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Reducing the whole history of Paris to just 50 "objects" is an impossible task, there are simply too many important objects and choosing which one best represents Paris and its history is a matter of judgement. The task is daunting and the choices were impossible. Thankfully there is a Museum in Paris called "Musée Carnavalet" which is the Museum of the History City of Paris and many of its objects formed the start of what could be my "History of Paris in 50 objects"However I will certainly fail in bringing a complete unbiassed picture in this attempt. Please feel free to add your suggestions in the comments and bring up the Objects I have surely missed. This is a work in progress...1- Mammoth TeethMammoths, ancestors of modern elephants, appeared in Eurasia around -300 000 years and disappeared around -10 000 years. One can regularly find traces of them in the Île-de-France region during archaeological excavations or major works. During the glacial periods, this species thrived in harsh environments and cold "steppes". They were regularly consumed by prehistoric men. Debate remains as to how those men could acquire those huge beasts: hunting, scavenging or trapping. One thing is sure though: there were Mammoths in Paris :)2- SilexDiscovered in a quarry in Saint-Brice-Sarcelles, in the Val d'Oise, this sandstone tool is characteristic of the "Middle Palaeolithic" period (200 000-30 000 BC), during which the Neanderthals lived. The alterations visible on its side edge led early researchers to associate it with the function of "scraping" for example a skin. Nevertheless, recent studies on the analysis of traces of material worked and the actions of the crafters of the time revealed other functions for these tools such as to cut meat or bones, work skin or wood materials.3- Female StatuetteThis bust, without head or leg, on which are engraved two arms ending in the schematic representation of the fingers, from the site of Bercy in Paris. Breasts and neck are also suggested. It dates from the Neolithic, precisely from the Chasséen period (-4200 to -4000 BC.) and denotes the appearance of the first farming villages. Six other similar statuettes have been found in this deposit. It is very difficult to determine their function but some suggest they may be "mother goddesses" evoking fertility.4- CanoesTen canoes, some of them in fragments, have been found in the east of Paris, on Bercy site. This set of prehistoric crafts is one of the oldest in the world and is featured in the Carnavalet Museum. The two most comprehensive are the P06 canoe dating from 4800-4300 BC. BC (Cerny culture specific to the Seine and Marne) and the canoe P03 2700 BC. AD (photography). They were used by Neolithic fishermen who had settled on the right bank of the Seine, between the river and side channel. Terracotta pots they used for their kitchen have also been found.5- SwordMade of copper alloy (bronze), this sword dates back to the Bronze Age (2000-800 BC). This period marks the birth of a warrior aristocracy, because of the control of minerals which are unevenly spread across the territory. However, the random distribution of weapons in this period proves a lack in rigorous organization of those armed groups. Most weapons are of the Bronze Age are for foot soldiers such as this sword. However some large swords also appeared at the end of the Bronze Age which could be associated with Horsemen.6- CombDiscovered at Saint-Germain-des-Prés, this Merovingian comb bone is somewhat similar to its Parisian contemporaries: a central core with teeth cut on both long sides, the row of one side being tighter and thinner than the other. The central part is held between two flat half round strips. It is decorated with ocelli (dotted circles) and with rivets of bronze and iron. These objects were probably stored in a case to protect its teeth, which are very fragile. Probably the earliest example of what became Parisian Chic ;)7- Surgeon's toolsThese remains represent an entire surgeon kit, dating from the second half of the third century, found in a necropolis in the 13th arrondissement of Paris in the late nineteenth century. Composed of 32 metal objects, 2 stones and 75 coins, the oldest dating from the reign of Victorin (270 A.D.). These remains were buried with their owners in the south of Lutetia and on the side of a road towards Italy.In Gallo-Roman times, graves usually do not contain tools informing us of the profession of the deceased which is what makes this surgeon's kit discovery quite essential especially as instruments, arranged in a bronze basin, are extremely well preserved.8- Glass WorkThis bottle was found in a burial site within a large monolith stone sarcophagus and was dated to the third century AD, during the Roman Empire. Its rarity and perfect preservation make this one of the most interesting pieces of its time: objects of similar sort are almost always of a smaller size. The amber colored glass is hand blown and of superior quality. The neck is high and decorated with a mid-height glass yarn. The lips are everted and simple tapered belly is decorated with six deep depressions and elongated. Suitable for transporting liquid, the bottle could also enter into the composition of a service table. Other objects such as ceramic cups have this type of decoration, emphasizing the links between formal tableware ceramics or metal and the glass.9- JewelleryThis Merovingian belt was found south of the church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés in Paris and is dated to the second half of the seventh century. It consists of two trapezoidal plates, an oval loop and the tongue of the shield. Made with iron inlaid with silver and orichalcum (yellow brass), the remarkable details of this set combines interlacing and animal motifs or plant almond and cruciforms in diamond shape motifs. Although this specimen comes from an isolated context, this type of object is typically found in exhumed funerary settings such as in the tomb of Queen Arnegunde Saint-Denis. Such found objects generally belong to female pageantry costumes: the funeral customs of the time included the fact that women belonging to a high social rank were buried with their ornaments.10- SarcophagusSarcophagus entirely decorated with Maltese Cross and St Andrews Cross, found in the Saint-Vincent-Sainte-Croix basilic. From the Merovingian times. The Merovingians more or less united and then ruled Gaul after the Romans left, famously led by Clovis they fought against the Barbarians (Visigoths, Saxons and Alemanni) and originated from the Seine valley.11- Statuette of Ste AgnésThis object is a miniature sculpture of a size smaller than your hand. Its finesse is remarkable and it is one of the rare examples of small objects for private devotion that were part of everyday life in the thirteenth century. The figure depicted is St. Agnes because the gown covers its feet so it is a woman, it carries a lamb, which is the attribute of this Roman times martyr. The symbol is probably due to the assimilation of the two names (Agnes / Agneau…which means Lamb).The heads of the Saint and the animal have been broken, perhaps voluntarily during the Revolution. She was then thrown into the Seine, where it was discovered in the nineteenth century.12- FurnitureThis is one of the oldest wooden piece of furniture preserved in France, it is from 1220! The wooden structure is reinforced with wrought iron hinges into flower shaped moulds. It allegedly comes from a small abbey in Saint Denis, north of Paris.13- Notre-Dame-de-ParisThis huge church was built between 1163 and around 1240 and is the most prominent example of Gothic architecture in both France and Europe. Much of it was desecrated during the French Revolution and the famous Viollet-Le-Duc "restored" it to its ancient glory in the 19th century. At the time, it was the most important building in Europe and possibly the world. Thanks to its large "parvis", imposing structures and intricate details, it stands as the second most recognisable monument of Paris, and is even more popular than the Eiffel Tower according to some.14- Chateau de MadridUpon his return from captivity in Madrid, François I decided to leave the Val de Loire and take up residence in Paris and the castles of Île-de-France. He ordered the building of a castle in the Bois de Boulogne, where he loved to hunt. Unique of its kind, the castle was completely covered with very colourful glazed ceramic made by the famous Italian family Della Robbia. The castle was destroyed during the Revolution and only this small piece of its decoration remains.This is significant for two reasons: it was a major move for the Kings of France which propulsed Paris to prominence and it also was the founding impulse of the Renaissance with the emergence of Fine Arts over the whole of Europe: inspiration from Spain, execution from Italy for a French palace.15- La JocondeAfter his famous Marignan victory in 1515, François I returned from Italy with Leonardo da Vinci, who spent the last three years of his life (1516-1519) in France. The King of France called the prince of the Italian Renaissance "first painter, first engineer and chief architect of the kingdom". Da Vinci brought with him paintings, one of which was the famous Mona Lisa - or La Joconde in French- and worked on several projects, including the castle of Chambord whose original architecture, such as its double revolution staircase, bears his mark.La Joconde, the most famous painting in the world, establishes Paris as the "cultural capital of the world" for much of the times to come.16- Vatel and French GastronomyPossibly the founding myth of French gastronomy. His real name Fritz Karl Watel (1631-1671), a Swiss-born patissier, was the butler of Nicolas Fouquet, powerful then disgraced Finance Minister of Louis XIV. He later entered the service of the Grand Condé, as (true story) "Comptroller General of the Mouth of the Prince" - how awesome is that title by the way?In April 1671, Condé hosts the most powerful French king, Louis XIV and the Court in the castle of Chantilly has for three days of festivities, The whole organization is entrusted to Vatel. On the first day, a few roasts are missing from the dinner. Vatel believes his reputation is compromised, despite the compliments of the Court and the Prince: "My lord, your kindness kills me, I know that the 'roti' was missing at two tables."The next morning, the delivery of fresh fish and shellfish from Boulogne-sur-Mer is late. "I will not survive this insult, I have my honor and reputation to lose". Vatel goes up to his room and puts an end to his life. A true story.17- VersaillesThe "Grande Galerie" (great gallery) as it was known, 73 meters long, connects the Apartments of the King to those of the Queen. It is lit by 17 windows that overlook the gardens. The architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart designed a decoration of 17 arcades ornamented with 357 glass panels.The size of the mirrors, manufactured by the royal manufactory of Saint-Gobain, shows the economic prosperity of the kingdom of France. The overhead paintings are by Charles Le Brun and his collaborators on nearly 1000m2 and took more than 5 years to finish.30 compositions were chosen by Louis XIV himself and illustrate the glorious history of his reign. It served as a daily place of passage, frequented by courtiers and visitors of the Court who wanted to see the king. It was also the venue of royal festivities, for example in honour of the marriage of Marie-Antoinette and the dauphin Louis in 1770. But it also remained a seat of power, where diplomatic receptions occurred. For example, the Ambassadors of Siam in1686, Persia in 1715 and the Ottoman Empire in1742 had to cross the whole 73 meters of the Hall in front of the whole Royal Court to face the royal throne and bow to the King of France.18- The "Fardier" of CugnotJoseph Cugnot (1725-1804), French engineer designed between 1769 and 1771 the first motor vehicle in history, known as the "Cugnot dray" Drays were wagons used for the carriage of heavy loads, particularly in the army. Supported by the Duc de Choiseul, Minister of War of Louis XV, Cugnot develops a very long machine, more than 7 meters, driven by a steam engine located at the front: the dray pilot is using a handlebar and it moves at the speed of a pedestrian. In 1770, the first prototype runs in Vanves, but its course ended after just a few meters after the machine hit a brickwall! The disgrace of Choiseul forced Cugnot to interrupt its work but the dray was further developed by the Army and used in Napoleonic campaigns. Several replicas of prototype have subsequently been produced. A reconstruction of the Cugnot dray circulated in the streets of Paris on 23rd October 2010 ...19- The Necklace of Marie-AntoinetteAugust 15, 1785, Chåteau de Versailles. Cardinal of Rohan, Grand Chaplain of France, was arrested in the Hall of Mirrors, before baffled courtiers. The affair of the Necklace broke out in broad daylight. Fallen in disgrace, the Cardinal of Rohan wanted to buy the favour of the Queen. On the advice of the (self-proclaimed) Countess de la Motte, he acquired a diamond necklace valued at one million six hundred thousand pounds. The necklace consisted of 540 diamonds and 2,800 carats and had been crafted by the jewelers of the Crown, Bohmer and Bassenge.Madame de La Motte organized a meeting at night in the park of Versailles between the Cardinal and Queen Marie-Antoinette, aka Miss Le Guay d'Oliva, a prostitute who looked like the Queen. Once the deal done, the Cardinal gives the necklace to the Countess to offer to the Queen. But the Countess disappears with the necklace which she rips apart and sells for a huge profit. The scam is discovered and the Cardinal faces charges before the Parliament of Paris in May 1786. He is found innocent while Madame de la Motte and her accomplices are arrested and judged. She is sentenced to life in prison and marked with red irons, the V of "Voleuse" (thief).The magistrate of the Parliament of Paris summarizes the scope of the case: "A crooked cardinal, a Queen involved in a case of fake! What a lot of mud on the butt and scepter! What a triumph for the ideas of freedom! " The Affair of the Necklace comes to crystallize the unpopularity of Marie-Antoinette, the carefree, cheerful, expansive Austrian, who becomes "Madame Deficit." The fraud tarnishes the image of a monarchy increasingly criticized and the event is seen as the real start point of the French Revolution.20- The Oath of "Jeu de Paume"1789, the conservative spirit of the Privileged orders was hindering the Estates-General. For their part, the Progressive delegates demanded the reform-friendly "one-man, one-vote", and not the per Order vote system as it always had been. The situation was still blocked on June 17th, 1789, when the Third Estate, soon joined by some of the Clergy, proclaimed a "National Assembly". From simple mandatories called on to vote about fiscal reform, they now became full fledged Representatives of the Nation. To counteract this truly revolutionary decision, the King ordered their Chamber closed on the 20th. The members therefore gathered into a nearby "Jeu de Paume" court (the ancestor of Tennis). They proclaimed that, regardless of where they were assembled, there