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Both Fiverr and Upwork are very good places to find excellent talents to do jobs that you would like to have done- small gis, large gigs or even super large gigs sometimes. They both come with their different obligations and rules. When it comes to taxes and Accounting though, I am of the opinion that folks who engage in business with them are more or less treated as contractors, who are responsible for addressing their own taxes and Accounting. I, personally had an account with Paypal for over 15 years, and sort of never paid taxes on it, but as I ’ve listed below, Revenue Canada changed all this a couple of years ago, and now we are taxed on the money from our Paypal account. I have also taken the opportunity to give feedback on two other countries India and The United States of America: and we have answers on this from Paypal. So let's do this- here goes:What is accounting and its purpose?The purpose of accounting is to accumulate and report on financial information about the performance, financial position, and cash flows of a business. This information is then used to reach decisions about how to manage the business, or invest in it, or lend money to it.accountingDefinitionPractice and body of knowledge concerned primarily withmethods for recording transactions,keeping financial records,performing internal audits,reporting and analyzing financial information to the management, andadvising on taxation matters.It is a systematic process of identifying, recording, measuring, classifying, verifying, summarizing, interpreting and communicating financial information. It reveals profit or loss for a given period, and the value and nature of a firm's assets, liabilities and owners' equity.Accounting provides information on theresources available to a firm,the means employed to finance those resources, andthe results achieved through their use.Income tax is something that you can’t get away from, wherever you live you have to pay some form of taxes: as a matter of fact, there is a saying that there are only two things that you have to do in life- and that’s pay taxes and die. So, just what is tax? It is: A tax (from the Latin tax) is a compulsory financial charge or some other type of levy imposed upon a taxpayer (an individual or other legal entity) by a governmental organization in order to fund various public expenditures. A failure to pay, along with evasion of or resistance to taxation, is punishable by law.From Fiverr, I have included some of their terms of service, not all (because some don’t apply) and hopefully, you can grasp some information on how they view their buyers, sellers and their obligations to the governments that govern their countries:Fiverr's Terms of ServiceLast Update: May 2019Key TermsBuyers are users who purchase services on Fiverr.Custom Offers are exclusive proposals that a Seller can create in response to specific requirements of a Buyer.Custom Orders are requests made by a Buyer to receive a Custom Offer from a Seller.Disputes are disagreements experienced during an order between a Buyer and Seller on Fiverr.Fiverr Balance is the aggregated amount of your Revenue as a Seller and/or returned payments from canceled orders as a Buyer.Fiverr Credits are credits that Fiverr may provide users to be used only for purchases on Fiverr, subject to these Terms of Service or any other applicable laws and/or terms.Gig Extras are additional services offered on top of the Seller’s Gig for an additional price defined by the Seller.Gig Packages allow Sellers to offer services at different formats and prices. Packages can include upgrades, which lets Sellers price their service for a basic price of over $5.​Gig Page is where the Seller can describe their Gig and the Gig’s terms, and the Buyer can purchase the Gig and create an order.Gigs® are services offered on Fiverr.Order Page is where Buyers and Sellers communicate with each other in connection with an ordered Gig.Orders are the formal agreement between a Buyer and Seller after a purchase was made from the Seller’s Gig Page.Payment Services Provider(s) are service providers that provide payment services to Buyers and Sellers in connection with the Fiverr platform, including with respect to collection of funds from Buyers in connection with the purchase of Gigs, remittance and withdrawal of funds to Sellers in connection with completed Gigs, and the holding of funds in connection with Fiverr Balances.Revenue is the money that Sellers earn from completed orders and can either withdraw or use to purchase Gigs on Fiverr, subject to these Terms.Sellers are users who offer and perform services through Gigs on Fiverr.Overview (Main terms, in a nutshell)Only registered users may buy and sell on Fiverr. Registration is free.Gigs® on Fiverr may be offered at a base starting price of $5. Some Gigs are offered at a base price of more than $5 as determined by the Seller.Buyers pay Fiverr in advance to create an order (see Purchasing Section below regarding payment terms).Orders are purchased through the Order button found on a Seller’s Gig page or through a Custom Offer.For fees and payments please read the purchasing section here.Sellers must fulfill their orders, and may not cancel orders on a regular basis or without cause. Canceling orders will affect Sellers’ reputation and status.Sellers gain account statuses (Levels) based on their performance and reputation. Advanced levels provide their owners with benefits, including offering services for higher prices through Gig Extras, or selling their Gig in multiples.Users may not offer or accept payments using any method other than placing an order through Access to This Page Has Been Blocked.Buyers are granted all rights for the delivered work unless otherwise specified by the Seller on their Gig page. Note: some Gigs charge additional payments (through Gig Extras) for Commercial Use License. See our “Ownership” and “Commercial Use License” sections below for more information.Fiverr retains the right to use all published delivered works for Fiverr marketing and promotion purposes.We care about your privacy. You can read our Privacy Policy here. The Privacy Policy is a part of these Terms of Service and incorporated herein by reference.SellersBasicsSellers