of Construction, Environment and Town Planning (ICEU) Institute of Preparation for General Administration (Ipag) Institute of Sciences du travail (IST) Institute of Judicial Studies (IEJ) 1, Place Déliot - BP 629 - 59024 Lille Cedex Tel. : +33 (0) 3 20 90 74 01 // + 33 (0) 3 20 90 74 00IAE Lille University School of Management( merger of IAE Lille and FFBC-IMMD, faculty of finance, banking, accounting and Institute of Marketing and Distribution Management )104 Avenue du Peuple Belge,59043 Lille cedexTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 12 34 50CAMPUS PONT-DE-BOIShttps://www.univ-lille.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/autres/Plan-site-Ulille-contact-PdB.pdfFaculty of Humanities (except the plastic arts center)Faculty of Foreign Languages, Literatures and Civilizations (LLCE)social development, education, culture, communication, information, documentation (Deccid)Department of PsychologyRue du Barreau BP 60149 59650 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 41 70 58/67 58ROUBAIX-TOURCOING CAMPUSFaculty of Applied Foreign Languages ​​(LEA)651 avenue des Nations Unies - BP 44759058 Roubaix cedex 01Tel. : +33 (0) 3 20 41 74 00IAE Lille University School of Management( merger of IAE Lille and FFBC-IMMD, faculty of finance, banking, accounting and Institute of Marketing and Distribution Management )104 Avenue du Peuple Belge,59043 Lille cedexTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 12 34 50University Institute of Technology - IUT CRond Point de l'Europe, BP 557 59060 RoubaixTel. : +33 (0) 3 28 33 36 20- 25-27 rue du Maréchal Foch 59100 RoubaixTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 65 95 50UFR Deccid, Infocom departmentRue Vincent Auriol, 59051 RoubaixTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 41 74 5Faculty of Humanities - plastic arts center29-31 rue Leverrier -59333 Tourcoing CedexTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 41 74 90University Institute of Technology - IUT B35 rue Sainte BarbeBP 70460 - 59208 Tourcoing cedexTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 76 25 00HEALTH CAMPUSFaculty of Pharmaceutical and Biological SciencesInstitute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry Albert Lespagnol3 Rue du Professeur Laguesse, BP 83 - 59006 Lille cedexTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 96 40 40Faculty of dental surgeryPlace de Verdun - 59000 LilleTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 16 79 00Faculty of Engineering and Health Management (ILIS)42, rue Ambroise Paré - 59120 LoosTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 62 37 37Henri Warembourg Faculty of MedicineSpeech therapy instituteTraining center - Avenue Eugène Avinée59120 LoosTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 62 69 00Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education (FSSEP)9 Rue de l'Université, 59790 RonchinTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 88 73 50In order to understand the mechanisms of interaction between MW and microorganisms, this study was designed using accurately controlled experimental conditions and well-defined MW exposure parameters. Moreover, in order to clearly differentiate thermal and nonthermal MW effects, temperature distributions have been carried out with the discontinuous-microwave (DW)-exposed cell suspension, and the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method was used to determine the specific absorption rate (SAR) spatial distributions in the tube (28). In this study, the bacterial effects of microwave irradiation were investigated using flow cytometry (FCM) in conjunction with propidium iodide staining to monitor cellular viability in addition to the assessment of intracellular protein release in bacterial suspensions.An indigenous strain of Escherichia coli, initially isolated from the municipal wastewater of the city of Limoges, France, was used throughout this study. It presented the following physiological characteristics: nonsporulating mobile Gram negative, cytochrome c oxidase negative, capable of aero/anaerobic growth, and exhibiting the API 20E profile 5044 552.A starter culture of Escherichia coli was grown on a rotary shaker (250 rpm) at 37°C for 12 h to late exponential phase in peptone water (Difca; Becton, Dickinson, MD, USA), containing 10 g/liter peptone and 5 g/liter sodium chloride at pH 7.4. The cell concentration was estimated by measuring the absorbance at 580 nm and adjusted to 108 cells/ml using sterile culture medium. Five milliliters of this bacterial suspension was used for conventional heating (CH) and discontinuous microwave (DW) exposure.Culturability of bacteria of each sample was evaluated by the plate count method. After serial dilutions in a sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution, 0.