was the National Assembly, and they solemnly swore not to separate before giving a Constitution to France. The oath was signed by representatives of all but one of them, his freedom of opinion was respected. This marked the decisive founding stage of the French Republic which shaped the future of the civilised world.And this in a basic run-of-the-mill Parisian building…21- The BastilleVoltaire, the Marquis de Sade, the mysterious Iron Mask, or even Nicolas Fouquet were all "embastilled", as the French term goes. The fortress, erected at the end of the 14th century to protect the east of Paris, became a jail under Louis XI, but it was Richelieu who transformed it into a "State (read "political") prison". "Bastille of divine right," the king sent, by lettre de cachet, seditious subjects of the kingdom, especially opponents of the literary sort. Between the mid-17th century and 1789, it hosted more than 5000 prisoners, from all social classes.But on July 14th, 1789, it has only seven prisoners including four forgerers, two lunatics and a noble. The day after the assault, the people of Paris came to get the gun powder it housed, and its demolition started under the direction of Pierre Francois Palloy.This act of destruction "La Prise de la Bastille" became the fame founding myth of the French Republic.22- The French FlagJuly 17th, 1789, three days after the storming of the Bastille, Louis XVI dons a Blue, Red and White flag at the Hotel de Ville of Paris. Combining the colour of the King, white, and those of the city of Paris, blue and red, the flag symbolises the union of the King with his Nation. "Sire, Henry IVth had conquered his people, here it is the people who have conquered their King" Bailly then famously said.These three colours became the official French flag in 1794, an Order that would have been defined by the painter David the legend goes. Anyway the importance of the City of Paris in the French flag is significant and is also a symbol of the excessive centralisation occurring in France.23- The GuillotineDespite popular belief, this machine was not "invented" by Dr Guillotin but It was developed by the surgeon Antoine Louis, who was inspired by an original Scottish machine.On 1 December 1789, the MP Joseph Guillotin submitted to the Assembly a draft reform of the Penal Code. He requested that, in accordance with the principle of Equality, penalties for capital crimes should be the same for everyone. Under the Old Regime, decapitation was reserved for the nobles, while the common man was hanged. Privileges were henceforth abolished, even in death."With my machine, declared Guillotin, I'll blow your head in a wink and no-one will suffer. "Guillotin advocated that death be administered "by the effect of a simple mechanism" instead of the actions of a mortal man, an important distinction. The construction of "the Widow" was entrusted to a manufacturer of harpsichords, Schmidt, assisted by the executioner Charles-Henri Sanson and several carpenters. It was used for the first time April 25, 1792 and for the last time in 1977...24- The Bath"A horrendous night came on to extend its funeral cape over us; the intrepid defender of Liberty has become its martyr. Marat! Marat is no more." Funeral Oration of Marat by citizen Francois Elie Guirault.On July 13, 1793, with a knife stab to the heart Charlotte Corday assassinates Jean-Paul Marat in his bathtub. A doctor, a journalist and editor, Marat is one of the leaders of the "Montagnards" party and a renowned politician of the Revolution. Its newspaper, 'L'Ami du Peuple', became his nickname. Charlotte Corday, a descendant of Pierre Corneille, considers him one of the leaders of the Terror movement which swiftly decimated any perceived opponents of the French Revolution and she murders him after getting into his house under the pretext of a query. She is arrested on the scene, tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal and executed only 4 days later on July 17, 1793! The Convention (the executive body at the time) requires David the painter to capture the event in a painting. The artist accepts and also organises the funeral of the People's Friend. His body is covered in a wet sheet representing the bath, except for the bare torso showing the bloody wound.The bathtub, his inkwell and the Charlotte Corday note are deposited at the bottom of the pedestal. His remains will then be exposed for a few months at the Pantheon. It stays in memory as the symbol of the Terror period, a dark, and often overlooked, moment in the Revolution.25- "L'Américain"Modeled with great finesse, this Porcelain "group" is probably the work of famous sculptor Charles Gabriel Sauvage Lemire, associated with the Niederwiller factory. The factory belonged to Count Adam Philibert de Custine, a brilliant young officer of the American war, rallied to new ideas. It is, therefore, not surprising to find historical themes treated by Niederwiller. It also reflects the popularity of Benjamin Franklin, both scholar and diplomat with the French. The sculptor did not put the two men on the same level. The stature of Louis XVI dominates the American, an effect reinforced by the platform on which the King is perched.The sponsor of this group certainly wanted to show that France, if it recognised the independence of the young Republic, intended to retain the upperhand. The King's armour reminds us of the important military aid granted by France to the United States. Nothing has been omitted by the sculptor who very much embellished Louis while he made no attempt to beautify Franklin, describing him as he was, a bald head surrounded by a thin ring of long hair and dressed in a basic attire.26- Napoleon's Field CompendiumThis is the most famous field compendium executed by Martin-Guillaume Biennais for Napoleon. Of the many compendiums ordered by the Emperor, it was his favourite because it followed him "in the morning, in the glorious days of Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, and Friedland". Upon leaving for the Island of Elba, in 1814, he gave it to General Bertrand. Later it was included in his will, among the objects that we wanted to give to his son. After the death of the "Aiglon" in 1832, General Bertrand gave it to the City of Paris in 1840.This kit includes diverse tools, table service and toiletry items: more than 110 pieces, the main ones are gilt, but are also made in crystal, porcelain, ivory, pearl, steel, ebony, and leather; all of them in a massive mahogany case with inlaid gilt.27- "Tête-à-Tête"This luxurious "head-to-head" set, richly decorated in gold and polychrome shows on each of its components the sight of a famous Parisian landmark. The Schoelcher manufacture, who had shops on the Boulevard Des Italiens, the sign "Courage Under Fire", was deemed one of the best of the capital. It closed its doors in 1834. Still it represents the high sellable value of the Paris landmarks and its extensive use for commercial purposes in the centuries to come.28- The Giraffe of Charles XIn 1826, the viceroy of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, offered King Charles X a most unusual diplomatic gift: a giraffe. Captured in Sudan, Zarafa, around two years old, made a long journey that lead her from the valley of the Nile to Marseilles.It was welcomed there by the professor of zoology at the Museum of Natural History, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. This is the first giraffe to ever treadFrench soil. In six weeks, the giraffe will head a fabulous procession including native Sudanese and dairy cows (of which she drank their milk everyday), walking on foot, all the way from Marseilles to Paris. Upon its arrival, the giraffe is formally presented to King Charles X on July 9th, 1827. It is then lead to the Ménagerie of the Jardin des Plantes where she lived for another 18 years, she died from complications caused by her daily dose of cow milk...This event created a true "Girafomania" in France, which was reflected in the illustrations, scenery, literary (Balzac) and artistic works of the time, more than 600.000 visitors in the summer of 1827 alone. Naturalised, the giraffe is still visible at the Museum of La Rochelle.29- Foucault's PendulumNamed after the French physicist Léon Foucault, it was first a simple device conceived as an experiment to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. While it had long been known that the Earth rotated, the introduction of the Foucault pendulum in 1851 was the first simple proof of the rotation in an easy-to-see experiment. After a few different locations, it long stayed in the Panthéon but more recently at the Musée des Arts et Métiers. In 2010, the cable suspending the "bob" snapped causing irreparable damage to the pendulum and its marble floor. It inspired the famous book by Umberto Eco.30- "Les Trois Glorieuses"This painting called "La Liberté guidant le Peuple" by Eugéne Delacroix has become an icon of the triumphant Republic.Yet this was not the intention of its painter. The Three Glorious Days of July 27, 28 and 29, 1830 drove the Bourbons from the French throne. Charles X was forced to abdicate while the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, became "King of the French" (not King of France…). Witness of the uprising, Delacroix began to retrace the Parisian epic. The painting was first exhibited at the Salon in May 1831. In the center, the allegory of Liberty, triumphant, tricolore and with Phrygian cap on the head, recalls the revolutionary spirit of 1789. It guides the crowd across the barricades and corpses in a pyramid structure that rises to victory. Legend goes that the kid next to Liberty inspired the Gavroche character in "Les Misérables" by Victor Hugo…More than the painting though, it is the myth of those 3 glorious days of Revolution which is of significance to the history of Paris.31- The Chair of BalzacThis chair was Honoré de Balzac's for more than 30 years and followed him from house to house, as his worktable. It reflects a certain French way of life, it accompanied the insatiable work of the writer, draped in his long white cashmere dress in the winter and simple cotton one in the summer. It was not uncommon for the author of "The Human Comedy" to spend sixteen to eighteen hours a day sitting in this chair writing.Balzac was one of the writers whose style and essence embodied the French, and Parisian, lifestyle of the 19th century, describing in minute details the lives of the rich, the poor, the famous and the forgotten.32- The Imperial CradleWith the official announcement of the pregnancy of the Empress, the City of Paris asked the Emperor permission to prepare the cradle of the imperial child. The prefect of the Seine, Haussmann, obtained from Council unlimited funds for the execution of the cradle by the most skilful artists. The total cost of the work was 156,839 francs, a fortune at the time. Entirely paid for by the City of Paris.Inspired by the cradle of the King of Rome (Hofburg, Vienna), the ornamental cradle was offered by the City of Paris to Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie on the birth of the Imperial Prince Eugene Louis-Joseph (1856-1874).The set was designed by architect Victor Baltard, the figure of the City of Paris engraved in silver by Pierre-Charles Simart, that of the Eagle by Henri Jacquemart, enamels representing the cardinal virtues executed by the Sèvres Manufacture from cardboards by Hippolyte Flandrin, bronzes cast by the house Froment-Meurice and carpentry rosewood from Grohé brothers. The set was very characteristic of the eclectic and overloaded taste of the Second Empire.33- Haussmann"Paris is the heart of France. Let's put all our efforts to beautify this great city, to improve the fate of its inhabitants." This is the project of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte in December 10, 1850. He entrusted its implementation to an energetic man, Georges-Eugéne Haussmann, appointed Prefect of the Seine in 1853.Besides the opening of the "Grande Croisée" from east to west (the Rue de Rivoli and the Rue Saint-Antoine) and from north to south (from Boulevard de Sebastopol to Boulevard Saint-Michel), Haussmann completed the "Grands Boulevards". The "boulevards" originally referred to the large ramparts or fortification walls around Paris used to transport for large artillery guns. They were transformed in wide avenues lined with tree-lined counter alleys under Louis XIV.Haussmann decided to connect those Boulevards. He sets new standards for construction, i.e. the single alignment of facades and making the height of buildings proportional to the width of the street. These boulevards instantly became a huge success and the heart of Parisian life where the bourgeoisie of the Second Empire showed off. Boulevard cafés opened up everywhere. Everyone who is anyone elegantly paraded at "Glacier Tortini" or the "Café de Paris" frequented by the likes of Alexandre Dumas, Alfred de Musset or Théophile Gautier, while Offenbach triumphed at "Theatre des Varietiés" on Boulevard Montparnasse…This could be the single most important event in the history of Paris, turning it into the elegant, majestic city that we now love.34- The "Belly of Paris"Built at the end of the twelfth century, the main market of Paris was severely congested and heavily polluted. Several projects are being developed at the start of the 19th century but none are implemented. The renovation is finally entrusted to the architect Victor Baltard. In 1851, a large stone building is erected and quickly nicknamed "le fort de la Halle" by the witty, mocking Parisians. Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, dissatisfied, orders the destruction of the ugly building and seduced by the architecture of the Gare de l'Est, he wants a similar roof structure for the Halles: "These are large umbrellas that I need, nothing more". The final plan is in the edification of two groups of six pavilions each separated by a street. Baltard is inspired by the shape of 'greenhouses' . Rectangular buildings, iron and glass, are served by wide walkways. Work began in 1854 and the first six houses were inaugurated by Napoleon III in 1858. But the project is again not enough: the Halles handle nearly 8,000 tons of cargo per day. In 1972, they are transferred to the now famous Rungis. The Baltard pavilions are razed to the ground except for one of them transferred to Nogent-sur-Marne.This infrastructure contributed to and solidified the prominence of Paris as Gastronomic Capital of the world by allowing the best food products to reach it quickly and efficiently.35- The DaguerréotypeOn August 19, 1839, during a session at the Institute of France, Louis-Jacques Daguerre presented the first photographic process in history. Inspired by the work of Nicéphore Niepce -who found a way to chemically fix the views of the darkroom- Daguerre obtained a positive image in the darkroom on a copper plate coated with silver and developed in iodine vapours. After a few minutes' exposure, the image is revealed in mercury vapour and fixed by washing with salted water. The process, called "daguerréotype" provides highly sharp images of an astonishing precision for its time.Seduced, Arago extoled its merits to the Chamber of Deputies. The State purchased the patent in order to "freely provide it to the world". Success is immediate and exceeds any expectation. The earliest plates represent stills and landscapes, but the demand quickly takes off for portraits. A "daguerréotypomania" takes hold of the bourgeoisie, artists and intellectuals. Despite its success, its quickly abandoned in favour of other more efficient processes.36- The Beard of Victor HugoVictor Hugo wanted "to be Chateaubriand or nothing". He was a poet, playwright, novelist, academician and politician. He was the most popular writer of his time and remains inseparable from his white beard, "this beautiful cover-it-all" as he called it.His beard now symbolically represents his work: the one of the "Hugolian" hero like Jean Valjean, or of his exile of Guernsey. Because it is during this exile on the British island that the author of "Les Misérables" and the quintessential Parisian book "Notre-Dame de Paris" let his beard grow. The beard of the condemned, it is also the beard of freedom of expression ... or the beard of a feather that raged against Napoléon-le-Petit.37- The Eiffel TowerThe Eiffel Tower was built by engineer Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923) on the occasion of the Universal Exposition of 1889, which celebrated the Centenary of the French Revolution.From the get go, renowned artists vehemently protested against it and the Tower was extremely unpopular in Paris: "this skeleton of belfry "(Verlaine),"this high and skinny pyramid of iron ladders, (...), the base seems to be made to carry a great monument of Cyclops and aborts at its end in a ridiculously thin profile of a factory chimney"(Maupassant)," ... this infundibulary fence, this suppository sieved with holes "(Huysmans). So much so that the authorities promised to dismantle it at the end of the Exposition...But these polemics soon ceased with the success of the popular Tour, and the different scientific labs and radio transmission antennas which benefited from it. At 312 meters high in 1889, it was built in just 2 years, 2 months and 5 days which is a real technical and architectural performance at the time.It has now become THE symbol of Paris, and one of the most well known object in the world.38- Le Moulin RougeOctober 1889. Parisians are discovering, in the heart of Montmartre, a new cabaret, the Moulin Rouge. Inside, a huge dance floor, mirrors everywhere on the outside, a garden with a huge elephant and donkey rides for the ladies! The success is immediate. The Moulin Rouge is the king of musicals where the All-bourgeois Paris comes to be naughty. Painter Toulouse-Lautrec immortalised the life of the Moulin Rouge, its customers, dancers and even drew the posters for the cabaret's promotion.There you can see French Cancan dancers, with black stockings, garters and lace, bewitch the spectators at a time when the female body is scarcely unveiled in society. Many stars will perform there: La Goulue, Mistinguett, Josephine Baker, Maurice Chevalier, later Charles Trenet and Aznavour.A parisian monument, symbolic of its image as the City of Love.39- The CinematographOn December 28, 1895, at the Salon Indien du Grand Café in Paris, Boulevard des Capucines, the first payed public showing of "Cinematographe Lumière" as it was known at the time, takes place. The first ever produced film in history is "The exit of the Lyon Lumiere factory". Auguste and Louis Lumiere in February 1895 filed a patent for a "device for obtaining and visioning photographic chrono tests."The Cinematograph is both a camera and a projector, developed by Louis, with the help of Auguste, perfecting research by Thomas Edison. This innovation seduces from the outset the public in numbers (hundreds of spectators rushed to the Grand Café) and causes a veritable craze during the Belle Epoque. Commercial operations soon will spread throughout the world, after the birth of the first feature film (1896) and the opening of the first cinema studio near Paris in Montreuil-sous-Bois in 1897.40- The Room of Marcel Proust"Many a times I went to bed early…" Proustian time is both that of wakefulness and of sleep. Of a life recomposed by dreams or memories. And so the bedroom is the Proustian place "par excellence".In Search of Lost Time opens with the bedroom in Combray, the childhood bedroom where the narrator turns the world in a subjective fairytale. And the novel ends in the bedroom of Time Regained which releases the narrator to real life, the only life really lived, the literary one. Caulked in his room, the writer revives through the power of image, the myths of childhood.In the lastyears of his life, after the death of his mother and a failed first move, Proust almost never left his room, except for mysterious nocturnal excursions and he wrote every single night, his whole life.41- Le Métropolitain and "Art Nouveau"Paris has one of the densest Metro networks in the world, with 245 stations within the city of Paris and is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow. The first line opened in 1900 and most of it was completed by end of the Twenties. Entrances to stations were designed in art nouveau style by Hector Guimard, Eighty-six of his entrances are still in existence. The Métro is very popular and an absolute "must" for each and every Parisians -as well as tourists!- and its Art Nouveau signs, and streetlights, are recognized around the world.42- The Taxis of the MarneSeptember 6, 1914, while the German front troops are just fifty kilometers from Paris, General Gallieni requisitioned 630 Parisian taxis, most of them Renault AG1s, to send new recruits as reinforcements. Leaving the Place des Invalides in two convoys, September 6 and 7, they carried, at an average speed of 25 km/h, more than 5000 soldiers from the 103rd and 104th Infantry regiments to the war zone at Nanteuil-le-Haudouin and Silly-le-Long. Four to five soldiers are loaded on each taxi some making the whole trip on the outside step. The vehicles requisitioned then returned to the capital where their ride was paid by the State.This event became a symbol of the popular support for the Great War but also a reminder that Paris was almost invaded or destroyed…43- La Tombe du Soldat InconnuHosted at the Arc de Triomphe, a monument erected by Napoleon in homage to the "Grande Armée" and its victories, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is the place of French national memory. Beyond the commemoration of veterans of the First World War, it pays tribute to the sacrifice of all the French soldiers who died for their country, defending its values. For example on November 11, 1940, students demonstrated here their hostility to the German Occupation. The flame of Remembrance is also the flame of the Resistance, of the struggle for freedom and against repression anywhere in the world.Balancing the "barbaric" reputation of the Arc De Triomphe, the Tomb and its symbol propulses the Arc De Triomphe to the forefront of Parisian symbols.44- The Trousers of Coco Chanel"All my art is to cut what others added." Gabrielle Chanel (1883-1971) was not only an uncommon fashion creator, she also became a symbolFrench elegance…and Feminism. She revolutionised feminine clothes. Banishing the corset, using the jersey, she created larger and more flexible tailors, shorter skirts and popularised the wearing of trousers for women which had been prohibited since French Revolution. Her androgynous style, short hair and pants, which became furiously popular in les "Annees Folles" with Josephine Baker amongst others shows a dynamic woman, free of her movement, reclaiming her body without renouncing her feminism.This object can be representative of the prominence of Paris in the world fashion scene.45- Le Vel' d'Hiv'This indoor sporting venue near the Eiffel Tower (cycling track but also ice rink and boxing venue) not only was the famous location of the Pétain-led government's persecution of the Jews in Occupied France (an estimated 13,200 were deported in the Vel' d'Hiv roundup) but even before the war it was the stage for the extreme right activists like Jacques Doriot's PPF - a French fascist party which contributed 3,400 volunteers to the execution of the round-ups. This building is the symbol of the darkest hour in the history of Paris - a time most Parisians and politicians would have rather forgotten… (see Did Charles de Gaulle really say "Vichy was not France?")46- The "2CV"The Citroen 2 CV, the first French mass market small car, "A bicycle with four wheels" as described by its creator is presented to the Motor Show in 1948. It is a quick commercial success for Citroën, due to its formula ( robust, economical and versatile), but also its technical qualities techniques, including its innovative suspension system. It became an object of daily life in Paris of the 1950s and 1960s. The "two-horse" is also a cinema star, featured in "Le Gendarme de Saint-Tropez "or James Bond's "For Your Eyes Only." Car of the youth, affordable and fun, the 2CV is also synonymous with adventure. Large rallies are organised around the world and promote the export of the model. But sales declined in the early 1980s and stop in the early 1990s, in fifty years of production, the 2CV sold more than five million copies, all models combined.The little car could be construed as the symbol of the rapid expansion of Paris after WWII, a phenomenon knows as the "30 Glorieuses" (30 years of non-stop economic growth) which shaped Paris into the Economic capital it is now.47- The "Pavé"After the glory years of the fifties and sixties, Paris is on the verge of yet another revolution. In the night of May 10 to 11, 1968, in the Latin Quarter, students clash with police in full blown street fighting. Cars are burned, windows broken, streets are unpaved, and barricades are erected . The students assail the French riot police (CRS) using the easiest most available weapon at hand, right under their feet, the famous "pavé" or cobblestone. The assault is given in the night and students are scattered in the morning. Used as projectile during the riots of May 1968, the Parisian cobblestone is a cube of granite of about 10 cm by 15 cm, weighing on average 1.5 kg. It is difficult to detach, but rests on a simple bed of sand. The slogan "Under the cobblestone, the beach" is not only a figure of speech!The cobblestones come to represent the mode of expression of a Parisian youth revolting against the authority. Against the generation of their parents, the one which let the Nazis take control of the country and commit atrocities in the name of the French state. Weapon of the "Yéyé" generation, precursors of the "hippies", the Parisian pavé cements (no pun intended) its status in history, after the era of the revolutions (of 1830 and 1848) where it dutifully served to erect barricades and help the insurgents. It represents the inherent rebellion against authority, a visceral Parisian trait also exemplified in the more than numerous strikes and demonstrations staged in Paris, capital of the "Manifestation".48- Pompidou Centre"We are a conservative civilization. The difficulty is to be at the same time creators." That is the goal of President Pompidou when he decides to install on the plateau Beaubourg, in the heart of historical Paris, a stone's throw from Notre-Dame, a "Cultural Center" dedicated to contemporary art and a public library. Passionate about contemporary art, the Head of State is very involved in the project and starts an international architecture competition, won by the Italian Renzo Piano and British Richard Rogers."Art is a way of life, or should at least be" The architecture of the building reflects this ambition. The center is an open space in the city: its west facade, transparent, lets light in and offers, with its electric stairs, a panoramic view of Paris. The function of the building has also guided its design, a very innovative approach at the time: the interior is completely flexible. Unique innovation: the building's service areas, mechanical parts, infrastructure and corridors are all placed outside in large coloured pipes representing each element: blue for air, green for water, yellow for electricity, and red for movement.This building has been one of the most controversial in the history of Paris and has long been an object of hate by many Parisians, its sticks like a sore in the middle of its historical surrounding like the photo shows in the perspective of Notre Dame, Sacré-Coeur and many more. It has also come to represent the intervention of the French State in the Arts and in the landscape of Paris, as shown in a few more objects later on.49- La DéfenseOriginally started in 1958, the real expansion came in the Sixties, and later the Eighties, this is when this "business district" really came to embody the economical heart of Paris, equivalent to the City of London or the Financial District of NYC. The name of the district comes from the statue of "La Défense de Paris" which commemorates the Parisian resistance during the Franco-Prussian War.Its Arch represents the continuation of the "Magic Line": from the Louvres to the Invalides over the Champs-Elysées under the Arc de Triomphe and all the way down to La Défense.50- The TGVThis is maybe the first Object in this History which made Paris "weaker" rather than helped increase its huge power over France. The first ever high speed train implemented in a large scale has been a huge instrument in the Decentralisation of France. This was a political push to decrease the dominance of Paris in political terms (i.e. more powers to local government) and in economical terms. The TGV helped a lot achieve this goal by profoundly changing the infrastructural landscape of the country, so indirectly this object had a huge influence in the history of Paris.50- Pyramide of the LouvreAlready evoked in the Napoleonic era, the Louvre Pyramid is inaugurated by President Mitterrand on March 30, 1989, the bicentennial yearof the French Revolution and of its sumptuous commemorations. 21.5 meters high on a square base of 35 meters side, the Louvre Pyramid rises in the middle of the Napoleon Court. Its proportions are the same as those of the pyramids of Egypt, but it is made of glass and steel. Unlike its ancient predecessors, the Louvre Pyramid is not a tomb which closes on itself but the new entrance to a museum completely refurbished and resized to join the ranks of the global flagships of culture. The Sino-American architect IM Pei has deliberately chosen a very barebones geometric shapes to form a perfect alliance between the classicism of the Napoleon Court and the addition of a pyramid of avant-garde style that breaks the harmony of existing measures. This daring architectural choice raised mountains of criticism. It gaves rise toa battle between Ancients and Moderns, which quickly overflowed to political grounds, opponents were not hesitant to dub the President "Tontonkhamon" or "Mitterramses".Contrary to the Pompidou Centre, the perspective from the Louvre to the Arc de Triomphe was not disfigured, in fact it was enhanced, and so the Pyramid was quickly accepted as a full-fledged work of art. Its popularity ever increasing.50- The TramwayThis recent object symbolises as a fundamental shift in the way public transport was managed for more than a century in Paris. Recently Tramway lines have opened when the "Métro" was so omnipotent. Another interesting aspect is the way the Tram lines are built connecting parallel, and previously disconnected areas of Paris and suburbs where the Metro always favoured a "center-to-periphery" approach. The Tram introduces a radically different approach. It also means a long overdue restoration of the "Marechaux", large avenues parallel to the "Peripherique" which are some the least beautiful areas of Paris, to say the least.50- "Paris Plages" and Vélib'This represents the latest development in a changing Paris and has been a huge success: in the summer the banks of the river Seine are reclaimed from the "automobile" and given back to the Parisians in a makeshift "beach" environment. This program symbolises the strong push to change the way Parisians use their cars and the need for a more environmental urban approach. Combined with the sensationally popular launch and deployment of the "Vélib'" program, the cheap and easy to self-rent bikes these two "objects" could redefine the Paris of the future…_______Musée Carnavalet - Histoire de la ville de Paris