create Gigs® on Fiverr to allow Buyers to purchase their services.Sellers may also offer Custom Offers to Buyers in addition to their Gigs.Each order you sell and successfully complete accredits your account with net revenue of 80% of the purchase amount.Fiverr accredits Sellers once an order is completed. See our "Orders" section below for a definition of a completed order.If an order is canceled (for any reason), the funds paid will be returned to the Buyer’s Fiverr Balance.Revenues are only made available for withdrawal from the Revenue page following a safety clearance period of 14 days after the order is marked as complete. Top Rated Sellers and Pro Sellers are eligible to withdraw revenue following a safety clearance period of 7 days after the order is marked as complete.Sellers may not promote their Gigs or any Fiverr content via the AdWords platform.Sellers may withdraw their revenues using one of Fiverr’s withdrawal options (see Withdrawal Section below regarding payment terms).The Seller's rating is calculated based on the order reviews posted by Buyers. High ratings allow Sellers to obtain advanced Seller levels (see Levels below). In certain cases, exceedingly low ratings may lead to the suspension of the Seller’s account.For security concerns, Fiverr may temporarily disable a Seller’s ability to withdraw revenue to prevent fraudulent or illicit activity. This may come as a result of security issues, improper behavior reported by Buyers, or associating multiple Fiverr accounts to a single withdrawal provider.Sellers are responsible for paying any direct or indirect taxes, including any GST, VAT or otherwise, which may apply to them depending on residency or location. Sellers represent and warrant that they comply, and will comply at all times, with their obligations under income tax provisions in their jurisdiction. The Gig price shown on the Gig page is inclusive of all such taxes and charges that may apply to the Sellers.Appointment as Limited Payment Collection Agent: Seller hereby appoints Fiverr as Seller’s limited authorized payment collection agent solely for the purpose of accepting payments (via its Payment Services Provider, if applicable) from Buyer, and remitting those payments to Seller. Seller agrees that payment from Buyer to Fiverr shall be considered the same as a payment made directly to Seller. Buyer’s payment obligation to Seller will be satisfied upon receipt of payment by Fiverr (or its Payment Services Provider, as applicable), and Fiverr (via its Payment Services Provider, as applicable) is responsible for remitting the funds to the Seller in the manner described in these Terms of Service. In the event that Fiverr (via Payment Services Provider) does not remit any such amounts to Seller, the Seller will have recourse only against Fiverr and not the Buyer directly. Seller agrees that Fiverr may describe or otherwise reflect the terms contained herein in any terms of service, receipts, disclosures, or notices including, but not limited to, receipts provided to Buyers that Fiverr may deem necessary or prudent.Fiverr partners with Payment Services Providers for purposes of collecting Gig-related payments from Buyers, transferring such payments from Buyers to Sellers, and holding funds in connection with Sales Balances. All payments services in connection with the withdrawal of funds on the Fiverr platform are performed by Fiverr’s Payment Services Providers.Local CurrenciesBuyers may pay on Fiverr in several different currencies. Unless stated otherwise, you will be charged in the currency displayed on the Order page. In certain cases, however, when certain currencies are not supported by certain payment methods, you will be charged in US$ even if the price is displayed in another currency. In any event, the actual charged amount (in the actual payment currency) will be clearly disclosed to you before you complete the Order.Buyers should note that the Gigs’ pricing is derived always from their original US$ price and, therefore, non-US$ currency prices may change daily in accordance with exchange rates fluctuations and may also include conversion fees. Buyers always have the option to pay in US$ by changing their selected displayed currency.If you paid for an Order in a currency other than US$ and your Order was later canceled for any reason, the amount returned to your Fiverr Balance would be based on the exchange rate as of the date of cancellation. Therefore, the returned amount may vary from the paid amount in local currency terms, while always maintaining the same US$ value.Your Fiverr Balance is always valued in US$, even if it is displayed in a non-US$ currency. Therefore, should you choose to view your Fiverr Balance in any currency other than US$, it may change daily in accordance with exchange rates fluctuations, while always maintaining the same US$ value. Users always have the option to view their Fiverr Balance in US$ by changing their selected displayed currency.TaxesBuyers may be charged with indirect taxes (such as VAT or GST) depending on their residency, location and any applicable law, in addition to the Gig price shown on the Gig page.Buyers agree that they are responsible to comply with all tax requirements applicable to them, including but not limited to any obligation to deduct or withhold taxes. It is hereby clarified that all prices and fees that appear on the Site are the net amounts that will be paid following any direct or indirect taxes, levy, withholding tax and/or deductions.I have done the same thing with UPwork, and here again, I have chosen to include their Freelancers policy:FREELANCER MEMBERSHIP PROGRAMSUpwork offers several membership programs for Freelancers and Agencies. For purposes of this Agreement, “Member” or “you” means a Freelancer or Agency participating in a membership program.Each membership program includes a certain number of “Connects,” which reserve monthly capacity for you to submit proposals for Clients' posted Projects, as described on the Site here. If your membership program does not include Connects or your membership otherwise gives to the right to purchase additional Connects, you may do so for the price advertised on the Site at the time of the purchase, subject to a cap determined by your membership program, if