- ml aliquots of the dilutions were inoculated into aerobic plate count agar (Difco, Detroit, MI, USA). Each dilution was spread in triplicate. CFU were then determined after incubation at 37°C for 24 h. Each result was the arithmetic mean from triplicates.For flow cytometry, exposed and control samples were diluted in PBS buffer to obtain a 106 cells/ml suspension.Cells were stained using propidium iodide (PI) (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR, USA), a DNA binding probe (molecular weight, 668.4). Since it could diffuse into cells only if their membranes are damaged, PI is also considered a valuable probe for the evaluation of membrane integrity (29). A stock solution of PI was prepared at a final concentration of 0.5 mg/ml in distilled water and was stored in the dark at 4°C. PI was added to bacterial suspensions at a final concentration of 25 μg/ml during CH or DW treatments or immediately after exposure depending on the type of experimentation. Cells suspensions were incubated in the presence of the probe for a total time of 5 min at room temperature before cytometry analyses.Flow cytometry analyses were performed using a FACSVantage cell sorter (Becton, Dickinson, MD, USA) equipped with a 488-nm (excitation wavelength of PI) argon laser. PI red fluorescence was collected with a long-band-pass filter, and bacterial green autofluorescence was collected with a 530-nm-band-pass filter. Four parameters were recorded: forward scatter (FSC), related to cell size, side scatter (SSC), related to cell structure, red fluorescence of PI, related to cell membrane integrity, and green autofluorescence of bacteria. The results were analyzed with red versus green fluorescence cytograms, since bacterial green autofluorescence enables a better bacterial population separation from background noise and cellular debris than FSC or SSC. FSC and fluorescences were collected in a 4-decade logarithmic scale, whereas SSC was collected in linear scale. The photomultiplier voltage was chosen such that control suspension (untreated Escherichia coli suspension) had no red fluorescence above the first decade. A minimum of 10,000 cells were analyzed at a flow rate of approximately 500 cells/s.The amount of protein released from the DW- and CH-treated cells was measured after adaptation of the Bradford method (30) at 595 nm using the Bio-Rad protein assay dye reagent (Bio-Rad S.A., Germany). Bovine serum albumin was used as the standard protein. After treatment (CH or DW exposure), an aliquot of 1 ml was centrifuged at 9,000 rpm (Biofuge Fresco; Heraeus Instruments, Germany) and subjected to protein measurement.CH was performed in a shaking water bath (model A120T; Lauda, Germany) at 37°C ± 1°C. As for DW exposure, glass tubes containing 5 ml of bacterial suspensions were used. The temperature of the cell culture in the test tube was routinely measured by a Teflon-coated thermocouple (CTX 1200; Avantec, France). The time needed for the cell suspension in the water bath to reach 37°C from room temperature was determined to be 75 s using the fluoroptic probe (model 501; Luxton, California, USA). The test tube was regularly gently shaken.The DW exposure system (Fig. 1) consisted of a function generator (model 33120A; Agilent, California, USA) (G1), a 2.45-GHz-microwave generator (model GMP 20KE/D; Sairem, France) (G2) containing an internal cooling system for the magnetron, and an isolator (IS) with another cooling system for dissipating the reflected power and protecting G2, a bidirectional coupler (BC) with two power meters: PM1, which measures incident power (Pi), and PM2, which measures reflected power (Pr). A metallic cylindrical cavity (A) (Fig. 2) was used to expose the samples. Five milliliters of bacterial suspension was exposed in glass tubes.Schematic principles of the experimental DW exposure system. (a) Scheme of the experimental device. (b) Main components: function generator (G1), 2.45-GHz microwave generator (G2), isolator (IS), bidirectional coupler (BC), power meters (PM), and applicator (A).Schematic drawing of the cylindrical applicator containing the test tube and of the waveguide R26 (86 mm by 43 mm).Due to cavity dimensions, a transverse electric TE111mode was excited. It presented maximum E-field values in the center of the cavity when the cavity was empty. The resonant frequency was adjusted by changing the cavity height (after screwing two dumbbells). A good isolation was obtained using quarter-wavelength transitions (30.5 mm). The cavity was fed by a rectangular wave guide (WR340; size, 86 by 43 mm) through a circular aperture. A manual tuner (MT) (Fig. 1) (A13SMA 2450/340; Sairem, France) was used to match the system and reduce the standing wave