Name Period Kinetic And Potential Energy Relationships: Fill & Download for Free

The “shells” are rather just names given to particular quantum states of electrons, or more accurately of the electron configuration as a whole in particular, by analogy with the states in hydrogen in a suitable non-interactive approximate model of more complex atoms.In a hydrogen atom, the values of energy and partially the angular momentum (in particular in its magnitude and in one component) can all simultaneously attain well-defined (zero entropy / maximal information) values, and the possible values of energy and angular momentum come from a discrete set. When they are such, the position and linear momentum are ill-defined up to approximately the girth of the atom, since quantum mechanics does not permit the atom to contain enough information to define all these characteristics at once to infinite degree. (For what its worth this also implies the usual kinetic and potential energy of the electron separately are ill-defined since these are simple, direct functions of its position and momentum. But their sum can be well-defined.)Each energy value defines a shell, while each angular momentum value defines a sub-shell. But the shells are not physical anythings in the atom, they are just possible states that the electron can occupy.In a more complex atom, it is more difficult because the interactions between electrons (their electric repulsion) prevent assigning a quantum state to them individually - that is, they are quantum-mechanically entangled by interaction. Instead one can only be given for the atom collectively. But I believe, it behaves as though in terms of allowable values for things like angular momentum - the relationship between the “energy” value from before and actual energy is no longer so simple here because different angular momentum values will actually have different energies as well - roughly like they were independent electrons following the same rules as hydrogen, which is why you can build up the periodic table and it takes the form it does.

Disclaimer: Let’s start with the standard disclaimer of all Kardashev Level 0 societies when discussing the technological capacities of galactic civilizations whose capacities exceed our own. I discuss what this means in greater detail in: You are a Type III civilization. How do you manage the black holes in your Galaxy? where we discuss what does a super-advanced society do with all of the energy it’s gathering…Most of the scientific principles and technologies for Level III societies or better may as well be magic to our less than evolved capacities.We have no idea how or why most of their technology works and as such, can only speculate to their function based on our own limited understanding of the Universe.Finally, I do not believe most science fiction writers of comics are familiar with the concepts of the Kardeshev Scale or its implications.As a result, much of our speculation is based in examples which do not map effectively to the concepts depicted by the Russian astrophysicist, Nikolai Kardeshev. We are forced to approximate a relationship in technology and capacity when it is possible, at all.The Cliff Notes: There are few modern sciences which could correlate to the capacities of the Oan power ring. Just a few of the ideas which we could relate to include:A mental software interface: All of the technology of the ring is accessible through the mental and emotional interaction with the technology.An artificial intelligence: sophisticated enough to read the mind of the ring’s user, access remote databases from across the galaxy and store the information of billions of worlds, past and present in the Book of Oa.Matter and energy conversion: converting matter to energy and back again; the creation of nearly limitless power accessible via mental controlsManipulation of fundamental forces: creation of any form of electromagnetic energy; electromagnetic field manipulations, the creation of force fields and the creation of complex fields of force capable of gathering information from the natural universe.Broadcast energy: The ability to power machines using remote energy sources. The power battery of the Green Lanterns transfers energy from across the Universe to be made available no matter where a Green Lantern is.Extreme levels of miniaturization: The technology of the Oans allow all of these capacities to fit inside of something as small as a piece of jewelry. While it’s never mentioned by name, the capacity to create such a device probably means they use nanotechnology in the rings creation.Given the nature of the power ring, the technology is so sophisticated, it may as well be magic to us. With that said, let’s discuss the creators (or at least, the most effective manipulators of that power), the Guardians of the Universe.The Guardians of the Universe (also known as the Guardians of Oa) have been in existence for billions of years. Given in most depictions, they had a highly advanced galactic civilization.The Guardians evolved on the planet Maltus, and were among the first intelligent life forms in the universe. At