Yes, absolutely. There are several great answers here already, but for my own response, I’ll be using myself and my own experience as an example.Below is a photo of me without makeup. My hair is much longer now, as I’ve grown it out over the months, and you can’t see the spottings of white hairs, but the color and style is still the same.I’ve been told, by many men and women, that I’m “very pretty”, “gorgeous”, “beautiful”, etc…and that I “look just like my mother”, who was a popular, cheerleader and sorority girl when she was in high school and college.Due to this, as you can imagine, I tend to attract quite a bit of attention when I go out, and even a lot online. I’ve been hit on and flirted with far too many times to count over the years, particularly by men interested in me, though I mostly tend to rebuff a large part of it. As my mother advised once me, “Just smile and be nice.”As I have a hard time getting people to take me seriously (or men to stop pestering me to go out with them) once they know what I look like, I mostly focus on my writing online, and not so much on my appearance.My mother, when she was my age, however, had used her beauty to her advantage, garnering many male admirers over the years. I, too, tend to have many male admirers, though I tend to keep them more at a distance. (I still get flowers and chocolates sent to me via Amazon from time to time, though…)However, there is one, big difference from my mother that I possess…and that’s a diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome, or “autism spectrum disorder” (ASD). I probably inherited it from my father, a former A1C in the Air Force, who, in turn, likely inherited it from his mother, or my grandmother.My father also tells me I am “just like my grandmother” in personality. One thing to note about my grandmother is, despite my father noting her “strangeness”, is that she was also something of a “man magnet” when she was young. She also received a few marriage offers and proposals, particularly with the local Army boys. Why? She was highly empathetic, intelligent, creative, and…of course, above all, “beautiful”.Below is a photo of my grandmother in her youth.My grandmother, though she has been married three or so times over her life, and usually to military men, has always been a dedicated, devoted, and loving wife and mother. She also had four children, has several grandchildren, and likely great-granchildren as well.She’s also highly Romantic in personality. She writes a lot on the topic of love, and the nature of romance and marriage, and believes very deeply in the concept of “true love”. Her daughter - my aunt - also is the same way, as am I, though I’m typically much more stoic and subdued about the subject.Now, another thing to note, and which I think is important, is that my grandmother also came from a staunchly religious and traditionalist Mormon family, one that has an ancient bloodline that goes back centuries.Mormons, as a culture, tend to love and promote marriage - so much so, that, even today, they’re still infamous for their former practice of polygamy. They were also well-known for what’s called today the “Quiverfull” Christian movement - basically, having as many children as possible.Particularly, through my Mormon grandmother and my grandfather (her first husband), I am related to several figures of note, some of them also authors and writers. Their descendants, myself included, inherited some of these “odd” traits.However, some of them also displayed “autistic traits”, which, as Mormons used to be (and still commonly are) collectively regarded as “strange”, “weird”, and “odd”, isn’t really surprising. A few are listed below.King James [Stuart] VI and I of Scotland and England (1566 - 1625) - author of Daemonologie (Demonology), The True Law of Free Monarchies, and Basilikon Doron (Royal Gift), among other works, as well as a large promotor of literature, poetry, theater, and music; popularized and sponsored William Shakespeare, with the latter using James’s own “Daemonologie” as a large basis for “Macbeth”; married for 30 yearsWilliam Bradford (1590 – 1657) - author of Of Plymouth Plantation, which he wrote for 30 years, and is commonly regarded as “the father of American history”, “the father of Thanksgiving”, and “the creator of the Mayflower Compact”; also coined the term “Pilgrim” for early Separatist Massachusetts settlers, whom he led for many years; married twice, the second for 34 yearsIsaac Newton (1643 - 1727), author of Opticks and various other works; an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, theologian, and author who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time, and a key figure in the scientific revolution; unmarried, but had married half-siblings, nieces, and nephews, to whom he left most of his inheritanceJames Henry Martineau (1828 - 1921), Mormon pioneer, adventurer, and author of Keys of Wisdom and Knowledge; married for 67 yearsBradford, in particular, has a large number of descendants, several of whom are actors, writers, and involved in the arts. You can read a list of many of them here, but it includes include the late Christopher Reeve; the Baldwin brothers, including Alec Baldwin; Julia Child; George Eastman, founder of the Kodak company; Clint Eastwood; John Lithgow; and many others.However, there is a reason why I bring up these four male ancestors in particular, and it’s because they all have what appear to be traits of Asperger’s Syndrome, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In those days, of course, neither existed as a diagnosis; however, all four men were noted for their ingenuity, intelligence, dedication, steadfast loyalty…and, of course, their “strangeness”.All four of them also showed a special fondness for (or fixation on) religion and routine, and were “praised for [their] chastity”, “showing little interest in women”. In the case of James VI/I, however, he was also what is today termed ‘LGBT’, “preferring the company of male lovers” at times, and also took at least two female mistresses from the noble Lyon family: Anne Murray Lyon, Countess of Kinghorne; and Eufamia Douglas, “Lady Glamis”, daughter of Sir William Douglas of Lochleven, Earl of Morton.However, James was also married for 30 years to Anne of Denmark, and the two had three children. In true ASD fashion, James also went “all-out”, or “overboard”, when sailing to retrieve Anne from her homeland.[…] A suitable marriage, however, was necessary to reinforce his monarchy, and the choice fell on 14-year-old [Princess] Anne of Denmark, younger daughter of Protestant [monarch] Frederick II.Shortly after a proxy marriage in Copenhagen in August 1589, Anne sailed for Scotland, but was forced by storms to the coast of Norway. On hearing that the crossing had been abandoned, James sailed from Leith with a 300-strong retinue to fetch Anne personally, in what historian David Harris Willson called "the one romantic episode of his life".[…] By all accounts, James was at first infatuated with Anne and, in the early years of their marriage, seems always to have shown her patience and affection. (Source: Wikipedia)Another account of James’s personality is as follows, which also matches other, modern aspects of Asperger’s/ASD:As a child, James was looked after by different families. He seems to have been a bookish boy, spending long periods alone.[…] At the age of 8, James was already schooled in French and Latin, and could “read a chapter of the Bible out of Latin into French, and out of French into English, as well as few men could have added anything to this translation”.[…] James conversation was usually a garrulous stream, in which long-winded theories mingled with homely endearments and coarse jokes. His speech was quite unintelligible with a Scottish [brogue] accent. (Source)However, James VI/I was also known for being both “odd” and “obsessive” in several aspects of his life…especially with his “obsession” regarding witches and witchcraft, which he detailed in one of his books, Daemonologie (Demonology), in 1597. These were also recurring traits, or theme, of the royal Scottish clan (or family) of Stewart/Stuart, into which James VI/I was born into.These ASD traits date back a long time, too, and typically, through the Stewart/Stuart line of male inheritance. Women, unfortunately, were typically subject to little to no recording of their lives and personalities, and would not be for centuries to come.For a previous Stewart/Stuart example, however, King James II of Scotland (1437 - 1460), the greats-grandfather of King James VI/I, was known to have quite the “obsession” and “enthusiasm” with [Flemish] artillery. This was so much so, that, on August 3, 1460, he died due to an accident with his favorite cannon, “the Lion”. Prior to this, as per Wikipedia, “an Act of Parliament commanded the king to modify his behaviour”, indicating his “acting out” was not appreciated.King Charles I, the son of James VI/I and Anne of Denmark, is also suspected to have inherited Asperger’s/ASD from his father.[…] We know that James I and his wife, Queen Anne of Denmark, did not enjoy a happy marriage. We further know that, in 1600, when she was five months pregnant with Charles, Anne became furious with James when he dismissed two of her ladies-in-waiting after the Gowrie Conspiracy. She stayed in bed for two days, and refused to eat.Depression during the queen's pregnancy, then, cannot be precluded, and seems quite possible. If further research shows that Charles I inherited Asperger's syndrome from James I, this insight would help enormously in our understanding of his life, and of the descent into civil war.CHARLES I was an intelligent and well-educated man; but, at times, he saw things in black and white. Although he could be decisive, he could also be an irresolute ditherer. Some of his decisions were good; others were terrible, with tragic consequences.In fairness, Charles I could also be a very kind man, especially to his servants, which in any age is an important indication of personality. The subject is worthy of further research.If my hunch is correct, it reinforces a perception of Charles I as a tragic figure, trying to do his best for his subjects according to his lights, hampered by Asperger's syndrome, and a large dose of bad luck, frequently getting it wrong, as events spun out of his control. (Source)Like some of his descendants, James VI/I most likely suffered from the hereditary disease porphyria, although he may also have had a chronic kidney infection. Frederick Holmes, author of The Sickly Stuarts, suggests that James’s legs, as he had trouble walking until age 5, may have been affected by a hereditary neuromuscular disease.With Asperger’s/ASD, it is common for the condition to be co-morbid with other mental and physical disabilities or ailments. Another common affliction associated with those with Asperger’s/ASD is also gut problems, which James also suffered from for his entire life.That being said, James was also married. However, accounts vary as to whether or not James’s 30-year marriage to Anne of Denmark was “good” or “bad”. Scholars note, just as “no one autistic person is the same”, the Stewart/Stuart family members also showed wide variation in their actions, including in relation to their marriages…including attracting many lovers, and, in some cases, a penchant for having extramarital affairs.Examples include James and Anne’s grandsons, the Stuart monarchs King Charles II, called “the most notorious womanizer of the English kings”, having at least 13 mistresses, and 14 illegitimate children; and Charles’s younger brother, King James II, who may have had as many as 11 mistresses, and at least 4 illegitimate children.Through two of James II’s children with mistress Arabella Churchill - Henrietta FitzJames, Countess of Newcastle, and James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick - he is is an ancestor of the Earls Spencer and Diana, Princess of Wales; and, through Diana, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex.Diana is also descended from two of Charles's illegitimate sons: Henry Fitzroy, 1st Duke of Grafton, and Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond. This means that her son, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, will become the first descendant of Charles II to occupy the British throne, if he succeeds as expected.Above: Prince William and Prince Harry, both maternal descendants of Stuart monarch James II, and his older brother, King Charles II.The Stewart/Stuart family, in addition to their tendency to produce many children and descendants, would also become particularly known for bucking the expected love, marriage, and courtship trends and traditions of their dynastic time period(s). This would inevitably would bring a lot of anger, publicly and privately, against them.The Lennox sisters (1740 to 1832), as Stuart descendants and also related to Diana, William, and Harry through Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond (grandfather), became infamous examples, as portrayed in the miniseries Aristocrats (1999). The Lennox sisters, too, as Stuarts, showed some signs of Asperger’s/ASD, which you can read more in-depth about here.