ratio (SWR).The test tube was placed inside the cavity through a circular aperture centered in the dumbbell. The cutoff frequency of the wave guide defined by this aperture was higher than the working frequency (2.45 GHz), and the evanescent wave was strongly attenuated because of the dumbbell length.The function generator (G1) was programmed to deliver repetitive square wave pulses. Sequences for DW exposure were defined according to the microwave power and the average final temperature desired (37°C). They involved the two following stages: an initial heating exposure phase (H), necessary to rise from room temperature to 37°C, and a second phase, required for maintaining the average temperature at 37°C, corresponding to repetitive sequences of exposure (E) and nonexposure (NE). A 2.45-GHz continuous-wave (CW) microwave process was used during H and E phases.This technology, being an original example of this operating system (including temperature evolution and duration of the different phases), will appear in Results.The temperature of the cell culture in the glass test tube was routinely measured with a Teflon-coated thermocouple (CTX 1200; Avantec, France). Temperature measurements were done both before exposure and immediately after gentle shaking following the exposure. As shown in Fig. 3, the maintenance of temperature at 37°C was not strictly obtained, and this parameter effectively varied between 37°C and a little more than 35°C.Protocol for DW exposure at 37°C. The description corresponds to a 200-W exposure power. The experimental procedure remains the same for the other exposure powers studied, with the exception of the phase durations, which varied from a given power to another. H, heating phase for rising from room temperature up to 37°C; M, temperature was maintained between 35 and 37°C during this phase. The M phase consisted of two subphases: NE, a nonexposure phase, and E, an exposure phase.Control cells and sham exposed cells were maintained at room temperature (20°C) and gently sequentially shaken. For CH experiments, sham-exposed cells were placed directly in the metallic cavity in the absence of microwave exposure.As appearing in Results and Discussion, the heating duration corresponds to the total heating length. In the case of DW, the convention for expressing exposure duration is more subtle. For a given experiment, the total exposure time (TE) (considered as duration) is given by equation 1:TE = H + n × (NE + E)(1)where H is the preliminary temperature increase duration under microwave exposure necessary to reach 37°C from room temperature, NE is the no-exposure period duration, E is the microwave exposure period duration, and n is the number of times when the sequence (NE + E) was made.Thermal characterization of exposed cells was performed using a fluoroptic thermometer (model 501; Luxtron, California, USA). This system is based on a fluoroptic fiber optic sensor to measure temperature. It is immune to electromagnetic fields, and the probe is dedicated for temperature control of microwave processes and for temperature gradient mapping of fast temperature ramps. Typically, the response time is 0.25 s in stirred water, and the fluoroptic sensor, located at the end of the optic fiber, has a diameter of 0.8 mm and a thickness of 0.2 mm. Four samples were recorded per second for temperature measurement. These characteristics allow measuring a temperature in a volume that can be estimated around 1 and 2 mm3. In a previous study, we have estimated a 200-mK standard deviation for the temperature measurement (31), and we have demonstrated the ability of this probe to measure this parameter in small volumes. It was used to compare computational and experimental estimates of the specific absorption rate (SAR) distribution in a chamber containing a volume of 0.5 ml of Hanks buffered salt solution (HBSS) (2-mm height) exposed to microwaves (32).Point-to-point thermal measurements were carried out over the 3 dimensions of the tube volume with 1- or 2-mm spacing along the height of the sample and 3-mm spacing in the two other dimensions. For each measurement, the bacterial sample was maintained at room temperature (20°C) and the temperature was recorded during the initial exposure phase (H) and for 1 min after the end of H (i.e., during NE phase). The spatiotemporal distribution of temperature was monitored in the cell suspension for exposure of 200, 400, 800, 1,400, or 2,000 W.The finite difference time domain (FDTD) method (33,–35) was used to determine the electromagnetic field and the SAR distributions in the tube as described in a previous study (28). The electromagnetic field is calculated using the FDTD method applied to Maxwell's equations. The time-dependent equations were solved using space