this time they were tall greyish blue humanoids with black hair, who roughly resembled humans except for their skin color. They became scientists and thinkers, experimenting on the worlds around them. One experiment led to the creation of a new species, the Psions.In a pivotal moment, billions of years ago, a Maltusian named Krona used time-bending technology to observe the beginning of the Universe. However, this experiment, and later attempts to stop it, unleashed disaster upon all existence. Originally, the experiment splintered the Universe into the Multiverse and created the evil Anti-Matter Universe of Qward.At least one billion years ago, the Guardians were sophisticated enough to have a galaxy-spanning police force called the Manhunters who were designed to help foster order in a galaxy burgeoning with (hostile or at least unruly) life.The Guardians admit to having a period of development from their homeworld of Malthus that resembles most lower level civilizations before they experienced an explosion of technological development.This explosion was so great it included the capacity to discover (and unfortunately affect) the origin of the Universe. This manipulation was by the renegade Krona who did not accept the limitations of the Guardians at the time and resulted in the existence of the DC Multiverse.By the time of the creation of the Green Lantern Corps, the Manhunters had been spread throughout the galaxy, presumably part of their Level III civilization, which was capable of harnessing the energy of an entire galaxy. The Manhunters were destroyed by the Guardians after the Massacre of Sector 666.While we cannot confirm the source of their power, the Manhunters were able to work across the entire galaxy with no difficulties, meaning they were able to derive whatever passed for their power supply no matter where they were.We also know the Manhunters could absorb any ambient energy they could find should they find themselves cut off from whatever energy the Guardians provided. Devices made from the period of the Manhunters were proven to function billions of years later. (See above.)Such technology includes the Manhunter energy pistols and Krona’s Power Gauntlet made during this period. Said gauntlet would become the prototype of the Green Lantern power rings some time after the destruction of the Manhunters.It appears the early Guardians were bonded with the White Energy of the Emotional Spectrum, giving them nearly limitless access to their native power source (whatever that was…) Here is where we start having problems. The Guardians used technology whose power appeared to give them access to energy without limits.Were they tapping the energy of the standard fundamental forces as we know them? Presumably yes, since not all of their technology relied on access to the Emotional Spectrum.We know they could harness normal energies and did so, when it suited them to do so. But the Guardians appeared to have technology which is so advanced much of it is invisible to the naked eye or interfaces directly with their body, removing the need for external weaponry of any kind.We also recognize much of their technology is powered or directed by mental energies alone. Given their incredible mental capacities, it makes sense for much of their gear to utilize mental interfaces, capable of being updated as needed, using their clearly superior intellects.We know that some time after the fall of the renegade Krona, the Guardians allied themselves with the Green Power of Will (which in their minds, is an emotion-less energy interaction preferred by them). They ultimately did not want to recognize emotion as necessary to the survival of the Universe.As far as the Guardians are concerned despite the vast power of the of the White Power of Life, their mastery of the Green Power of Will has not changed their overall capacity with either power.Their abilities are limited only by their imagination and access to the nearly limitless power they can channel through their bodies and minds. A single Guardian, Ganthet, was able to fight and defeat the macro-energized, life-form known as Superman, without resorting to his Kryptonite weakness.Ganthet was also able to fight against hundreds of Green Lanterns simultaneously (they were under mind control) so they may have been less effective than they might be normally but this is still an impressive feat of power and precision.The powers of the Green Lantern ring are numerous and I discuss them in great detail in the treatment: Which is more powerful, Thor's hammer, Mjolnir or Green Lantern's power ring?The Power Ring and Battery of the Green Lantern CorpsIf I were to describe the technology of the Oan power ring, it appears to function at three different levels of operation:The power ring itself acts as a highly-independent but limited artificial intelligence; with the capacity to act as an interface and aid to the ring user. The ring is, essentially, a mentally-accessed computer system.Likely the ring’s AI has been limited to prevent what happened to the Manhunters (reprogramming by an outside agency) from happening to the rings themselves.The