applicable. Connects that you do not use will be rolled over to the next month as described on the Site. The conditions under which unused Connects will roll over into the next month may vary from time to time and will depend on your membership program.Upwork reserves the right to change membership fees, change the monthly number of Connects included in each membership program, change the price for Connects or institute new fees at any time, in each case upon reasonable notice posted in advance on the Site. No refunds of fees already paid will be given. If Upwork exercises its right to cancel a membership, Upwork will not refund the membership fee already paid.2. TAXESWhere applicable, Upwork may also collect Taxes (such as value added tax (VAT) in Europe) on membership fees and the cost for Connects.Below, Revenue Canada tells you exactly why Paypal is taxable in Canada:Is PayPal Income Taxable In Canada?The Canada Revenue Agency has recently received a court order from the Federal Court allowing them to collect a broad range of data from Paypal. The service is frequently used by relatively informal businesses, particularly those based online, to make sales simply and securely.If you receive income through PayPal, this is taxable just like a regular paycheque, but the relative secrecy and absence of deductions at the source make not claiming it particularly tempting.The CRA and PayPalAs Paypal themselves summarized the order, they would be required to disclose:“The full name of every individual or corporation holding a business account that has a Canadian address;The date of birth of each individual holding a business account;The business name, if applicable;The telephone number(s) of the corporation or individual holding the business account, if available;The full address(es) of the corporation or individual holding the business account;The email address of the corporation or individual holding the business account; andThe Social Insurance Number and/or Business Number of the corporation or individual holding the Business Account, if available.The following information on transactions made by the account holder:The total number and value of received transactions for each calendar year between January 1, 2014, and November 10, 2017; andThe total number and value of sent transactions for each calendar year between January 1, 2014, and November 10, 2017.In short, if you have a PayPal business account, the Canada Revenue Agency will figure out who you are in short order, and it should not surprise you if they compare the information they receive from PayPal to your tax filings. Any information accumulated between January 1, 2014, and November 10, 2017, may now be available to the CRA.GST/HST IssuesMost businesses in Canada need to register for and remit GST or HST payments to the government. In the simplest terms, businesses need to record all of their sales, subtract the costs of their inputs, and collect a percentage of the amount remaining (the “Value Added”) as tax.Fortunately for many of the relatively informal businesses using Paypal, “small suppliers” are exempt from GST. If your “taxable supplies” (in short, the amount you are selling) does not exceed $30,000 in any given year, you do not need to collect or register for GST.This will be a relief to you if your Etsy enterprise or ghostwriting gig is not the main way you pay your bills. However, if you are over or are nearing the $30,000 revenue mark and have not registered for GST/HST, you should seriously consider reaching out to a tax professional. Otherwise, you may start to rack up penalties and interest quickly.Your OptionsIf you have not been reporting income received through a Paypal account, consulting with tax professionals will let you minimize your income in the eyes of the CRA, and so keep your tax bills as small as possible, by helping you take full advantage of and prove any deductions you are entitled to.If you have received a substantial amount of money through a PayPal account which, for whatever reason, you have not been disclosing to the Canada Revenue Agency, there has never been a better time to reach out to our office to discuss the possibility of an application under the Voluntary Disclosure Program. Particularly given the changes that the CRA will be made to the program beginning on January 1, 2018, making it less friendly to taxpayers, sooner is better than later.However, the Program is not available where taxpayers have been contacted by the CRA to initiate collections or enforcement action. If you do not quite get there in time, there are still options, and we would be happy to discuss your recourse should you find yourself subject to an audit, reassessment, or start hearing from collections officers.Paypal walks you through how you pay federal income taxes with Paypal if you live in the United States: How do I pay my federal income taxes with PayPal?If you’re a U.S. taxpayer, you can pay your individual or business taxes to the IRS with PayPal.Here’s how:Go to payUSAtax.com by April 15 and select Make a Personal Payment.Select the relevant tax payment category, enter your information, and choose PayPal for payment.Log in to your PayPal account to confirm your payment and get a confirmation number.NOTE: payUSAtax charges a convenience fee of 1.96% for payments paid with PayPal.Can I use PayPal Credit to pay my federal income taxes over time?Yes, qualifying U.S. customers can use PayPal Credit to pay federal income taxes over time to the IRS through payUSAtax.com, on tax payments of $99 or more. If you use this option, the IRS will receive your tax payment right away.Check the offer’s details, Terms, and Conditions here.If you have any issues with thepayUSAtax.comwebsite, please contact them at (855) 508-0159 or by going to the Contact Us section of their website.Below we have a question from someone in India who wants to know about paying his taxes through Paypal, and the answer from a PayPal admin, which is quite interesting: hope that you are helped with all the information> Thanks for the questionIndian Income TaxDear Paypal Support,We are an Indian company using Paypal.Since we are paying “collection fee” to Paypal, as per "Indian Income Tax Act" the Income Tax has to be deducted at source for this “collection fee”.1. We, therefore, request you to consult with your tax advisors and let us know how you propose to handle the tax liability on your income by way of service charges.2. We want to have a copy of your PAN allotment letter (Permanent Account Number) for our records.PayPal_AdrianPayPal Employee‎Jan-17-2011 04:16 PMRe: Indian Income Taxadmin,PayPal is not obligated to determine whether taxes apply, and is not responsible to collect, report, or remit any taxes arising from any transaction. It is your responsibility to determine what, if any, taxes apply to the payments you make or receive and to collect, report, and remit the correct tax to the appropriate tax authority. We suggest that you contact a certified tax consultant or other qualified tax advisor to assist you.AdrianWas my post helpful? If so, please give me a kudos!