and time derivatives. The FDTD algorithm is based on a space grid where the electromagnetic field components were computed at each time step in the whole discretized volume. A criterion linking time step and spatial grid is used for algorithm stability. If needed, the free space can be considered using the highly effective, perfectly matched layer (PML) (36). The shortest wavelength of the spectrum is required to be at least 10 times as great as the spatial grid size for appropriate spatial discretization. At 2.45 GHz, the wavelength is 12.2 cm in free space and around 1.5 cm in the solution, where the relative dielectric permittivity is around 75 (depending on the temperature). The finest resolution used was 0.33 by 0.33 by 0.33 mm. The waveguide, matching system, metallic cylindrical cavity, and coupling aperture were simulated. The excitation was done with a rectangular waveguide. The dielectric parameters used in this study were those of a typical aqueous medium. At 2.45 GHz and 37°C, the biological medium was simulated with a relative dielectric permittivity of 75, a conductivity of 2.85 S/m, and a density of 1,000 kg/m3. The glass material of the tube was modeled as lossless with a relative permittivity of 7.5. The computations were performed on a NEC SX8 vectorized supercomputer.To quantify the amount of power absorbed per unit of mass of the solution, the specific absorption rate (SAR), expressed in W/kg, can be computed from the electromagnetic field with equation 2:where E is the electric field (E-field) amplitude (V/m), σ is the electrical conductivity (S/m), and ρ is the density (kg/m3). In each elementary cell, the E field and the SAR were computed. The calorific dissipated power (σE2 in W/m3) is directly proportional to the SAR and induces temperature elevation.Exposures were compared with simultaneous sham and control cells in both cases. All the results presented in this study come from a minimum of four independent experiments. Assays on cell properties (culturability, membrane integrity, and protein leakage) for control cells, sham-exposed cells and CH- or DW-exposed cells were performed for 9 independent experiments with 5 measures per experiment. All data are expressed as means ± standard deviations (SD). For group comparison, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was used. According to the weakness of microwave nonthermal effects and experimental facilities, statistical significance was defined as a P value of <0.01. Statistical analyses were carried out using the software program SYSTAT version 13.0.A new technological approach was elaborated to study the effect of MW exposure at a quasiconstant and sublethal temperature, as previously described in Materials and Methods. An example of temperature variations in parallel with time evolution appears at Fig. 3. At 200 W, the H phase duration was 2.3 s. At the end of this phase, the temperature reached 37°C. A no-exposure phase (NE) followed (60 s). The temperature progressively decreased to 35°C. A 0.2-s MW exposure phase (E) was sufficient to increase temperature to 37°C. Another NE phase followed, etc. The addition of NE + E phases constituted the global (M) phase. M phase varied from 0 to 30 min in the range from 0* to 5 to 10 to 20 to 30 min. 0* is the initial time for M phase, corresponding to the end of H phase. At time zero*, the physiological state of cells is the one resulting from the impact of a rapid temperature increase during H phase.Table 1 shows the variations of H phase duration (for a constant nonexposure [M] period fixed at 60 s) when the MW power varied from 200 to 2,000 W. This table also shows that the duration of H and E phases evolved as a function of time in a quasi-inversely proportional mode.TABLE 1Duration of DW exposure at 37°CPhaseaDuration (s) of exposure to:200 W400 W800 W1,400 W2,000 WH2.31.150.5750.3280.23NE6060606060E0.230.110.050.0280.02Thermal and Nonthermal Effects of Discontinuous Microwave Exposure (2.45 Gigahertz) on the Cell Membrane of Escherichia coliThe aim of this study was to investigate the effects on the cell membranes of Escherichia coli of 2.45-GHz microwave (MW) treatment under various conditions with an average temperature of the cell suspension maintained at 37°C in order to examine ...https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC4135774/table/T1/?report=objectonlya“H” corresponds to the heating phase, “E” to exposure, and “NE” to nonexposure phases (“E” + “NE” correspond to the M phase, which maintains the temperature).The effects of DW exposure on Escherichia coli were compared to the ones obtained after conventional heating (CH) in a water bath at sublethal temperatures (Table 2). Whatever the exposure mode, and after pour spreading on agar plates, no apparent