rings have some limited decision-making capacity particularly in regard to their operation. They choose to protect the ring wielder as the highest priority and require an override by an operator before they will place any other need before that one.The ring’s intelligence is supported by a database of stored information within the ring. There is also a real-time connection to the Central Power Battery and the information archives of the Oa database called The Book of Oa.The ring’s volition is limited and as such does not volunteer information unless properly prompted by the ring’s user. The ring can, if the wielder has the proper scientific knowledge, create usable technology capable of behaving in the same fashion as the real technology would.What the Guardians know (and choose to share with the Green Lanterns) the ring can access said information. This includes language translation, interstellar navigation, wormhole detection or creation as well as interaction with technology unfamiliar to the ring wielder. The ring does not immediately give knowledge of alien technology or necessarily how to use it.The ring is capable of receiving information and through the power battery, energy from an undisclosed range, but assuredly remote location, in real time.The ring is capable of faster than light communication and capable of receiving broadcasted power across intergalactic distances.This real-time connection across time and space relays information only. Ring-bearers can communicate with each other telepathically across galactic distances, in real time.The energy of the ring is recharged by the Power Battery which accompanies each Green Lantern. The battery is a conduit of the green energy but cannot release said energy without a ring, unless it is destroyed.The green energy is drawn from the Central Power Battery, but happens to be under the control of the Guardians, if they or their representatives so will it. Thus the power could be cut off, at the source.The ring is capable of creating and manipulating a variety of fields of electromagnetic forces as well as the Green Energy directly.The ring can project almost any energy the user can conceive of as well as projections of the green energy which can disrupt matter and energy.The green energy can act as a force field capable of protecting the ringbearer, and can create matter and energy, presumably out of the Green Energy itself.The ring’s energy can be directly converted to maintain, sustain or even bolster the physical capacity of a ringbearer, if they have the right training for such augmentation.Most ringbearers will utilize the capacity of the ring based on their intellectual capacity, emotional energy level, and creativity.Rigorous mental training can make it possible for rings to create machines or devices composed entirely of will. However, most users will create only constructs redirecting the Green Power as the ringbearer wills, resulting in brute applications of force.Fatigue and injury can reduce the capacity of the constructs created as well. Psychological manipulation can also affect the quality and potential power of ring constructs.If I were to simply describe the power ring in terms of our understanding of technology, I would say the power ring is essentially:a mentally-directed, semi-aware, machine-intelligence, dedicated to the life support of a single user and acting as an mentally directed interface to the technology’s capacities.All by itself, the capacity of the computer interface alone is far beyond our ability to even envision. The machine intelligence is capable of making decisions, interpreting the desire of the ringbearer, and intuitively creating what the bearer desires, no matter how the bearer thinks or sees the universe at large.given that we have yet to crack the machine-intelligence barrier, just the AI is beyond our capacity to envision effectively, let alone shrink it to the size of the power ring.Capable of utilizing fields of projected and manipulated energy across the EM spectrum as well as utilizing the unique signature of the Green Energy itself.The ring can emulate any energy that it knows exists and project it across vast distances at the request of the ring’s owner.In comparison, our primitive directed energy technology such as lasers barely scratch the surface of the power ring’s capacity. We do create highly sophisticated magnetic fields for bottling particles, and using magnetic fields to create electricity in dynamos.The ring can also direct simulations of force such as kinetic energy when bearers create physical constructs such as boxing gloves, trains or missiles.Capable of manipulation matter and energy, treating them interchangeably, creating matter-energy conversions instantaneously and intuitivelyThe ring can act as Star Trek’s replicator with the limitation it cannot duplicate any living thing. Rings can even create functional replicas of themselves.Some highly-skilled ringbearers could create actual machines if they were so inclined, but most choose to not create anything unless absolutely necessary choosing to create force-construct simulations.Capable of creating “Einstein-Rosen Bridges” with distant locationsThe capacity enables bridging galactic distances creating transluminal (or faster-than-light) communication and means of travel.The ring presumably has the capacity to create said wormhole and protect the user from the incredible forces necessary for such a technology to exist as we understand them.If you just can’t get enough Green Lantern, there’s plenty more for you:How many Green Lanterns are in the Green Lantern Corps?Why doesn't Green Lantern have an official sidekick? (Quora)Do Power Rings get resized for each user? (SF&F Stack)Why do some Green Lanterns talk to their rings when giving a command? (SF&F Stack)Green Lantern Power Ring (Wikia)