Civilian control of the militaryFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to navigation Jump to searchPart of the Politics seriesBasic forms of governmentPower structureSeparationAssociated stateDominionChiefdomFederalismFederationConfederationDevolutionIntegrationEmpireHegemonyUnitary stateAdministrative divisionPower sourceDemocracy(power of many)DirectRepresentativeLiberalSocialDemarchyOthersOligarchy(power of few)AnocracyAristocracyPlutocracyKleptocracyKakistocracyKraterocracyStratocracySynarchyTimocracyMeritocracyTechnocracyGeniocracyGerontocracyNoocracyKritarchyParticracyErgatocracyNetocracyCapitalist stateSocialist stateTheocracyAutocracy(power of one)DespotismDictatorshipMilitary dictatorshipTyrannyAnarchism(power of none)AnarchyFree associationStatelessPower ideologyMonarchy vs. republic(socio-political ideologies)AbsoluteLegalistConstitutionalParliamentaryDirectorialSemi-presidentialPresidentialAuthoritarian vs. libertarian(socio-economic ideologies)TribalismDespotismFeudalismColonialismDistributismAnarchismSocialismCommunismTotalitarianismGlobal vs. local(geo-cultural ideologies)CommuneCity-stateNational governmentIntergovernmental organisationWorld governmentPolitics portalvtePart of a series onWarHistory[show]Battlespace[show]Weapons[show]Tactics[show]Operational[show]Strategy[show]Grand strategy[show]Organization[show]Personnel[show]Logistics[show]Related[show]Lists[show]vteCivilian control of the military is a doctrine in military and political science that places ultimate responsibility for a country's strategic decision-making in the hands of the civilian political leadership, rather than professional military officers. The reverse situation, where professional military officers control national politics, is called a military dictatorship. A lack of control over the military may result in a state within a state. One author, paraphrasing Samuel P. Huntington's writings in The Soldier and the State, has summarized the civilian control ideal as "the proper subordination of a competent, professional military to the ends of policy as determined by civilian authority".[1]Civilian control is often seen as a prerequisite feature of a stable liberal democracy. Use of the term in scholarly analyses tends to take place in the context of a democracy governed by elected officials, though the subordination of the military to political control is not unique to these societies. One example is the People's Republic of China. Mao Zedong stated that "Our principle is that the Party commands the gun, and the gun must never be allowed to command the Party," reflecting the primacy of the Communist Party of China (and communist parties in general) as decision-makers in Marxist–Leninist and Maoist theories of democratic centralism.[2]As noted by University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill professor Richard H. Kohn, "civilian control is not a fact but a process".[3]Affirmations of respect for the values of civilian control notwithstanding, the actual level of control sought or achieved by the civilian leadership may vary greatly in practice, from a statement of broad policy goals that military commanders are expected to translate into operational plans, to the direct selection of specific targets for attack on the part of governing politicians. National Leaders with limited experience in military matters often have little choice but to rely on the advice of professional military commanders trained in the art and science of warfare to inform the limits of policy; in such cases, the military establishment may enter the bureaucratic arena to advocate for or against a particular course of action, shaping the policy-making process and blurring any clear cut lines of civilian control.Contents1 Rationales 1.1 Liberal theory and the American Founding Fathers 1.2 Domestic law enforcement 1.3 Maoist approach2 Methods of asserting civilian control 2.1 A civilian commander-in-chief 2.2 Composition of the military 2.3 Technological developments 2.4 Restrictions on Political Activities 2.5 Political officers3 Military dislike of political directives 3.1 Case study: United States4 Extent5 See also6 References7 Further readingRationalesAdmiral John B. Nathman (far right) and Admiral William J. Fallon salute during honors arrival of Secretary of the Navy Gordon R. England at a change of command ceremony in 2005. A subordinate of the civilian Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of the Navy is the civilian Head of the Department of the Navy, which includes the U.S. Navy and the Marine Corps.Advocates of civilian control generally take a Clausewitzian view of war, emphasizing its political character.[citation needed]The words of Georges Clemenceau, "War is too serious a matter to entrust to military men" (also frequently rendered as "War is too important to be left to the generals"), wryly reflect this view. Given that broad strategic decisions, such as the decision to declare a war, start an invasion, or end a conflict, have a major impact on the citizens of the country, they are seen by civilian control advocates as best guided by the will of the people (as expressed by their political representatives), rather than left solely to an elite group of tactical experts. The military serves as a special government agency, which is supposed to implement, rather than formulate, policies that require the use of certain types of physical force. Kohn succinctly summarizes this view when he writes that:The point of civilian control is to make security subordinate to the larger purposes of a nation, rather than the other way around. The purpose of the military is to defend society, not to define it.