death was noticed at 37°C for contact times increasing up to 30 min and for microwave power values (in the case of DW) varying from 200 to 2,000 W. In addition, another parameter was studied, the amount of protein released in the medium, since the leakage of cell components could be an indicator of the loss of membrane integrity. Exposure to CH in a water bath or to DW induced no statistically significant effect on protein leakage, regardless of the microwave power and the exposure time at least in the case of DW investigation. Membrane damage, if any, at this temperature and under these conditions could be repaired, showing a little impact of exposure on cellular revivification.TABLE 2Effects of DW exposure and conventional heating on culturable cell concentration and protein leakage in comparison with results for the control (sham-exposed cells)ParameterValue for cell group at time (min)Control cellsSham-exposed cellsCH-exposed cellsDW-exposed cells030030030030No. of CFU/ml1 × 108 ± 1 × 1079 × 107 ± 1 × 1071.1 × 108 ± 1 × 1071 × 108 ± 1 × 1071.8 × 108 ± 1 × 1071.9 × 108 ± 1 × 1071.2 × 108 ± 1 × 1071.1 × 108 ± 1 × 107Concn of leaked proteins (μg/ml)0.31 ± 0.030.30 ± 0.030.35 ± 0.040.38 ± 0.040.51 ± 0.050.48 ± 0.050.41 ± 0.040.44 ± 0.04The physiological state of the bacterium differed according to the mode of exposure at the temperature of 37°C, and noticeable differences appeared when the contact was realized under CH or under DW (Fig. 4). Cell membrane integrity was assessed using propidium iodide (PI) incorporation detected by FCM. PI is a DNA binding probe that diffuses only into the cells with a damaged membrane. Specific PI-DNA binding then results in a red fluorescence emission that can be detected by FCM. As a positive control, a conventional heat-treated sample (95°C during 15 min) was used. The FCM analyses reveal around 100% of permeabilized cells after heat treatment (data not shown).Cytograms for untreated (A), conventionally heated (B), or 400-W-DW treated (C) Escherichia coli suspensions stained with PI. The cytogram (A) corresponds to control cell suspension maintained at room temperature. Cell treatments for panels B and C were performed at 37°C during the heating phase (temperature increase from room level up to 37°C). Windows R1, R2, and R3, respectively, corresponded to highly, low-level-, and no PI-stained cells.An example of the cytograms of the different samples obtained after FCM analysis in conjunction with PI appears in Fig. 4. Cytogram A corresponds to a control cell suspension maintained at room temperature. Cell treatments for cytograms B and C were performed at 37°C during the heating phase (increase from room temperature to 37°C) with conventional heating (B) or DW heating (C) (400 W in this example).Red versus green fluorescence intensities showed clearly three cell populations after DW exposure: a highly PI-stained cell population (R1), a low-level-PI-stained cell population (R2), and a no-PI-stain cell population (R3). The cell response to temperature exposure varied according to the contact mode. Cell suspension at 37°C with CH exhibited 0.4 to 0.7% of R1 permeabilized cells regardless of the exposure duration (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). Under such conditions, no statistically significant differences of membrane integrity were found compared to results obtained with control and sham-exposed cell suspensions maintained at room temperature, which exhibited 0.3 to 0.5% of R1 cells (Fig. 4A).Evolution of R1/T = f(W) for different exposure times. Time 0* corresponds to the time required for increasing the temperature to room level up to 37°C. In other terms, 0* is the length of the H phase, which varied from a given W (exposure power) value to another. T, total population.DW exposure induced approximately 8% of R1 cells at the maximum (Fig. 4C and ​and5).5). Variations in results were statistically significant (P = 0.001) from 400- to 2,000-W exposure. For all exposure durations, the percentage of R1-permeabilized cells was slightly greater for bacterial suspensions exposed to 400 or 800 W than for suspensions exposed to 1,400 or 2,000 W (Fig. 5). No statistically significant effect on cell permeability was detected for 200-W-DW exposure compared to results with CH treatment.By adding both R1 and R2 cell levels, 9 to 10% of cells with modified membrane integrity were found for a 400-W-DW exposure (Fig. 4A), whereas only 0.8 to 1% of cells of the same type were recorded for a 200-W-DW exposure (Fig. 4B) or after CH and 0.5 to 1% for control and sham-exposed cells maintained at 20°C. Control and sham-exposed cells maintained at 20°C exhibited only 0.5 to 1% of membrane-permeabilized cells.Results shown in Fig. 4 were obtained after a contact time (TE) of 