Heat is any energy transfer that is not work. The physics of heat is thermodynamics.AnalogyImagine a house with a front door and a back door. You watch it for a day, and people come and go through either door. This is an analogy for a thermodynamic process.The house is a thermodynamic system - in this case a certain volume of space which you are monitoring. The people are energy. When people enter or leave through the front door, that is work. When they enter or leave through the back door it is heat.Thus, a thing does not have a certain amount of heat in it any more than a house has "back door people" in it. The house simply has people in it; the thermodynamic system simply has energy it it. When people leave the house, we might say "People left the house through the back door." When energy leaves a system, we might say, "Energy left the system as heat."EnergyEnergy is a thermodynamic state variable. This means that if you tell me everything about a system - its temperature, volume, pressure, chemical potential, mass, etc. then there is a formula I can use to calculate the energy. If the state of the system changes, perhaps it expands and cools, I can recalculate and find a new energy. But if the system goes back to the same temperature, pressure, etc. as before, it goes back to the same energy, too.Sometimes energy is very simple. For an ideal gas, it depends only on the temperature and number of molecules of the gas and on the number of degrees of freedom of each molecule. Other times, the system may have interesting chemistry going on, or a gravitational potential, or internal stress and strain, or electromagnetic interactions, etc. Then the energy can be quite complicated to calculate. However, we can always find a formula for the energy, and the fundamental formulas for it tend to be pretty simple.People have intuitive understanding of energy that carries meaning beyond this, but for now I think it best to leave the definition of energy as I've put it. Theoretically, these energy formulas have the common origin that they are the quantity that is conserved when the dynamics involved are time-independent, but there is not space to elaborate this idea here.Energy ConservationThe energy concept is extremely useful because as long as we find all the correct formulas for energy, it turns out that energy is conserved.Suppose we have an isolated system. If it is not in equilibrium, its state may change. Energy conservation means that at the end of the change, the new state will have the same energy as the old.This leaves us to define "isolated system". Define a second system to be whatever stuff is physically surrounding the first system. This second system is called the environment. If the first system is isolated, it means that no matter what goes on in the first system, we see no discernible changes to the environment. If we set a bomb off in the isolated system, the environment doesn't heat up or expand or explode or anything. And as long as a system is isolated like that, the energy is conserved. Practically, you can tell an isolated system because there are no physical mechanisms for it to interact with the environment. Matter and radiation can't leave or enter, it can't expand or contract, etc.We can't have a perfectly isolated system in reality, so next we need to consider systems that interact with their environment. We find the state of our system and calculate the energy. It turns out to be 100 joules. If we let the system go a while, maybe something happens, and when we come back it only has 90 joules of energy. In that case, we always find that if we measure the state of the environment, the environment's energy has increased by 10 joules. Any time the energy of the system goes down, the energy of the environment goes up by the same amount. For this reason, it makes sense to say that the total amount of energy is always the same, and that energy moves from place to place. There is no such physical thing as energy - there may be nothing moving at all - but it is helpful to our intuition to say that energy flows around between systems. The precise statement is simply that energy is conserved.It turns out that if you examine the energy equations and the physical laws underlying the dynamics of systems, you can show something both stronger and weaker than what I've written above. Energy is conserved locally, meaning that it does not simply hop away from one spot