[3]A state's effective use of force is an issue of great concern for all national leaders, who must rely on the military to supply this aspect of their authority. The danger of granting military leaders full autonomy or sovereignty is that they may ignore or supplant the democratic decision-making process, and use physical force, or the threat of physical force, to achieve their preferred outcomes; in the worst cases, this may lead to a coup or military dictatorship. A related danger is the use of the military to crush domestic political opposition through intimidation or sheer physical force, interfering with the ability to have free and fair elections, a key part of the democratic process. This poses the paradox that "because we fear others we create an institution of violence to protect us, but then we fear the very institution we created for protection".[4]Also, military personnel, because of the nature of their job, are much more willing to use force to settle disputes than civilians because they are trained military personnel that specialize strictly in warfare. The military is authoritative and hierarchical, rarely allowing discussion and prohibiting dissention.[5]For instance, in the Empire of Japan, prime ministers and almost everyone in high positions were military people like Hideki Tojo, and advocated and basically pressured the leaders to start military conflicts against China and others because they believed that they would ultimately be victorious.Liberal theory and the American Founding FathersMany of the Founding Fathers of the United States were suspicious of standing militaries. As Samuel Adams wrote in 1768, "Even when there is a necessity of the military power, within a land, a wise and prudent people will always have a watchful and jealous eye over it".[6]Even more forceful are the words of Elbridge Gerry, a delegate to the American Constitutional Convention, who wrote that "[s]tanding armies in time of peace are inconsistent with the principles of republican Governments, dangerous to the liberties of a free people, and generally converted into destructive engines for establishing despotism."[6]In Federalist No. 8, one of The Federalist papers documenting the ideas of some of the Founding Fathers, Alexander Hamilton expressed concern that maintaining a large standing army would be a dangerous and expensive undertaking. In his principal argument for the ratification of the proposed constitution, he argued that only by maintaining a strong union could the new country avoid such a pitfall. Using the European experience as a negative example and the British experience as a positive one, he presented the idea of a strong nation protected by a navy with no need of a standing army. The implication was that control of a large military force is, at best, difficult and expensive, and at worst invites war and division. He foresaw the necessity of creating a civilian government that kept the military at a distance.James Madison, another writer of many of The Federalist papers,[7]expressed his concern about a standing military in comments before the Constitutional Convention in June 1787:In time of actual war, great discretionary powers are constantly given to the Executive Magistrate. Constant apprehension of War, has the same tendency to render the head too large for the body. A standing military force, with an overgrown Executive, will not long be safe companions to liberty. The means of defense against foreign danger, have been always the instruments of tyranny at home. Among the Romans it was a standing maxim to excite a war, whenever a revolt was apprehended. Throughout all Europe, the armies kept up under the pretext of defending, have enslaved the people.[8]The United States Constitution placed considerable limitations on the legislature. Coming from a tradition of legislative superiority in government, many were concerned that the proposed Constitution would place so many limitations on the legislature that it would become impossible for such a body to prevent an executive from starting a war. Hamilton argued in Federalist No. 26 that it would be equally as bad for a legislature to be unfettered by any other agency and that restraints would actually be more likely to preserve liberty. James Madison, in Federalist No. 47, continued Hamilton’s argument that distributing powers among the various branches of government would prevent any one group from gaining so much power as to become unassailable. In Federalist No. 48, however, Madison warned that while the separation of powers is important, the departments must not be so far separated as to have no ability to control the others.Finally, in Federalist No. 51, Madison argued that to create a government that relied primarily on the good nature of the incumbent to ensure proper government was folly. Institutions must be in place to check incompetent or malevolent leaders. Most importantly, no single branch of government ought to have control over any single aspect of governing. Thus, all three branches of government must have some control over the military, and the system of checks and balances maintained among the other branches would serve to help control the military.Hamilton and Madison thus had two major concerns: (1) the detrimental effect on liberty and democracy of a large standing army and (2) the ability of an unchecked legislature or executive to take the country to war precipitously. These concerns drove American military policy for the first century and a half of the country’s existence. While armed forces were built up during wartime, the pattern after every war up to and including World War II was to demobilize quickly and return to something approaching pre-war force levels. However, with the advent of the Cold War in the 1950s, the need to create and maintain a sizable peacetime military force "engendered new concerns" of militarism and about how such a large force would affect civil–military relations in the United States.[9]Domestic law enforcementThis section needs expansion.You can help by adding to it.