(Above: Actresses Geraldine Somerville, Serena Gordon, Anne-Marie Duff, and Jodhi May as the Lennox sisters in “Aristocrats”, c. 1999.)The “forbidden” romance and marriage of King James II of England and commoner Anne Hyde was another example of “bucking tradition”.As a young man, James II showed “scandalous” public displays of affection during his courtship of Anne, including the two “kissing and leaning against each other, which was considered improper behaviour from man to wife”.Anne also got pregnant during their tryst, leading to the couple’s marriage, held via a private ceremony…”unthinkable” for the time period, but James II, frankly, did not seem to care.There is also little to no knowledge of the marriages, or private lives, of Bradford, Newton’s siblings, or Martineau, other than that, in those days, marriages were usually “for life”. Again, this is due to women’s lives, and personalities, usually not being recorded or written about.According to one source:(Above: Dorothy and William Bradford portrayed by Anna Camp and Vincent Kartheiser in “Saints & Strangers”, a 2015 TV mini-series about the Voyage of the Mayflower.)Bradford’s second marriage appears to have been happy. His last will & testament describes Alice as “my dear and loving wife”. She provided a home in Plymouth for Bradford’s son [out of his first wife, Dorothy] who had been left behind in Leiden, Holland (The Netherlands), and she and William had three children of their own, two sons and a daughter. (Source)However, all four of of the men I mentioned earlier - as well as the women mentioned afterwards - were certainly attractive, especially to prospective marriage partners.They were noted to be leaders; high achievers; highly educated and intelligent; etc…and, even in spite of some serious personality flaws, three of the mentioned men easily found wives, and were usually married for life. The women, too, also had little trouble finding husbands, even in the wake of widowing and divorce. (My grandmother, too, was the same.)Some also regard Newton to have also potentially had male lovers or partners, like James I/IV, though whether or not this is true is much-disputed. Little is known of Newton’s personal [love] life, and much of such conjecture is based off of what scant evidence of it is available in Newton’s surviving writings.In some adaptations of their lives, these figures and their wives are even portrayed as conventionally, or “ruggedly” and “naturally”, physically attractive, possibly due to Hollywood Beauty Standards. This was seen as well with female figures, such as with Aristocrats (1999) - shown above, with the Lennox sisters.According to the original observations of Dr. Hans Asperger - for whom Asperger’s Syndrome was named - there is also some Truth in Television to this.“Many of [the children he studied] struck Asperger as exceptionally beautiful, with finely chiseled, mature-looking features. But they wore grave and serious expressions, as if their constant worrying had aged them prematurely.” - Steve Siberman, NeuroTribes: The Legacy of Autism and the Future of Neurodiversity (p. 92, hardback)The youngest and “most notorious” Lennox sister, Sarah Lennox, was also well-known to be a “great beauty” and artistic muse in her time. She posed for several painters who wished to capture her beauty, with one painting of her below.(Above: “Lady Sarah Bunbury Sacrificing to the Graces” by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1765.“The mythological three Graces, daughters of Zeus, king of the gods, and the Oceanid mermaid Eurynome – identified as Euphrosyne (‘mirth and or joyfulness’), Aglaea (‘elegance, brightness and splendor’) and Thalia (‘youth, beauty and good cheer’) – who were said to ‘supernatural nymphs’, the personification of youth/beauty, mirth, charm, grace, and elegance.The three sisters were attendants of the goddess of love, Aphrodite, and were part of her retinue…They were regarded as the inspirers of the qualities which give attractiveness to wisdom, love, culture and social interaction. The Graces, like all nymphs, had the power of prophetic divination, [or predicting the future].The main role of the Three Graces was to bestow beauty, charm, and goodness on young women, and to give joy and the feeling of well-being to people in general. Closely associated with the Nine Muses, they were also considered patrons of music, song, poetry, dance, and the creative arts and sciences.The three Graces resided above the golden clouds on Mount Olympus where they entertained the Olympian gods and goddesses. They sang and danced to the music of the Muses and Apollo's lyre. They were also the attendants of the love deities Aphrodite and Eros, and formed part of their retinue.In their roles of social hostesses to the Olympians, and especially favored by Hera, Hermes and Apollo for bring joy and goodwill to all of the events.The Graces brought joy and goodwill to both gods and mortals. Like the Nine Muses, they were believed to endow artists and poets with the ability to create beautiful works of art.According to the traditions and beliefs of the Ancient Greeks, people would invoke the aid of the Graces to guide and assist them in their art, musical compositions, work, songs and dance. The invocation took the form of a prayer for divine inspiration from the goddesses.The derivation of the word Charitesia - ‘charity’ - meant 'to win someone's favor'.”- The Three Graces)From “Beautiful Women in History”:“[Lady Sarah Lennox] was about the only person at the English Court who was not scheming on the vexed question of the King's marriage.She took it all quite naturally, and when one day we find the King talking to her in the usual terms of affection and tender courtship, and the next announcing his betrothal to a German Princess, although Lady Sarah certainly felt that she had been made a fool of, she showed no resentment. The death of a pet squirrel gave her far more concern than his Majesty ever did.According to Horace Walpole, when Lady Sarah acted as bridesmaid to the ugly little brown Princess from Germany who married King George, the deserted maiden, far from wearing the willow, ‘was the chief angel of them all’.Old Lord Westmorland, who was very short-sighted, plumped on his knees, and kissed her hand as she stood at the head of the bridesmaids. Lady Sarah blushed, and exclaimed hastily, ‘I am not the Queen, sir!’ - an incident which, naturally in the circumstances, caused a good deal of amusement at Court.Throughout the ceremony, the King stood gazing at his lady love, who was certainly watching him married to some one else with disconcerting composure. Even her liking for him had been shaken by the duplicity of his conduct. If he had to marry Princess Charlotte, it was disgusting that he should [have had made] love [to her at all], as he had done.But by this time, Lady Sarah had every reason to look radiant, for she was happily in love with a sporting, racing, hunting squire, very good-looking, and fairly well off, and to him she was married a few months after the King…For a time she was very happy, but Sir Charles was more interested in his horses than in anything else, and after a few years he neglected his beautiful wife, and left her to the attentions of others…Of these she took no notice until her cousin, Lord William Gordon, fell passionately in love with her, and she returned his affection.[…] At the end of the summer, however, Lady Sarah, with her little daughter, overcome by remorse, went back to her brother at Goodwood House, and here for twelve years she devoted herself to bringing up her little girl.During this time, the brilliance of her spirits changed to a very touching and beautiful humility, and it is no wonder that Sir Charles Bunbury, going frequently to see her, as frequently begged her to marry him again, and regretted bitterly that he had divorced her…At the age of thirty-six (36), we find [Lady Sarah] beautiful, gracious, witty, and humble; a model mother and a submissive sister, being wooed by the Honourable George Napier, [a soldier], who, as she writes to Lady Susan, declared that he ‘could not understand why no one had thought of proposing to her before’.In spite of opposition from many quarters, the soldier-lover had his way. He had very little money, but poverty she did not mind, now that she had found a peace for which she had long given up hoping. She married him in 1781. He was six foot two (6′2″), exceedingly handsome, and as clever as he was good-looking.By him, she had five sons and three daughters. Three of the sons afterwards became famous in the Peninsular War…Napier died in 1804, and left [Lady Sarah] absolutely broken-hearted.[Lady Sarah] was adored by her children as few mothers are, but all her life, she had the art of winning people's affections. This is not surprising, for her letters reveal a singularly charming character.She wrote all her thoughts and feelings to Lady Susan, who was her staunch friend, even when her family were most displeased with her. When the King's informal proposal for her hand had been related to her, and she was to go to Court the next day, primed with the proper thing to say - which, as we have seen, she flagrantly did not say! - she writes to Lady Susan, ‘that the very thought of it makes me sick already’ - a plain and graphic description of a feeling, which in these days, we mask under the polite name of ‘feeling nervous.’.When [King George III] had made her look foolish by treating her as his future wife, until the very day of the announcement of his engagement, Lady Sarah writes: ‘If it is true that one can vex anybody with a reserved, cold manner, he shall have it, I promise him!’ (And he got it!)Her wisdom, however, even at that early age, is quite remarkable; for in begging Lady Susan not to talk of the King's proposal, she says, ‘He will hate us all anyway, for one generally hates people that one is in the wrong with.’ When Napier is wooing her, she writes to Lady Susan: ‘I think myself such an old fool to marry at all, that I have not the courage to take one single step about it.’Fortunately, Napier was ready to take them all [as a devoted husband].At the age of sixty-five (65), although her beauty never deserted her, Lady Sarah went blind.It is curious that she and George III. should both have lost their sight in old age, and a touching story is related of the blind King.The great-niece of his old love, also called Lady Sarah Lennox, was going to Court, and those about the King thought it well to prepare him for the advent of her namesake. The King asked if there was any likeness to the Lady Sarah Lennox of his youth, and was told ‘Yes.’ Whereupon he asked that she be presented to him privately. And when she came he begged permission to pass his hand over her features (face)…It was a far cry from the days when the lovely girl-child in rustic dress had played at hay-making in the grounds of Holland House, when the gallant young King was to ride by, to these days of age and darkness.Lady Sarah Napier died in 1826, leaving behind her an adoring family, and records of exceptional beauty and charm of character. From the singing-bird of the great blue china jar to the stately, beautiful, blind old lady of eighty-one (81), she was ever not only charming, but lovable.”For another example, below are actors Sam Redford, son of actor Ian Redford, and Erin Raftery Ryan as William and Dorothy (May) Bradford, as portrayed by the History Channel's documentary Desperate Crossing: The Untold Story of the Mayflower (2006).As for the Stuarts, they, too, are sometimes portrayed by “beautiful” actors and actresses, as seen with Canadian actor Dan Jeannotte as James Stuart / Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray and Regent of Scotland, in the TV show Reign (2013 - 2017) on the CW:Particularly, King James VI/I was noted by his contemporaries as possessing “a curious likeability for people interested in human oddity”; “one of Scotland’s ablest monarchs”; and fellow monarch King Henry IV of France called him, “the wisest fool in Christendom…[the King who was clever at everything, except governing his country]”.However, by Hollywood’s standards, even his portrayal isn’t that “bad-looking”.(Above: Scottish actor Derek Riddell as James VI/I in the miniseries “Gunpowder”, c. 2017)Below is James IV/I’s actor, Derek Riddell, outside of period costume:Given, royalty must marry in order to produce heirs, but the fact still remains that James was a well-liked, well-educated, well-respected person, and ruler during his lifetime. Power- and personality-wise, he was also attracted several male and female lovers. Perhaps most compelling about him, however, was the fact that he was unusal and interesting.Likewise, Bradford, even in spite of his pacifist ways, was a well-liked, respected leader, and the Pilgrims elected him to be their Governor for many years. In one of the sources above, Bradford is noted as “careful and reliable, noted for his stamina, versatility, and vision”.However, Bradford also was, decidedly, an “out-of-the-box” thinker, and came up with solutions that “bucked the trends” of his day. This included befriending, and brokering a long-standing peace and alliance with, the local Pokanoket (Wampanoag) tribe leader, Massasoit. He also expressed an “unusual” empathy for Native Americans, at a time where most Europeans saw them as “savages”.(Above: American actor Vincent Kartheiser as William Bradford in the National Geographic Channel miniseries “Saints & Strangers”, c. 2015.)For what other English Puritans were like at Bradford’s time, the BBC’s “Horrible Histories” does an excellent job of portraying just how different Bradford was.Isaac Newton, too, was a well-liked, respected figure in his time, and still is today. As early as 2003, Newton was also suspected to have Asperger’s Syndrome/ASD. He also has numerous descendants through his half-siblings, of which I am one.Above: “Sir Isaac Newton”, as painted by modern artist Isis Sousa.True to the tradition of historical figures being portrayed as and by “beautiful people”, Isaac Newton, too, has received this treatment…as a “brooding, sexy vampire” in the Japanese anime dating game app Ikemen Vampire.What is the point of bringing up all of this?Well, one thing that’s been proven is that autism, and autism traits, are not only highly heritable (genetic), but also run in families. Meaning that most autistic people today, myself included, likely inherited their autistic traits from their ancestor(s).Particularly, the rise of such traits is something I would attribute to the prevalence of cousin marriages (or “linebreeding”, a milder form of inbreeding) throughout history, and common descent from the same ancestor(s). You can read more on that topic here and here.That also means that those ancestor(s) were, most likely, married, and certainly attracted romantic partners and spouses.

Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, was the last significant Pharaonic ruler of Egypt and the only Queen in the ancient world who ruled in her own right and not because of the King's death. Her unwary lust for power, her ridiculous wealth and her scandalous life has rightly earned her the place as one of the most famous female rulers of all time... Although she reigned over the puny (at that time…) Kingdom of Egypt, thanks to her cunning intellect and far-reaching political aspirations, she succeeded to leave an everlasting mark on the human culture. Cleopatra is famed primarily for her beauty that echoes to this day, nevertheless, appealing look wasn’t her main asset as she probably knew how to master it with an exceptional wisdom and unusual ambitions for a woman in her era... Cassius Dio, the famous Roman historian, seemed to well describe Cleopatra's appearance,“For she was a woman of surpassing beauty… Being brilliant to look upon and to listen to…”But to fully comprehend Cleopatra and her era, we need to begin when the mammoths still roamed Earth... in around 3150 BC, with the unification of the great cultures of the Nile Valley into one political entity – Ancient Egypt. Over the centuries the Kingdom became one of the greatest empires of the pre-AD human world and at its peak in the second millennium BC, the Monarchy stretched as far north as southern Turkey and as far as Jabel Barkal in the south, in present-day Sudan and included the desert east of the Nile, the shores of the Red Sea and the Sinai Peninsula to the west.For the next 3000 years the Egyptian realm has been divided into a large number of dynasties led by Pharaohs (Kings of Egypt) which were considered gods-like and are well-known to this day for the mysterious mummies, extravagant palaces and the mega structure monuments they have left for us as well as for practicing incest in order to maintain the purity of their divine blood. The famous Great Pyramid of Giza was built by Pharaoh Khufu the son of Sneferu of the 4th dynasty (mid-3rd millennium BC) while Pharaoh Thutmose III of the 18th dynasty (mid-2nd millennium BC) led the Kingdom into its territorial peak. Other famous Pharaohs were Tutankhamun from the same 18th dynasty, whose tomb was the only one discovered intact with all of its marvelous treasures and Pharaoh Ramesses II of the 19th dynasty (late-2nd millennium BC) who brought Egypt into its final glorious golden age. However, since then ancient Egyptian strength began to deteriorate and some 5 centuries later the country was conquered by the Assyrians in 616 BC which was followed by a Persian occupation in 525 BC. Eventually in 332 BC, Egypt was invaded and taken by Alexander the Great who annexed it to his empire. Upon his sudden death the vast empire was split between his Diadochi heirs and Egypt fell into the hands of Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander's senior generals. His descendants rule Egypt until 30 BC as the 31st and last dynasty - the Ptolemies.Cleopatra statues – Egyptian style (left) and Greco-Roman style (right)The Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the largest and most powerful Hellenistic kingdoms. Yes, there was nothing Egyptian about the Hellenistic monarchs of Egypt… In fact, they were Greek-Macedonians household that fused in ancient Egyptian symbols and characteristics such as the hieroglyphs language, Pharaonic fashion style and opted marriage within the family. Therefore, marriage between siblings was considered acceptable and even favored.The heydays of the Ptolemaic Egypt lasted over 100 years under the steadfast rule of the first three Pharaohs (who even brought us the famous Rosetta Stone). However later on, the Kingdom descended into a period of unprecedented decadence characterized by wild murderous mayhem at rates beyond imagination... The Ptolemies would stop at nothing to gain power and dispose of anyone who attempted to wrest it from them. For instance, in 176 BC the nine-year-old Cleopatra II (one of our ancient Cleopatra’s grandmothers...) married her ten-year-old brother Ptolemy VI and together they acted as the partner-rulers of Egypt. The royal couple had four children, including Cleopatra III and Ptolemy VII until Ptolemy VI died… At that point, Cleopatra II became ruler of Egypt alongside her son Ptolemy VII up until she was forced to marry her younger brother Ptolemy VIII. During the marriage celebrations the latter assassinated her son – Ptolemy VII which was his nephew/stepson and appointed himself as Pharaoh of Egypt. The happy (?) newlywed Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II gave birth to a son named Ptolemy Memphites. Later the vigorous Ptolemy VIII married Cleopatra III, his young niece/stepdaughter and also his wife`s/sister`s daughter. This marriage was not fond by Cleopatra II who provoked a successful coup against her husband/brother/son-in-law and regained the power back to her hands while crowning their mutual son Ptolemy Memphites as Pharaoh of Egypt. In response, Ptolemy VIII murdered his own son Ptolemy Memphites... After that things calmed down one way or another… and the 3 survivors - Cleopatra III, Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VIII shared the throne of Egypt until the last two died and left the power to Cleopatra III who was eventually murdered by her own son Ptolemy X...Who could stand a chance in the Ptolemaic shark pond ?So, this shifting allegiances and treachery madness went on and on... While Ptolemaic-Egypt without a responsible adult began to lose its sovereignty to the rising Roman Republic to the west and ultimately became its client state...Despite all the pandemonium, the Ptolemaic Egypt was the top-notch scientific and cultural center of the classical world that glorified the names of its rulers overseas. The capital Alexandria was a luxurious Greek polis, full of gardens, magnificent public buildings and abode of ancient world wonder – the Lighthouse of Alexandria. The city's Great Library was a spectacular marvel of itself – it was the largest science and education center of its time and included hundreds of thousands copies of the ancient Greek culture finest.It was during this period where we meet Cleopatra VII (A Greek name translated as "Her father's glory") Thea Philopator ("The goddess who loves her father" in Greek) more commonly known simply as Cleopatra. She was born in 69 BC with the genes of... well... a skilled assassin... as suits to the horrifying family of sociopathic incest she was born to... Her father was Ptolemy XII who ruled Egypt between 80-51 BC and her mother was probably his sister. He was a feeble Pharaoh who became completely dependent on Rome and especially on the influential Roman general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey), in order to secure his throne from his other relative contenders. At that time the Roman politics was embroiled in difficult struggles more than a decade, therefore his benefactor Pompey, co-founded along with Julius Caesar and Marcus Licinius Crassus the First Triumvirate, a powerful ally which became the dominant political power in the Roman Republic of the 60s BC.We are first exposed to Cleopatra in 58 BC when her unpopular father Ptolemy XII is deposed from the throne and his daughter (and Cleopatra`s older sister) Bernice IV comes to power in his place, probably in partnership with her mother who died shortly afterwards. The ten-year-old Cleopatra and her father fled to Rome to seek refuge at his patron Pompey. In 55 BC Ptolemy XII manages to hire a Roman army from Syria which included a promising young officer named Mark Anthony who will be mentioned a lot later... This Army regains Ptolemy XII the control over Egypt (except Cyprus which annexed to Rome) and executes his rebellious daughter Bernice IV. Nonetheless, Ptolemy XII who borrowed large sums of money from Rome to finance his return to the crown, did not pay his huge debt in his life… He continued to rule Egypt until his passing in 51 BCE. According to his will, he was inherited by the 18-year-old daughter Cleopatra VII and her co-ruler Ptolemy XIII - her younger brother, whom she got married with as the customary in ancient Egypt.From the beginning of their reign, Cleopatra demonstrated her independence in setting her governing policies based on her wish to restore Egypt its might and historical glamour on one hand and on her fierce desire to promote ties with the powerful Roman Republic on the other. She denied her partner brother/husband any rulership signs and kept him away from power. Therefore, Cleopatra made sure that her name alone will appear on the official documents and in the Kingdom's coinage and in fact ignored her father's will for joint rule of the two siblings as she reigned over the country on her own.Although Cleopatra was born in Egypt, she was educated in a Greek manner and was very prominent in her wide-ranged education. She had extensive knowledge of science, literature and fine art and she was fluent in many languages (the only sovereign from the Ptolemy dynasty who bothered to learn Egyptian…). Inspired by the former Queens of Egypt, Sobekneferu (left), Hatshepsut (middle) and Nefertiti (right) she made numerous efforts to recommence the ancient religious traditions of the old Egyptian times along with preserving the capital Alexandria as a modern Hellenistic cultural and education center.However, that lack of dependence in the traditional government apparatus which she had developed bought her dangerous opposition from the courtiers who disliked her autonomous state policies and tirelessly undermined her. They preferred to associate with her brother Ptolemy XIII who, due to his young age was easy to manipulate. Thus, in the autumn of 50 BC Ptolemy XIII was promoted by the court officials, as the senior ruler (as a puppet-ruler controlled by a regent on their behalf) on the expense of Cleopatra. The dethroned Cleopatra was soon accused of yearning to oust him and was forced to flee the royal court to Judea along with her younger sister Arsinoë IV and gathered military assistance, but it wasn’t a force which could match her brother`s Egyptian army. Thus, in the summer of 48 BC Cleopatra returned to Egypt for holding a hopeless confrontation against Ptolemy XIII's superior forces near the city of Pelousion in the eastern Nile Delta... But then came Pompey, the Roman Triumvir to the shores of Egypt and the cards were re-shuffled...Rome of 48 BC was sunk in a civil war after the first Triumvirate arrangement fell apart with the death of Crassus in a battle against the Parthian Empire in 53 BC. The two remaining affiliates – Caesar and Pompey began withdrawing from the alliance in light of Caesar's strong political ambition after his conquest of Gaul. In order to counterweight Caesar, Pompey partnered together with Caesar's enemies in the Senate and a rift was opened between them. The inevitable civil war that erupted following Julius Caesar`s famous cross of the Rubicon river ended in a decisive victory of the latter's army and Pompey was forced to escape to Egypt. He picked that destination because of the generous help he had previously supplied to Ptolemy XII on his struggles to secure the throne of Egypt. His goal was to seek the aid of the son, Ptolemy XIII, in replenishing his forces and continuing the battle against Julius Caesar. But Ptolemy XIII (and his operators) had other plans... he ordered Pompey to be beheaded… in hope to prove Julius Caesar his absolute loyalty and thus to refrain from providing him any reason to invade and take over Egypt. A few days later, Caesar arrived in Alexandria to capture Pompey and much to Ptolemy's astonishment, Caesar was shocked by the sight of his enemy's severed head being served to him as a tribute...It should be noted that in order to sign the outset the Triumvirate pact, Caesar married his only daughter, Julia, to Pompey but unfortunately, her premature death in 54 BC dampen their alliance. Nevertheless, it was said that despite their rivalry, Caesar pondered over the loss of his long-time partner and executed the killer.Predictably, Caesar was not appreciative toward Ptolemy XIII and marched to Alexandria with his military force and confiscated part of the royal palace compound for his residence. Likewise, Caesar summoned army reinforcement from Syria to Alexandria and declared that Ptolemy XIII must pay the huge debts his late father Ptolemy XII left and demanded that Ptolemy XIII will finance the expenses of his Roman army in Egypt. The astounded Ptolemy XIII also learned that Caesar was interested to reconcile the dispute between him and his sister Cleopatra and invited the parties to an arbitration that would be held before him.Cleopatra heard about Caesar’s lust for high ranked women and responded rapidly, taking advantage of the changed situation in an effort to improve her positions and avoid a defeat to her brother/husband/bitter enemy which would lead to her imminent death. According to the Greek historian Plutarch, who lived 100 years later, Cleopatra secretly sneaked in Alexandria by a boat and slipped into the palace under the cover of darkness, accompanied only by a lone servant. Then Cleopatra squeezed into a bag of bedding while her servant smuggled the sack to the room where Caesar was staying and then opened it and Cleopatra was discovered before the surprised Julius Caesar in all of her splendor.At the time of their meeting Cleopatra was 21 and Caesar was 52. According to ancient sources she was not a particularly beautiful woman, yet she was extraordinarily sensual and charismatic. But then, with all due respect to Cleopatra's miraculous appearance, some claim that she also gifted with a mesmerizing voice and an ability to enchant and sweep away using her intellectual conversation skills also a man in the stature of Julius Caesar. By that time Caesar was already an experienced leader, married for the third time, notorious for misogyny and had a rich history of love affairs with noble women and senators’ wives in Rome for his own political benefit.Although some scholars uncertain the credibility of Plutarch's story, arguing that it was unlikely that a stranger carrying a sack was allowed to enter Caesar's compound... there is no doubt that Cleopatra spent the night in Caesar's bed... Conceivably it was more than enough to convince him of her desire to be his loyal ally and of Rome and to acquire his understanding for her claim to the crown of Egypt. When this was revealed to Ptolemy XIII and his advisers, they were furious and threatened to leave the negotiation however Caesar returned them to the palace and conducted the arbitration process he commenced and issued an announcement which guaranteed the implementation of Ptolemy XII`s will of a joint rule of the two siblings. In addition, as part of the appeasement efforts, he even returned Cyprus to the rule of the House of Ptolemy, under the younger siblings - Arsinoë IV and Ptolemy XIV, after as mentioned earlier, the island was annexed to the Roman Republic 10 years before.This settlement did not satisfy Ptolemy XIII who ordered his 20,000 soldiers army to march from east Pelousion to Alexandria and laid a siege on the palace of Julius Caesar. Ptolemy XIII also allied with his other sister Arsinoë IV which was declared as the Queen of Egypt and both set out to fight Cleopatra and Caesar’s forces. Caesar's army fortified in Alexandria and hang on for the reinforcements to come and in the meantime, set on fire the Ptolemaic fleet left unprotected in the port while Ptolemy XIII was held captive in the palace by Caesar and Cleopatra. Caesar wanted to show that he had no intention of harming Ptolemy XIII and let him leave peacefully in exchange of Arsinoë IV, however, immediately after his release, Ptolemy XIII placed himself at the head of his sieging army and at the head of the Roman opposition. Nevertheless, few months later the Roman army joined with the arriving reinforcements from Syria and in a two-day battle in March 47 BC, slaughtered large part of Ptolemy XIII army. The latter drowned in the Nile river while trying to flee Egypt with a boat.In this new state of affairs formed and in the spirit of the Ptolemaic tradition claiming that a woman can not rule Egypt alone - Caesar married Cleopatra to her remaining brother, Ptolemy XIV and made him a joint ruler by her side. Ptolemy XIV was then 13 years old and Cleopatra 23 years old, so he did not pose any threat to her sole rule of Egypt. In practice the title of Pharaoh was given to Ptolemy XIV only formally and despite their marriage the reign was again in the hands of Cleopatra who continued her intimate relationship with Caesar. Cleopatra's teenaged sister, Arsinoë IV, was arrested for her treacherous part during the siege and later she was displayed in the victory triumph of Julius Caesar in Rome cuffed with golden chains as his prisoner. After