5 min. Increasing exposure times up to 30 min did not induce any increase in the percentage of permeabilized cells (Fig. 5). Thus, the H phase appeared to be the most responsible for the measured effects of microwaves on the membrane integrity. Moreover, when a cell suspension previously heated at 37°C under the conditions of CH was then immediately subjected to the M phase under DW conditions, no effect on membrane integrity was seen even after a 15-min contact time. Since it is known that microwaves effects are heterogeneous when applied to living cells or organisms (2, 6,–9, 37), the hypothesis of local superheating within the E. coli population during the H phase was suggested. In order to determine at which temperature a biological denaturation effect begins to occur, with close to the 8% of R1-permeabilized cells obtained after DW exposure, as appearing at Fig. 4, the effect of increasing temperature in CH conditions was studied. The results showed that conventional heating at 47°C for 10 min or at 48°C for 5 min was necessary to induce approximately the same effect as DW exposure (Fig. 6).Effect of conventional heating at different temperatures on membrane permeability. Results are expressed as the evolution of R1/T = f(t) for different T (°C) values (where t is time). The curve named “37 to 46°C” corresponds to the average value of the results obtained at 37, 40, 42, 45, and 46°C, since percentages of highly stained cells were similar.The SAR distribution was investigated using FDTD numerical simulation in order to characterize the microwave exposure conditions. Simulation of SAR distributions in a DW-exposed cell sample showed a great heterogeneity: simulated SAR could reach 0.89 W/g at the maximum for 1-W incident power (Table 3).Simulated SAR values in the tube exposed in the metallic cylindrical cavity for 1 W of incident poweraParameterMeanSDMaxMinSAR, W/g for 1 W0.1890.1980.894.10−4E, V/m for 1 W3643737905.3Thermal and Nonthermal Effects of Discontinuous Microwave Exposure (2.45 Gigahertz) on the Cell Membrane of Escherichia coliThe aim of this study was to investigate the effects on the cell membranes of Escherichia coli of 2.45-GHz microwave (MW) treatment under various conditions with an average temperature of the cell suspension maintained at 37°C in order to examine ...https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC4135774/table/T3/?report=objectonlyaMax, maximum value; Min, minimum value.The spatial SAR distribution is presented in Fig. 7. In order to illustrate the SAR distribution in the whole medium, a three-dimensional (3D) view of the solution and slices along the test tube was plotted. It can be observed that the SAR distribution is not homogenous and highlights two SAR hot spots near the top and the bottom of the test tube, where the maximum SAR values are obtained.3D SAR distribution: whole-volume and 5-mm slices. In this view, the FDTD spatial resolution was 1 mm3, and the SAR values were normalized for 1-W incident power.During the initial phase (H), SAR peak values were very high, ranging from 38 W/g for 200-W incident power up to 380 W/g for 2,000-W power (Table 4). In the M phase, the whole-volume SAR reached 0.125 W/g (125 W/kg), averaging values over the time for all applied incident powers (Table 4). Nevertheless, this phase did not induce any temperature rise due to the temperature difference between the cell sample (at an approximate average temperature of 37°C) and the surrounding atmosphere in the cavity (approximately at room temperature). For both treatments (CH or DW), the numeration of culturable cells on nutrient solid medium after treatment did not show any statistically measurable cell mortality (data not shown).Simulated SAR values for the heating phase (H) and the phase which maintains temperature (M) according to the exposure time durationPhaseParameterValue at incident power (W)2004008001,4002,000HSAR peak (W/g)3876152304380Time duration (s)2.301.150.5750.2870.23MSAR mean (W/g)0.1250.1250.1250.1250.125Time duration of E (s)0.230.1150.05750.02870.023Because modifications of the cell membrane integrity after cell exposure might be attributed to localized thermal effects, further investigations were carried out to search for the existence of thermal hot spots in the cell suspension. Temperature measurements were carried out with DW-exposed samples during H and NE phases, corresponding to 1-min acquisition. The spatiotemporal temperature distributions were similar for the different power levels (200 to 2,000 W). Figure 8 represents the temperature distribution along the central axis of a 400-W-DW-exposed sample. The results showed a heterogeneous spatiotemporal distribution of temperature: the top of the cell suspension was warmer than what was observed