(February 2010)The United States' Posse Comitatus Act, passed in 1878, prohibits any part of the Army or the Air Force (since the U.S. Air Force evolved from the U.S. Army) from engaging in domestic law enforcement activities unless they do so pursuant to lawful authority. Similar prohibitions apply to the Navy and Marine Corps by service regulation, since the actual Posse Comitatus Act does not apply to them. The Coast Guard is exempt from Posse Comitatus since it normally operates under the Department of Homeland Security versus the Department of Defense and enforces U.S. laws, even when operating as a service with the U.S. Navy.The act is often misunderstood to prohibit any use of federal military forces in law enforcement, but this is not the case. For example, the President has explicit authority under the Constitution and federal law to use federal forces or federalized militias to enforce the laws of the United States. The act's primary purpose is to prevent local law enforcement officials from utilizing federal forces in this way by forming a "posse" consisting of federal Soldiers or Airmen.[10]There are, however, practical political concerns in the United States that make the use of federal military forces less desirable for use in domestic law enforcement. Under the U.S. Constitution, law and order is primarily a matter of state concern. As a practical matter, when military forces are necessary to maintain domestic order and enforce the laws, state militia forces under state control i.e., that state's Army National Guard and/or Air National Guard are usually the force of first resort, followed by federalized state militia forces i.e., the Army National Guard and/or Air National Guard "federalized" as part of the U.S. Army and/or U.S. Air Force, with active federal forces (to include "federal" reserve component forces other than the National Guard) being the least politically palatable option.Maoist approachMaoist military-political theories of people's war and democratic centralism also support the subordination of military forces to the directives of the communist party (although the guerrilla experience of many early leading Communist Party of China figures may make their status as civilians somewhat ambiguous). In a 1929 essay On Correcting Mistaken Ideas in the Party, Mao explicitly refuted "comrades [who] regard military affairs and politics as opposed to each other and [who] refuse to recognize that military affairs are only one means of accomplishing political tasks", prescribing increased scrutiny of the People's Liberation Army by the Party and greater political training of officers and enlistees as a means of reducing military autonomy[11]. In Mao's theory, the military—which serves both as a symbol of the revolution and an instrument of the dictatorship of the proletariat—is not merely expected to defer to the direction of the ruling non-uniformed Party members (who today exercise control in the People's Republic of China through the Central Military Commission), but also to actively participate in the revolutionary political campaigns of the Maoist era.Methods of asserting civilian controlAn immensely popular hero of World War II, General Douglas MacArthur's public insistence on the need to expand the Korean War, over the objections of President Harry S. Truman, led to the termination of his command.Civilian leaders cannot usually hope to challenge their militaries by means of force, and thus must guard against any potential usurpation of powers through a combination of policies, laws, and the inculcation of the values of civilian control in their armed services. The presence of a distinct civilian police force, militia, or other paramilitary group may mitigate to an extent the disproportionate strength that a country's military possesses; civilian gun ownership has also been justified on the grounds that it prevents potential abuses of power by authorities (military or otherwise). Opponents of gun control have cited the need for a balance of power in order to enforce the civilian control of the military.A civilian commander-in-chiefThe establishment of a civilian head of state, head of government or other government figure as the military's commander-in-chief within the chain of command is one legal construct for the propagation of civilian control.In the United States, Article I of the Constitution gives the Congress the power to declare war (in the War Powers Clause), while Article II of the Constitution establishes the President as the commander-in-chief. Ambiguity over when the President could take military action without declaring war resulted in the War Powers Resolution of 1973.American presidents have used the power to dismiss high-ranking officers as a means to assert policy and strategic control. Three examples include Abraham Lincoln's dismissal of George McClellan in the American Civil War when McClellan failed to pursue the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia following the Battle of Antietam, Harry S. Truman relieving Douglas MacArthur of command in the Korean War after MacArthur repeatedly contradicted the Truman administration's stated policies on the war's conduct, and Barack Obama's acceptance of Stanley McChrystal's resignation in the War in Afghanistan after a Rolling Stone article was published where he mocked several members of the Obama administration, including Vice President Joe Biden.Composition of the militaryDiffering opinions exist as to the desirability of distinguishing the military as a body separate from the larger society. In The Soldier and the State, Huntington argued for what he termed "objective civilian control", "focus[ing] on a politically neutral, autonomous, and professional officer corps".[1]This autonomous professionalism, it is argued, best inculcates an esprit de corps and sense of distinct military corporateness that prevents political interference by sworn servicemen and -women. Conversely, the tradition of the citizen-soldier holds that "civilianizing" the military is the best means of preserving the loyalty of the armed forces towards civilian authorities, by preventing the development of an independent "caste" of warriors that might see itself as existing fundamentally apart from the rest of society. In the early history of the United States, according to Michael Cairo,[the] principle of civilian control... embodied the idea that every qualified citizen was responsible for the defense of the nation and the defense of liberty, and would go to war, if necessary. Combined with the idea that the military was to embody democratic principles and encourage citizen participation, the only military force suitable to the Founders was a citizen militia, which minimized divisions between officers and the enlisted.