and show up a long distance away instantaneously. It has to go through all the space in between. This is a stronger statement than global energy conservation because it disallows some processes that obey global energy conservation. However, it is also weaker, because it turns out that in some circumstances in general relativity, energy, while conserved locally, is not conserved globally.WorkIn simple mechanical processes, work is defined by[math]\mathrm{d}W = P\mathrm{d}V[/math][math]\mathrm{d}W[/math] represents an infinitesimal amount of work done by a system on its environment. [math]P[/math] is the pressure of the environment on the system. [math]\mathrm{d}V[/math] is an infinitesimal expansion of the system - a change in its volume.If you want to find the work done during a process, you need to integrate the previous expression over the entire process. If you aren't familiar with calculus, you can think of it as simply[math] W = P\Delta V[/math]where the [math]\Delta[/math] means "change in".For example, if you blow up a balloon, the balloon does work on the atmosphere. The work is equal to the volume the balloon gained while being blown up multiplied by the atmospheric pressure.It is important to note that [math]P[/math] represents the pressure of the environment on the system, while [math]W[/math] represents the work done by the system on the environment. If you blow up a balloon in outer space, the pressure on it is effectively zero, so the balloon does no work at all. However, if we redefined the system to be only air in the balloon and we took a balloon with some air in it and put in outer space, the air would then do work on the rubber of the balloon while it expanded.In general, other types of energy transfer must also be classified as work. For example, if you lift something up against gravity, that's doing work on it, even if you don't change the volume. Wikipedia describes more examples in Work (thermodynamics). It is a subtle point; I will try to clarify it further at a later time.Adiabatic ProcessesWork and energy, as described so far, have nothing to do with each other. Energy is a number calculated from the state of the system. Work is a number calculated by keeping track of an entire process as it occurs. Energy comes from a snapshot and work from a film. Nonetheless, in certain circumstances they are intimately related.For some systems, we find that the energy decrease in the system is equal to the work done by the system on its environment. For example, if we reconsider the air expanding in a rubber balloon in space, we'd find that the energy of the air goes down while it expands. When air expands its temperature cools; the air escaping from a bike tire is cooler than the air still inside the tire (which in turn is at room temperature). If we measure the state of the air before and after the expansion and apply the energy formulas, we find that the energy goes down. Also, the air did work on the balloon as previously mentioned. If we found the pressure the balloon exerts on the air and integrated over the volume change, we could find the work done by the air on the balloon. If the expansion of the balloon were adiabatic, these would be equal.In reality, adiabatic processes are approximations. They work best with systems that are almost isolated, but have a limited way of interaction with the environment, or else occur too quickly for interactions besides pressure-volume ones to be important.In our balloon, the expansion might fail to be adiabatic due to radiation or conduction between the balloon and the air. If the balloon were a perfect insulator, perfectly white, and perfectly elastic, we'd expect the process to be adiabatic.Sound waves propagate essentially adiabatically, not because there are no mechanisms other than pressure-volume for one little mass of air to interact with nearby ones, but because those mechanisms (diffusion, convection, etc.) are too slow to operate on the time scale of the period of a sound wave (about one thousandth of a second).This leads us to think of work in new way. In adiabatic processes, work is the exchange of energy from one system to another. Work is still calculated from [math]P\mathrm{d}V[/math], but once we calculate the work, we know the energy change.HeatReal processes are not adiabatic. Some are close, but others are not close at all. For example, if I put a pot of water on the stove and turn on the burner, the water's volume hardly changes, so the work done as the water heats is nearly zero.Further, the water expands, so it does a little bit of positive work, which means its energy ought to go down. In reality, the energy goes up, which we can verify by measuring the state of the water and applying energy formulas. Energy got into the pot, but not by work.This means that work is not a sufficient concept for explaining energy transfer. We invent a new, blanket term for energy transfer than is not through work. That term is "heat".Heat is simply any energy transferred between two systems by means aside from work. The energy entering the boiling pot is entering by heat. This leads to the thermodynamic