the parade ended, Caesar was persuaded to pardon Arsinoë IV and to Cleopatra dismay, gave her sanctuary at the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus (todays Turkey). Although the civil war in Rome was not over yet, Caesar remained several months more with Cleopatra in Egypt for some sort of "honeymoon" in an extravagant cruise on a luxurious floating villa across the Nile. In early June 47 BC Caesar left Egypt for Rome.A little later, Cleopatra gave birth to a son, named Ptolemy Caesar. The people of Alexandria called him "Caesarion" (“Little Caesar”). Cleopatra hoped that a child of Julius Caesar`s seed would be able to rule Egypt in the future and gain recognition of his legitimacy from Rome, while Caesar saw the child as a mean to indirectly rule Egypt, which was a very rich country and also served as the breadbasket of Rome.Caesar never formally recognized Caesarion (in picture) as his son or successor. Cleopatra was not a Roman citizen and her son was born out of wedlock, so under Roman law he could not have served as his successor anyway. More ever, in his last will, Caesar named Octavian (whom we will meet later…) as his adopted son and heir, whereas not mention Caesarion at all.In the summer of 46 BC, Ptolemy XIV and Cleopatra sailed to Rome to strengthen their alliance with the superpower. Cleopatra stayed in Julius Caesar's household across the Tiber River (despite he was married to a Roman woman) and their intimate relationship continued. During her stay in Rome, Cleopatra, aided by Caesar, achieved her main goals, she and Ptolemy XIV received official recognition from the Roman Senate as rulers of Egypt and as "Allies and friends of the Roman people". Cleopatra even honored with a gilded statue of hers placed in the Temple of Venus in Rome which disturbed many Roman citizens… While in contrast, Roman women found her very fashionable and adopted the "Cleopatra look" which became commonly stylish in the capital…At the end of 46 BC Caesar headed out for Spain to subdue the remaining forces of Pompey as part of the civil war which has not yet ended. Cleopatra and her entourage returned to Egypt and return the next year and settled again in Caesar's villa across the Tiber. This behavior conduct was seen by the citizens of Rome as a currented manners of a Hellenistic King, they did not like the intimate relationship of their leader with his "Egyptian concubine" and it cause difficulties for Caesar to gain public support on his political moves. Meanwhile, the Civil War ended in 45 BC and Julius Caesar established his sole rule over Rome as Dictator for life.SPQR- Senātus PopulusQue Rōmānus (The Senate and People of Rome) – it was emblematic abbreviated phrase referring to the regime of the Roman Republic which got its authority from the people.Some scholars believe that at that time Cleopatra served as key adviser to Caesar and greatly influenced his gradual transformation into a Dictator. Rome was a Republic led by the Senate and the people about 450 years before the days of Caesar so the concept of Kingdoms to which Rome exposed in the eastern regions, where an absolute monarch ruled without any restrictions by virtue of a divine right must have seemed far-off to the spirit of the Roman people. The evil tongues claimed that such form of regime was exactly what Caesar wanted to achieve.This state of affairs carried on until the Ides of March (March 15, 44 BC) when Julius Caesar ally - Marcus Ionus Brutus and his accomplice Gaius Cassius Longinus collaborated and murdered Caesar in the Roman Senate assembly. The conspires view themselves as the protectors of the Roman Republic from Caesar's tyranny, Nonetheless, this scheme turned out to be ineffective as the plotters failed to gain enough public sympathy. Thus, the Second Civil war broke out between the killers to the supporters of Julius Caesar which formed the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC. This powerful partnership was consisted with Caesar's second-in-command, Mark Anthony (The most influential man in post-Caesar Rome), General Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and the 20 years old nephew-son of Caesar - Octavian, who was nominated by Caesar to succeed him. The Second Triumvirate won a landslide victory on Battle of Philippi in 42 BC after which the defeated conspiratorial leaders committed suicide.The assassination of Caesar, her patron and lover, put Cleopatra in a jeopardy since her rule in Egypt depended on Caesar's support and protection. Fearing for Ceasarion life and of hers, she lingered in Rome for several weeks while following the events and hoping in vain to gain recognition of Caesarion as Caesar's son and heir. Octavian's return to Rome forced her to get back to Egypt and shortly afterwards, in August 44 BC, her younger brother, second husband and co-ruler Ptolemy XIV unexpectedly died of an unknown cause, apparently poisoned by his sister, who took advantage of his “convenient” removal from the political arena to crown her 4-year-old infant son Caesarion as her co-regent (and in fact her heir) as Ptolemy XV.During the Second Civil War in Rome Cleopatra tried to walk between the raindrops and avoid overt support in one of the rival sides, in order not to risk the throne of Egypt. The repetitive attempts of Mark Anthony on the one hand and Gaius Cassius Longinus on the other, to crown her sister (and by then her only living sibling...), Arsinoë IV over Cyprus, posed a real threat to her regime. Therefore, she tried to do the minimum to gain the support of the winning side in the Roman Civil War, without provoking too much the opponent… Even though - she realized where the wind was blowing as the time passed and leaned towards the Triumvirate.After the Battle of Philippi, Mark Anthony remained in the east and took responsibility on the territories that were under the control of the empire in this area, including Egypt. Wealthy Egypt was the largest source of wheat and capital in the eastern Mediterranean basin and the ambitious Anthony wanted to be sure he could rely on its resources as part of the war campaign he planned against the Parthian Empire in order to punish them for the death of Crassus in 53BC and by that to dignify his name above the other two members of the Triumvirate. At that time Cleopatra's loyalty was much in doubt in Anthony`s eyes and he may well still have considered the possibility of substituting Cleopatra with her exiled sister Arsinoë IV... Cleopatra, on her part, knew a rising power when she saw one and was very interested in meeting him in order to turn Anthony into her ally and to secure his support of her reign over Egypt. In early 41 BC, Anthony summoned Cleopatra to meet him in Tarsos (in today’s modern Turkey) to wonder about her true nature.Cleopatra took her time... She was determined to make an entrance and reach Anthony in all her exclusivity. For that she built an unusual boat that would carry her on in the last stage of the voyage up the Cydnus River (todays the Berdan River). The sails of the marine vessel were purple and drenched in perfume, the gilded bow was sparkling in the sun and the rowers had paddles with silver-tipped ends… Magical sounds of flutes, Oboes and Lyres filled the air while Cleopatra was sensually lying under a canopy embroidered in gold, decorated like a painting of Aphrodite… She was surrounded by slave boys dressed up as Eros, who cooled her with fans. Bulk incense spread a pleasant scent that reached the shore and her most beautiful maidservant dressed as a mythological figure was positioned in area of ​​the rudders and the ropes. The mesmerizing effect Cleopatra tried to do, succeeded to gather a large crowd along the banks of the river believing that Aphrodite had arrived… Mark Anthony was captivated… During the meeting between them Cleopatra was 28 years old at the height of her beauty and with her proven persuasive abilities and her mellifluous voice she swept away the stunned Anthony which found her exceptionally irresistible, challenging and alluring. Anthony was 42 years old, a fine-looking, experienced, self-confident and powerful man by virtue as a Triumvir in Rome, all of this made him an attractive match for the Egyptian queen. Shortly after the meeting they became partners and lovers, Anthony set his residence in Alexandria and the couple lived in an excessive splendor. Soon after Cleopatra was impregnated by Anthony and gave birth to twins in 40 BC - Cleopatra Selena (Moon) II and Alexander Helios (Sun).By Cleopatra's demand, Mark Anthony ordered the murder of her unfortunate sister Arsinoë IV in 41 BC on the sanctuary Temple of Artemis staircase. Her assassination was a gross violation of the temple and an act which scandalized Rome as Arsinoë IV was at this stage devoid of aspirations and political power and posed no real threat to Cleopatra's rule, therefor the execution was perceived as superfluous. In addition, the assassination tagged Anthony as Cleopatra's servant and as do her bidding, an image his political opponents later used against him when they claimed he had become "A fool of a frivolous woman".In picture - facial reconstruction of “The Other Ptolemy Girl”, Arsinoë IV based on what are believed to be her remains found in Turkey.Despite the blooming love story between them, Mark Anthony's political interests required him to leave Egypt in the spring of 40 BC and return to Rome for distributing the Roman Empire's areas of influence within the Second Triumvirate members. These understandings were essential due to the constant conflict between members of the pact. The updated agreement strengthened Anthony's domination on the east and in order to reinforce the alliance with Octavian, Anthony married his beloved sister - Octavia, who bore him two daughters (and from their offspring would born the future emperors - Caligula, Claudius and Nero). During this time Cleopatra and Anthony did not see each other for nearly three and a half years.All this was about to change in 37 BC when Mark Anthony invited Cleopatra to his headquarters in Antioch (In south Turkey of today) to obtain funding for his planned war campaign against the Parthians. Cleopatra appeared in Syria and complied with his request however – it wasn’t cheap... In the meeting between them she managed to influence him to handover her Cyprus, Crete and various properties and estates that were under Roman control in Syria, Libya, Judea and territories taken from the Nabataean Kingdom (thus opening an account with them...). Following this, Cleopatra reigned over an area that was almost the size of the territory of the great Ptolemaic Egypt at its height, in the third century BC but most outstandingly, Cleopatra became again the significant other of Anthony who was simultaneously lured to abandon Octavia, the mother of his daughters. Mark Anthony also officially recognize with his two children Cleopatra gave birth to and towards the end of the winter she was once more pregnant with their third child.Mark Anthony used Cleopatra`s fortune and invaded the territories of the Parthian Empire, yet this war campaign failed miserably. Meanwhile in Rome the second Triumvirate began to crumble when Octavian forced Lapidus to resign after the latter tried to seize the power in Rome. Now Octavian was the sole ruler and the most powerful figure in Rome, he swept the aristocracy and senate alongside him and began attacking Anthony in public for gaining credit for himself. Mark Anthony was mainly accused of converting from a Roman nobleman to an eastern man while Anthony, for his side, did not recognize the governmental legitimacy of Octavian, who was falsely adopted, in his view, by Julius Caesar. Mark Anthony was summoned to Rome several times, but decided to stay with Cleopatra, who in the meantime gave birth to their third child, Ptolemy Philadelphus.The second invasion to the Parthian Empire in 34 BC was more successful. Anthony utilized Cleopatra's money to fund Roman legions to conquer, under heavy loses, the Armenian part of the Parthian Empire. Upon his return, he held a luxurious triumph in the streets of Alexandria. For that occasion, a silver-plated stage was erected in Alexandria’s gymnasium, two golden chairs were placed on the podium in which Anthony and Cleopatra sat, at their feet’s bellow sat the young princes and all of them were honored like gods by the cheering crowd. Anthony called upon the people and announced the end of the alliance with Octavian and defiantly declared Cleopatra as the "Queen of Kings" and Caesarion was titled as the "King of Kings" and both of them were re-crowned as Pharaohs of Egypt, Cyprus and Libya. Anthony suppressed himself and declared Caesarion as the legal son of Caesar and his rightful heir to the Roman throne in order to undermine Octavian's claim. Furthermore, Alexander Helios was declared as the king of Armenia and Parthia (which has not yet been occupied). His twin sister, Cleopatra Selena II, received Cyrenaica and Libya and the infant sibling Ptolemy Philadelphus was about to reign over Syria and Cilicia. This territorial hand-off was known as “The Alexandria Donation”.At these celebrations, Cleopatra which already assumed herself the celestial title "Isis Reborn" made sure that Mark Anthony will be known as "Osiris" while Caesarion was depicted as “Horus”. According to the ancient Egyptian mythology (which was well-known in the Greco-Roman world) the goddess of magic, medicine and nature – Isis, managed to resurrect and crown her husband (and brother…) the divine god Osiris to the King of the gods after poisoning the predecessor King Ra with a snake bite… Their son, the god of war – Horus, grew up to defeat his uncle the god Seth, after the latter murdered his father…In the picture from right to left – Osiris, Horus and Isis modeling a healthy family…Cleopatra maintained a glorious royal court at a very high-end standards and financed all the needs of Mark Anthony, who served as her spouse and protector. The power couple lived luxurious life worthy of a deities, according to the grandiose titles they granted for themselves. Apparently, Cleopatra and Anthony were married at that time and planned to establish a Roman-Ptolemaic dynasty that would dominate the entire eastern Mediterranean. Thus, Egypt will be upgraded from a Roman protectorate to a mighty eastern power equal in size and influence as the Kingdom of Alexander the Great.The Alexandria Donation made Cleopatra very prosperous woman and with this wealth she rewarded influential people in Egypt and Rome. During this time Cleopatra made efforts to maintain stability in Egypt, nevertheless, for practical reasons she prioritized important sector groups, such as the residents of Alexandria over the people in the rest of the country. In order to preserve the support from the various priesthood she continued the Egyptian tradition of building temples like Dendera Temple, whose construction began at her father’s time.However, the giveaway of lands, whose conquest cost so much Roman blood, to Cleopatra's offspring and Anthony`s recognition of Caesarion as Caesar's son deepened the animosity with Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian and enraged the Roman Senate. Octavian could not let these provocations go unrewarded and in his correspondence with the Senate and upon his speeches