at the bottom of the last one (Fig. 8). However, the cooling time rate was shorter at the bottom than at the top of the suspension, probably because of the existence of convection phenomena. A rapid rise of temperature during this H phase was observed in all measured sampling points. Nevertheless, point-to-point measurements over the three dimensions of the sample volume did not show the presence of localized thermal hot spots corresponding to temperatures higher than 45 ± 1°C after the end of H phase. The area containing the measurement spots higher than 37°C was located approximately between 0 and 8 mm below the meniscus of the cell suspension (Fig. 8). The SAR hot spots induced a temperature gradient, and considering thermal phenomena, conduction, and especially convection, this heterogeneity causes a significant fluid motion, as illustrated in the experimental measurements and numerical simulation, including the fluid velocity in the heat transfer equation (28). This analysis supports the concept that SAR hot spots do not directly induce thermal hot spots, as illustrated in the temperature measurements (Fig. 8).Despite many studies on effects of low- and high-power MW on biological systems, the mechanism responsible for the observed bioeffects remains uncertain. Because of the lack of information on the mechanism of interaction between microwave and biological systems, a low-temperature process based on DW energy was developed to investigate their effects on microorganisms under sublethal conditions.Our results showed that DW exposure at 37°C did not induce any significant E. coli mortality (culture on solid medium) but had an effect on membrane integrity (PI staining) of a small part of the bacterial population. Indeed, we found approximately 8% of R1-permeabilized cells after exposure, while conventional heating at 37°C did not induce any effect on membrane permeability compared to that of untreated cell suspensions. Moreover, it can be noticed that conventional heating at 47°C for 10 min or at 48°C for 5 min was necessary to induce the same effects. From these results, it is not possible to establish a direct link between the effect on membrane permeability and a temperature increase after microwave exposure. The challenge in investigating the specific effects of microwave exposure on microorganisms at sublethal temperatures involves the inherent difficulty in measuring the temperature of a sample during microwave processing and the inaccuracies in measurement that can result (9). For this reason, this study was designed using accurately controlled experimental conditions and well-defined microwave parameters. Special attention was paid to temperature measurements using a fast-response probe immune to electromagnetic fields, which integrates temperature on a volume of the order of cubic millimeters with a time resolution shorter than 0.25 s. Under these experimental conditions, thermal characterization during the heating step clearly revealed a heterogeneous temperature distribution in the cell suspension, but no spots above 45 ± 1°C were measured over the cell suspension volume.Moreover, if the observed membrane damage was the consequence of a thermal effect, these effects would be observed regardless of the applied powers (with a temperature increase around 17°C in the H phase). In our study, the cell response is power dependent: no effect was observed at 200 W, whereas significant effects were pointed out for power equal to or higher than 400 W. No more severe damage related to the applied power increase was observed over 400 W. From these results, the hypothesis of a specific electromagnetic threshold effect can be advanced. For 400-W and 800-W incident powers, the results appear very similar, whereas for higher power, the percentage of damaged cells slowly decreases. This phenomenon could be explained by the exposure duration, which is shorter for highest powers. These remarks can complete the analyses provided by Shamis et al. (9) in their recent study. According to these authors, there is a possible specific effect of 18-GHz microwave radiation at sublethal temperatures on bacteria very similar to that of electroporation of the cell membrane and which appears to be electrokinetic in nature (9, 38).Whereas a number of studies investigating the bactericidal effects of microwaves exist, few data on the specific effects of microwaves on prokaryotic cell membrane are available. In the electroporation theory (39), cell membrane pore formation generally results in cell material leakage and sometimes in cell lysis. The fact that no protein leakage was measured in DW-exposed samples was probably due to the low percentage of permeabilized cells. Moreover, the nature and extent of membrane damage might be