equation[math]\mathrm{d}E = -\mathrm{d}W + \mathrm{d}Q[/math][math]E[/math] is energy, [math]W[/math] work, [math]Q[/math] heat. The minus sign means that when the system does work on the environment, it loses energy. Meanwhile [math]Q[/math] stands for the heat absorbed by the system, and thus positive [math]Q[/math] leads to a gain in energy.Interpreting HeatHeat is a concept that bothered me for a long time. Things like "volume" are very easy to understand - it's physical space and you measure it with a ruler. Pressure is a little trickier, but you have a good intuitive sense of what pressure means, and you can build a pressure gauge by supporting the lid to an airtight box with a spring and watching the box expand or contract. (This is not how atmospheric pressure measurements are actually made, but it could be done like this in principle.)Since work is derived from pressure and volume, it too can be understood fairly well. Energy, an abstract number derived from the state of a system, may be harder to wrap your head around, but after some time doing physics you will probably develop an intuition for energy.Heat, though, feels almost like a deus ex machina. All the leftover energy transfer is heat? Isn't that just a cop-out? No, logically it is not; it is a viable and unambiguous definition of heat assuming energy is conserved. Nonetheless, we would like a more visceral interpretation.There was a beer brewer named James Joule who did experiments in heat, work, and energy. Joule set up an apparatus like this:It's a container of water with a paddle wheel in it, and the paddle wheel can be driven by a weight falling on the right.Joule let the weight fall. We consider the wheel and weight to be a system. We can find the change in energy of the system by looking at how far the weight falls; its gravitational potential energy goes down. This energy is transferred to the the water.Joule had a thermometer in the water to measure the temperature change. So now Joule could figure out how the temperature of the water changes when you add a certain amount of heat to it. He found that when you add 4.2 joules of energy to the water, its temperature rises by 1 degree divided by the number of grams of water in the container.If Joule had added the same amount of heat to the water in any other way, perhaps by burning a candle under the container, the temperature change would have been the same because the change in the water's energy would be the same, so the state of the water would be the same. (This is assuming change in temperature is the only change in the water, which is a good approximation.)This provides a ready interpretation of heat. Suppose we watch some thermodynamic process occur in a system. We measure the energy before and after, so we know the energy loss. We measure the volume and pressure all during the process so we can calculate the work. Finally, we subtract them to find the heat involved, and declare, "The system lost 20 joules of energy through heat."This means that if we did the experiment over in exactly the same way except that we replace the environment with 20 grams of water, the temperature of the water would rise by one degree.That is the meaning of heat.MisconceptionsSome people say things like "heat is random motion of molecules." That's thermal energy, although sometimes physicists loosely call it heat. We should not say, "He slammed on the brakes and turned all the car's kinetic energy into heat in the brake pads, tires, and road." Instead, say, "He slammed on the brakes and transferred all the car's kinetic energy as heat to the brake pads, wheels, and road, where that energy is now thermal energy." This doesn't flow as well, so sometimes we say it the first way for convenience.Heat is not temperature. Temperature is what you measure with a thermometer. When you add energy to something through heat, you will probably increase its temperature. However, if the temperature increases, you don't know that heat's been added. It could just be that someone did work on the system to add energy. It could even be that the total energy of the system stayed the same - energy leaked out of something else internal to the system and became thermal energy, increasing the temperature while neither heat nor work was involved.Heat is not "low grade energy" since it is not energy, only a description of energy transfer. Things do not have a certain amount of heat in them.Physics of HeatThe most important physics of heat is the relationship between heat and temperature. This relationship is described by the entropy of the system, and it is regulated by the second law of thermodynamics. Do not confuse second-law results, such as heat flows from hotter systems to colder ones, with the definition of heat itself. This answer is much too long already, but the essential fact is that entropy [math]S[/math] defined by[math]T\mathrm{d}S = \mathrm{d}Q[/math]always increases when entropy of both the system and its environment are considered.Referenceadapted from my answer to a similar question here: http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/8522/what-exactly-is-heat