before the Roman people, he stated that Cleopatra is a malevolent enchantress who had bewitched Anthony and turned him from a Roman hero into a salacious eastern slave dwelling in Egypt while overlooking his homeland Rome by distributing its properties to foreigners and plotting to transform Alexandria into its new capital. He also discredited Anthony's name using the latter refusal to meet his wife Octavia, whom he had abandoned in favor of a sleazy eastern woman. Consequently, on the last day of 33 BC, the Second Triumvirate Treaty expired and was never renewed. This was the starting gun for another civil war in Rome.Some of the Senators and Roman leaders fled to Egypt and joined Mark Anthony. Anthony himself, under Cleopatra's encouragement, divorced his wife Octavia and disconnected his ties with Rome and Octavian, accusing him with homosexuality, cowardice and sacrilege while claiming that Caesar’s will had been forged. The nobles and senators who remained in Rome, under Octavian rule, declared war against Cleopatra and Egypt (but not against Anthony who considered to be a Roman citizen) in 32 BC. Cleopatra took the initiative and prepared ahead of time for a war by setting up and financing a fleet of 200 ships and joined Anthony's military headquarters while taking part in most of the operational decisions, although she was asked not to do so, causing numerous desertions to the Octavian rival camp. At first, Anthony seemed to have the upper hand since Octavian and his forces were still organizing, but Anthony speculated that his soldiers were not ready enough for battle and postponed the military conflict, failing to leverage his initial advantage for a decisive blow when his forces were already organized and his strategic situation was better than Octavian's.Octavian utilized this pause to regroup and train his forces so that in September 31 BC, when the clashes began on the Actium Peninsula in Greece, Octavian's experienced troops led by his brilliant general Marcus Agrippa inflicted severe defeats to Anthony's army which began to crumble. Cleopatra, who commanded the Egyptian navy, managed to escape the combat zone with a fleet of 60 ships back to Egypt but by doing so she critically reduced Anthony's chances of winning the battle... Anthony himself was able to return to Egypt, nonetheless, the absolute moral defeat in the Actium battle eliminated his support and led to his final isolation. Octavian, in parallel, began to move steadily toward Egypt while demanding unconditional surrender from the couple.Cleopatra was desperately looking to figure out a way to salvage her Egyptian Kingdom and at some point, Cleopatra presumed that she herself was an obstacle because of the strong resentment towards her in Rome. She estimated that her children's odds of ruling Egypt would only increase if she will get out on the picture. Her plan was to crown Caesarion as the sole Pharaoh over Egypt and exile herself along with her loyal troops and part of her wealth and retreat to India or Ethiopia, where she could find an asylum. Unfortunately, her fleet was burned by the Nabataeans (who closed the account with her...) and she was compelled to stay in Egypt. Subsequently, Cleopatra sought for a separate arrangement with Octavian in which she would renounce Anthony (who became a burden to her) if she will be assured of her well-being and the well-being of her children. Mark Anthony was willing to disappear if this plan succeeded, but all the efforts were in vain, Octavian was determined to parade and execute them as prisoners in a Roman Triumph and planned to downgrade Egypt into a Roman province. In August 30 BC the conquest of Egypt was accomplished and Octavian was very close to fulfil this wish.Cleopatra continued with her efforts to preserve somewhat of her control and the life of Caesarion. While the well-being of her children from Mark Anthony was secured as they didn’t pose any threat to Octavian, Caesarion`s condition was exceptionally dangerous as he was the son of Julius Caesar and a finger in Octavian`s eye... Therefore, she sent him with large sum of money towards Ethiopia or India. And at that moment Cleopatra switched herself to self-destruct mode…She shut herself in the mausoleum and ordered her courtiers to inform Mark Anthony that she had committed suicide, probably to prompt him to do the same in order to gain some points with Octavian. When Anthony heard it, he filled with sorrow that she had taken that brave step before him and wanted to join her. Anthony removed his body armor and hand over his sword to one of his servants requesting to stab him, however the servant took the sword and killed himself instead. Anthony grabbed the sword back and pierced his belly – Anthony was badly wounded, but he didn’t die immediately. Once Cleopatra got updated, she requested that her dying lover will be brought to her, but since the mausoleum was sealed, her staff had to pull him up with a rope through the window and laid him on the bed. Mark Anthony asked Cleopatra for food and wine before she saw him taking his last breath in her arms…That day Octavian entered the gates of Alexandria as a victor and showed generosity and expressed his sorrow for Anthony's suicide, however Cleopatra was still fortified in the mausoleum and threatened to burn herself with all her treasures. Octavian was worried since without her fortune his soldiers couldn’t be paid so he sent her a courier to negotiate while in a diversionary operation his soldiers broke into the building, capturing Cleopatra and her two handmaids alive and brought them to the palace as prisoners. Cleopatra fell ill and lost her will to live as she begged and got down on her knees in front of Octavian expressing her desire to kill herself, but he didn't let her. On August 12, 30 BC, Cleopatra apparently went to see Anthony's body for the last time. She returned to the palace, bathed and dress in her imperial garments and in the company of her two maids ate a lavish breakfast and then she poisoned herself. Her maids made sure to lie her on a couch with her clothes and jewelry looking her best and then took poison themselves. Thus, at the age of 39 or 40, Cleopatra put an end to her life and her body was placed in the mausoleum she had built for herself next to Mark Anthony's body.The ancient historical sources about Cleopatra's suicide are not unequivocal. Some say she died by a venomous snakebite that was smuggled into her room in a basket of figs or flowers. According to another source, the poison may have been put in a jug of water. Some believe that she committed suicide by stabbing a hairpin dipped in poison on her arm, it may have been a snake venom collected beforehand. What was clear is that this suicide prevented Octavian from marching her, humiliated, on a triumphal procession in Rome.Caesarion, who was sent for his own protection to the east, was on his way to the Red Sea when he was lured coming back to Alexandria by hollow promises and as soon as he arrived, the 17 years old Pharaoh was strangled by a direct order from Octavian. Thus, came to an end the epic Ptolemy dynasty. Mark Anthony and Cleopatra's dream to form a magnificent Empire that incorporated elements from the East and the Roman culture failed miserably as Egypt turned out to be a Roman province. Octavian spared the lives of Anthony and Cleopatra's three children and sent them to Rome to his sister Octavia (the ex-wife of the late Mark Anthony) and supported them as if they were his family. Despite all this he insisted on marching them in the triumphal victory parade over the conquest of Alexandria that took place in Rome in 29 BC.Now Octavian held in his hands all the authority in Rome, he changed his name to Augustus ("The Revered One") and in 27 BC he declared himself a "Princeps" ("The First Citizen"). By that Augustus Caesar ended the Roman Republic era and became the first Roman Caesar, although at that time "Caesar" was only his last name...Cleopatra was a figure greater than life, her subjects saw her as an omnipotent divine Pharaoh and as the incarnations of the goddess Isis on Earth and indeed at the height of her power the Egyptian Deity-Queen reigned over a prosperous kingdom that stretched over large parts of the Mediterranean basin and was an intimate key-player on the world most important political arena. Then, Cleopatra plucked up the courage and sought to establish a vast empire that would unite the East with the West and by this invited the mighty Roman Empire into a brawl. Nevertheless, Cleopatra raised the bar too high as she was completely human and history had entirely different plan for her….Her achievement stemmed from the fact that she provided Egypt additional opportunity to maintain its independence and perhaps even to recommence its glory days as nothing prevented Rome from turning the dysfunctional Egypt into a province as early as 47 BC when Julius Caesar landed on the shores of Alexandria. Cleopatra was Egypt and in the sake of Egypt she managed to bind her fate with the greatest warlords of the Roman Empire, Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony who were each in turn the most powerful man in the world. She was not looking for love, so the affairs she had with them could not be called as such, because they lacked any form of unconditional loyalty. Julius Caesar had affairs with other women and Mark Anthony even married and started a family while away from Cleopatra who remained indifferent and held no grudges at any point. These were relationships that were based, first and foremost on the classic interests of lust for power, money and honor... Being in love by someone was at best, just a mean of achieving the goal - it was a business relationship... Give-and-Take transactions... They required her as much as she needed them… Cleopatra had the money but her power was limited as a client monarch. She controlled some of Egypt's largest industries at the time, such as grain and papyrus, which provided her capital now estimated at $95 billion (over 2.5 percent of global GDP at the time). Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony had enormous power, but the regulations of the Roman Republic curbed their ability to utilize its resources as they wished... Sharing their interests was requested but would not have happened had Cleopatra not chosen them and with her diverse skills made it inevitable and particularly lucrative for both parties... The sex led to the creation of additional resources and a family ties that added a dimension of utilitarian and long-term commitment to the signed business arrangement. Caesarion was an asset designed to ensure the rule of the Ptolemy house in Egypt and her children from Anthony were a means of governing throughout the mighty empire to which her eyes had been coveted. That's how things went between the power hubs of the ancient world, the only difference was that while they were all run by men, Cleopatra was a woman… and then it was no longer seemed ordinary, suddenly it perceived as immoral, slutty and certainly not maternal… But Cleopatra didn't invent anything new - she just used what she had and replaced the penis with her uterus...But her success turned upon her. The Romans were awed by her nature since she was a threat that could not be confronted with an army force or with strategy and logic, they demonize her as she was in all the places where she was unwelcome and her influence on Roman politics was harmful and partisan. Her romantic ties with the finest Roman leaders, Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony made her (with the help of a suitable propaganda) the embodiment of all their unconscious fears – linking her to the prototype of a mythical man-eater sorceress from the mysterious east, who casts her irresistible spells upon her will on the Roman cream of the crop and turning them into her puppets. The collision was inevitable while the odds were against her... Thus, her involvement at the decisive Battle of Actium in 31 BC (despite her defeat) is a huge accomplishment – since she had enemies everywhere, she was not Roman, she was not an army commander, her dynasty was lethal and she was born in the wrong gender... It is highly doubtful that anyone thought she would come that close to achieving an Eastern empire when she fled Egypt with her father, the deposed king, at the age of 10.Artistic Interpretation of Cleopatra based on Altes Museum, Berlin`s bust of Cleopatra VIIThe Augustinian propaganda, written mostly after her death, was biased and narrowed her story only around the relationships she had with Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony while portraying her as an immoral serial seducer. However, in reality, she was much more… Cleopatra profoundly influenced the Middle East and the politics of Rome while she actually had just two known sexual partners, Caesar and Anthony...This is what happens when history is written by the victors...Cleopatra has never been a consensus, the malicious family in which she grew up, her immense motivations and the scandalous events which kept involving her, never destined Cleopatra life in the mainstream. The fact that she was a woman only deepened the resistance intensity towards her and it seems that her whole life was fraught with life-threatening conflicts that forced her to make frequent adventurous course changes. For 30 years (since she was ten years old) her unprecedented lifetime ranged from euphoric triumphs to unbearable distresses and who knows maybe she could not choose a different path as she was Cleopatra - addicted to adrenaline, peril and especially to infinite power...Her exceptional life and her tragic downfall have inspired countless artists throughout history and her memory still continues to hit waves two Millenniums after her dramatic suicide whether it’s a shocking news flash announcing the possible discovery of her shared grave with Mark Anthony or whether it’s the latest casting scandal of the Israeli actress Gal Gadot, to portray the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra in a new Hollywood film. The Egyptians are furiously claiming that Gal Gadot is a light-skinned woman who served (as a fitness trainer…) in the Israeli Defense Force, which in its turn, according to Egyptian-Arab narrative, participates in the notorious theft of Palestinian lands and so on… Therefore, this is hypocrisy that a woman like her plays the historical role of an Egyptian figure and it would be more appropriate to cast an Egyptian or at the very least an Arab actress... But evidences in this case plays in contrast to the Egyptians interpretation because Cleopatra was a European Greek and not an Ethnic Egyptian - at most a quarter Egyptian- based on a far-reaching speculation.In addition, over the years, Cleopatra's character has been portrayed on the big screen, by famous actresses such as Claudette Colbert, Vivien Leigh, Sophia Loren, Elizabeth Taylor and Monica Bellucci. None of These actresses were a native Middle Eastern like Gal Gadot… Most of them were light-skinned and to my best knowledge there was never any resistance to their castings… Subsequently, Cleopatra can list another dubious achievement to her endless résumé – exactly 2050 years after her death she managed to get involved also in the Israeli-Arab conflict... What a wonder woman !