[6]In a less egalitarian practice, societies may also blur the line between "civilian" and "military" leadership by making direct appointments of non-professionals (frequently social elites benefitting from patronage or nepotism) to an officer rank. A more invasive method, most famously practiced in the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China, involves active monitoring of the officer corps through the appointment of political commissars, posted parallel to the uniformed chain of command and tasked with ensuring that national policies are carried out by the armed forces. The regular rotation of soldiers through a variety of different postings is another effective tool for reducing military autonomy, by limiting the potential for soldiers' attachment to any one particular military unit. Some governments place responsibility for approving promotions or officer candidacies with the civilian government, requiring some degree of deference on the part of officers seeking advancement through the ranks.Technological developmentsDuring the term of Lyndon B. Johnson, the President and his advisors often chose specific bombing targets in Vietnam on the basis of larger geopolitical calculations, without professional knowledge of the weapons or tactics. Apropos of LBJ's direction of the bombing campaign in Vietnam, no air warfare specialists attended the Tuesday lunches at which the targeting decisions were made.[12]Historically, direct control over military forces deployed for war was hampered by the technological limits of command, control, and communications; national leaders, whether democratically elected or not, had to rely on local commanders to execute the details of a military campaign, or risk centrally-directed orders' obsolescence by the time they reached the front lines. The remoteness of government from the action allowed professional soldiers to claim military affairs as their own particular sphere of expertise and influence; upon entering a state of war, it was often expected that the generals and field marshals would dictate strategy and tactics, and the civilian leadership would defer to their informed judgments.Improvements in information technology and its application to wartime command and control (a process sometimes labeled the "Revolution in Military Affairs") has allowed civilian leaders removed from the theater of conflict to assert greater control over the actions of distant military forces. Precision-guided munitions and real-time videoconferencing with field commanders now allow the civilian leadership to intervene even at the tactical decision-making level, designating particular targets for destruction or preservation based on political calculations or the counsel of non-uniformed advisors.Restrictions on Political ActivitiesIn the United States the Hatch Act of 1939 does not directly apply to the military, however, Department of Defense Directive 1344.10 (DoDD 1344.10) essentially applies the same rules to the military. This helps to ensure a non-partisan military and ensure smooth and peaceful transitions of power.Political officersMain article: political commissarPolitical officers screened for appropriate ideology have been integrated into supervisory roles within militaries as a way to maintain the control by political rulers. Historically they are associated most strongly with the Soviet Union and China rather than liberal democracies.Military dislike of political directivesWhile civilian control forms the normative standard in almost every society outside of military dictatorships, its practice has often been the subject of pointed criticism from both uniformed and non-uniformed observers, who object to what they view as the undue "politicization" of military affairs, especially when elected officials or political appointees micromanage the military, rather than giving the military general goals and objectives (like "Defeat Country X"), and letting the military decide how best to carry those orders out. By placing responsibility for military decision-making in the hands of non-professional civilians, critics argue, the dictates of military strategy are subsumed to the political, with the effect of unduly restricting the fighting capabilities of the nation's armed forces for what should be immaterial or otherwise lower priority concerns.Case study: United StatesThe "Revolt of the Admirals" that occurred in 1949 was an attempt by senior US Navy personnel, to force a change in budgets directly opposed to the directives given by the Civilian leadership.U.S. President Bill Clinton faced frequent allegations throughout his time in office (particularly after the Battle of Mogadishu) that he was ignoring military goals out of political and media pressure—a phenomenon termed the "CNN effect". Politicians who personally lack military training and experience but who seek to engage the nation in military action may risk resistance and being labeled "chickenhawks" by those who disagree with their political goals.In contesting these priorities, members of the professional military leadership and their non-uniformed supporters may participate in the bureaucratic bargaining process of the state's policy-making apparatus, engaging in what might be termed a form of regulatory capture as they attempt to restrict the policy options of elected officials when it comes to military matters. An example of one such set of conditions is the "Weinberger Doctrine", which sought to forestall another American intervention like that which occurred in the Vietnam War (which had proved disastrous for the morale and fighting integrity of the U.S. military) by proposing that the nation should only go to war in matters of "vital national interest", "as a last resort", and, as updated by Weinberger's disciple Colin Powell, with "overwhelming force". The process of setting military budgets forms another contentious intersection of military and non-military policy, and regularly draws active lobbying by rival military services for a share of the national budget.Nuclear weapons in the U.S. are controlled by the civilian United States Department of Energy, not by the Department of Defense.During the 1990s and 2000s, public controversy over LGBT policy in the U.S. military led to many military leaders and personnel being asked for their opinions on the matter and being given deference although the decision was ultimately not theirs to make.During his tenure, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld raised the ire of the military by attempting to reform its structure away from traditional infantry and toward a lighter, faster, more technologically driven force. In April 2006, Rumsfeld was severely criticized by some retired military officers for his handling of the Iraq War, while other retired military officers came out in support of Rumsfeld. Although no active military officers have spoken out against Rumsfeld, the actions of these officers is still highly unusual. Some news accounts have attributed the actions of these generals to the Vietnam war experience, in which officers did not speak out against the administration's handling of military action. Later in the year, immediately after the November elections in which the Democrats gained control of the Congress, Rumsfeld resigned.[citation needed]ExtentAs of 2015, military dictatorships, where there is no civilian control of the military, are:[citation needed]ThailandMyanmar ( Although Myanmar do have civilian government, military have tremendous amount of autonomy including 25% of seats in all Parliament houses and self appointed Commander-in-Chief see- Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services)Other countries generally have civilian control of the military, to one degree or another. Strong democratic control of the military is a prerequisite for membership in NATO[citation needed]. Strong democracy and rule of law, implying democratic control of the military, are prerequisites for membership in the European Union[citation needed].See alsoCivil–military relationsMight makes rightMilitary–industrial complexNational Security ActPolitical commissarRevolt of the AdmiralsSeparation of powersState within a stateArmed Forces & SocietyReferencesTaylor, Edward R. Command in the 21st Century: An Introduction to Civil-Military Affairs (pdf), United States Navy Postgraduate School thesis. 1998: 30-32.Mao Zedong, English language translation by Marxists Internet Archive. Problems of War and Strategy. 1938. (See also: Wikiquote: Mao Zedong.)Kohn, Richard H. An Essay on Civilian Control of the Military. 1997.Peter D. Feaver. 1996. "The Civil-Military Problematique: Huntington, Janowitz and the Question of Civilian Control." Armed Forces & Society. 23(2): 149–78."Kohn: Civilian Control". The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved 2015-12-11.Cairo, Michael F. Democracy Papers: Civilian Control of the Military, U.S. Department of State International Information Programs.Gottfried Dietze. 1960. The Federalist: A Classic on Federalism and Free Government. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press.Max Farrand. 1911. Records of the Federal Convention of 1787. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1:465.Donald S. Inbody. 2009. Grand Army of the Republic or Grand Army of the Republicans? Political Party and Ideological Preferences of American Enlisted Personnel. Faculty Publications – Political Science. Paper 51.Hendell, Garri B. "[1]" "Domestic Use of the Armed Forces to Maintain Law and Order—posse comitatus Pitfalls at the Inauguration of the 44th President" Publius (2011) 41(2): 336-348 first published online May 6, 2010 doi:10.1093/publius/pjq014Mao Zedong, English language translation by Marxists Internet Archive. On Correcting Mistaken Ideas in the Party. 1929."Washington's Management of the Rolling Thunder Campaign", M. Jacobsen, US Naval Historical Center Colloquium on Contemporary History ProjectFurther readingvon Clausewitz, Carl. On War – Volume One 1832 German language edition available on the internet at the Clausewitz Homepage 1874 English language translation by Colonel J.J. Granham downloadable here from Project Gutenberg. 1982 Penguin Classics paperback version, ISBN 0-14-044427-0.Desch, Michael C. Civilian Control of the Military: The Changing Security Environment Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8018-6059-8Feaver, Peter D. Armed Servants: Agency, Oversight, and Civil-Military Relations. Harvard University Press, 2005 ISBN 0-674-01761-7Finer, Samel E. The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics. Transaction Publishers, 2002. ISBN 0-7658-0922-2Hendell, Garri B. "Domestic Use of the Armed Forces to Maintain Law and Order – posse comitatus Pitfalls at the Inauguration of the 44th President" Publius (2011) 41(2): 336–48 first published online May 6, 2010 doi:10.1093/publius/pjq014Huntington, Samuel P.. Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations. Belknap Press, 1981 edition. ISBN 0-674-81736-2Levy, Yagil. "A Revised Model of Civilian Control of the Military: The Interaction between the Republican Exchange and the Control Exchange", Armed Forces & Society, Vol. 38, No. 4 (2012)Janowitz, Morris. The Professional Soldier. Free Press, 1964, ISBN 0-02-916180-0.vteLawAuthority controlLCCN: sh85026420NDL: 00561021Categories:AccountabilityCivil–military relationsConstitutional lawGovernmentMilitary doctrinesMilitary scienceMilitary sociologyNavigation menuNot logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearchMain pageContentsFeatured contentCurrent eventsRandom articleDonate to WikipediaWikipedia storeInteractionHelpAbout WikipediaCommunity portalRecent changesContact pageToolsWhat links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationWikidata itemCite this pagePrint/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFPrintable versionLanguagesالعربيةفارسی한국어ItalianoBahasa Melayu日本語中文Edit linksThis page was last edited on 28 May 2019, at 22:48 (UTC).Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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