insufficient to allow release of cell components, at least proteins. Those effects led us to think that DW exposure under the experimental conditions of this study might induce reversible membrane fluidity modification. Such a hypothesis could join that of a study by Orlando et al. (1994) of liposomes (40). These authors reported that microwaves could not induce membrane disruption but could induce pore formation. Consequently, the dielectric cell membrane rupture theory (41) may not be advanced to explain the DW-induced effects on membrane permeability. Instead of this theory, a phenomenon close to the electroporation theory appears more convincing. Although the mechanism by which electroporation occurs is incompletely understood, it is generally believed that a rapid structural rearrangement of the membrane occurs, whereby some or many aqueous pores perforate the membrane. When an imposed transmembrane potential reaches a threshold value, a rearrangement in the molecular structure of the membrane occurs, leading to the formation of pores and a substantial increase in cellular permeability to ions and molecules. Depending on the field strength and exposure time, the subsequent removal of the electric field may then allow the cell membrane to regain its structural integrity (9).The temperature assessment is a key step in such experiments. Even if those experimental data suggested that the temperature reached by the microwave-exposed samples for the contact time studied was not high enough to explain the measured modification of cell membrane integrity, the heterogeneity should be considered.This study focuses on characterization of microwave effects at the macroscopic level, corresponding to bulk solution measurements. In such experiments, two kinds of temperatures can be considered: i) the bulk temperature, or the average fluid bulk temperature, which is a convenient reference point for evaluating properties related to convective heat transfer, and (ii) the instantaneous temperature, which is here a function of microwave power and is not directly measurable due to its short existence and molecular nature (38). As has been well discussed in a recent review from Shamis et al. (2012) (38), the instantaneous temperature principle suggests that a “nonthermal” effect cannot be considered to exist in microwave processing without careful control of this instantaneous temperature, since an unmeasured energy transfer is occurring between the microwaves and the sample. According to these authors, for microwave effects that cannot be accounted for by changes to bulk solution, the expression “specific microwave effects” may be more suitable than “nonthermal effects.”Conclusion.This study showed that 2.45-GHz-DW exposure at 37°C induced Escherichia coli membrane modifications. The heating phase, in which the temperature increases from room level up to 37°C, appeared to be the most responsible for the measured effects of microwaves on membrane integrity. Increasing exposure times up to 30 min did not induce any increase in the percentage of permeabilized cells.Approximately 8% of permeabilized cells appear after microwave exposure, while conventional heating at 37°C did not induce any effect. Moreover, the results showed that conventional heating at 47°C for 10 min or at 48°C for 5 min was necessary to induce the same effects. From these results, a direct link between the effect on membrane permeability and the temperature increase after microwave exposure cannot be established.Thermal characterization during the heating step revealed clearly a heterogeneous temperature distribution in the cell suspension, but no spots above 45 ± 1°C were measured over the cell suspension volume. Even if those experimental data suggested that the temperature reached by the microwave-exposed samples for the contact time studied was not high enough to explain the measured modification of cell membrane integrity, the heterogeneity should be considered. The SAR distribution was computed for the whole sample. The results showed a nonhomogenous SAR distribution and highlight two SAR hot spots near the top and the bottom of the test tube (0.89 W/g at the maximum for 1-W incident power).The results of this study seem to indicate that the cell response is power dependent: no effect was observed at 200 W, whereas significant effects were pointed out for power equal to or higher than 400 W. No more severe damage related to the applied power increase was observed over 400 W. From these results, the hypothesis of a specific electromagnetic threshold effect can be advanced.This study focuses on characterization of microwave effects at the macroscopic level, corresponding to bulk solution measurements. 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