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Natural sunburn treatmentWe all occasionally fall victim to the sun. But now it’s time to face the itchy, burn-y, and gross consequences. You can:Sooth the sunburn by splitting aloe vera leaves and rubbing the plant’s juice on skin.Place chamomile extract in a bowl of cool water. Dab on affected areas. Or draw a chamomile bath and soak in the cool water.Make a baking soda bath with cool water.If you don’t take enough care from UV rays, you will end up with different shades of darkness at the end of the summer. Most of us live in an illusion that we need to burn the pockets to buy such expensive spa products that help you in lighten the tan. Not necessary, here are some quick homemade remedies that can be easily prepared but with a little patience.Lemon and Aloe Vera Face PackLemon is one of the best citrus fruits that have rich medicinal and cosmetic benefits. No doubt, it is widely used in various skin and hair care remedies as well as skin care products. Lemon is a natural bleaching agent and an antioxidant which combats the free radicals that accumulate on skin surfaces. It is rich in vitamin C, and the intake of lemon juice would fetch you a glowing skin. Aloe Vera on the other side is a short stemmed succulent plant that produces six antiseptics. These natural antiseptics have the super power to kill any kind of bacteria, fungi and viruses that settle on the skin due to pollution, dust and other reasons.Benefits of Lemon and Aloe Vera Face Pack:This is one of the most effective home remedies to remove tan. Lemon can be used as a bleaching agent to lighten your skin tone naturally without causing any harm to it. All you need to do is juice a lemon and besides that also mash the aloe vera leaves. Mix them properly until an aromatic paste is formed. Apply this onto the tanned area of the skin and allow it to dry. You need to apply this paste twice or thrice a day to cleanse and prevent your skin from getting tanned from time-to-time. This is also an effective cure for dark circles around eyes.Curd and Gram Flour Face PackCurd is basically a diary product which plays a major role in the growth of bones. It is very rich in calcium, magnesium and other nutrients that help in strengthening your bones. Besides this, the unknown fact is that it can be used as a great exfoliating agent that removes dead skin cells and also moisturizes the skin deeply. It helps in cooling the skin that is continuously exposed to sunlight for hours. Gram flour is widely used in whitening your skin and it really helps in giving an instant glow to your skin.Benefits of Curd and Gram Flour Face Pack:This face pack is one of the time-tested home remedies for tanning that can also be used as a scrub or exfoliator that is the most effective natural solution to the question of how to get rid of dead skin cells from the skin surface. Take curd and gram flour in equal quantities and mix well by adding lemon juice in proportions. Apply this paste to face, neck and other body parts such as hands and feet. Pat it dry and wash it with warm water. This can be applied twice a week which ultimately results in soft glowing skin.Turmeric Powder, Yogurt and Honey Face PackTurmeric powder is the basic common ingredient in every kitchen and is best known antiseptic/anti- bacterial agent. It is used in relieving the pain and as a disinfectant that is usually caused due to cuts and burns. Turmeric is also an age old home remedy that has been used in Ayurveda to treat various skin diseases. Yogurt is a dairy product just as curd and it has a gel like texture. Honey, a sweetening agent can be considered as one of the best natural moisturizing agents that helps skin retain its supple and elastic nature. It is used in various cosmetic preparations and is an antioxidant that helps in healing wounds.Benefits of Turmeric Powder, Yogurt and Honey Face Pack:Turmeric or holy powder used in this face pack makes it a potent homemade remedy for tan removal and as a moisturizing agent for treating dry skin in summer. In summer, it is really required to keep your skin moist because the body is much subjected to dehydration. This results in dry skin, and it loses its luster in the process. In order to overcome this, it is better to keep yourself hydrated by drinking lots of water from inside and outside too. Make a thick paste by mixing all the three ingredients well. Apply this pack on the dried skin and leave it for 15-20 minutes. Later, rinse it off with cold water. This pack helps in moisturizing and radiating your skin under the dire circumstances.Sandal wood and Rosewater Face PackSandalwood has rich benefits especially when it comes to accomplishing a fairer skin. It is used in the treatments of acne and skin aging. The soothing and cooling properties of sandalwood make it the perfect remedy for relieving sun tan and severe sunburn. Rose water is one of the best beauty products and is used in aroma therapies. It can be used as a cleanser, toner and leaves you with a refreshing feeling. The combination of sandalwood and rose water makes this pack the perfect natural remedy for sun tan removal in a gentle and nourishing way.Benefits of Sandal wood and Rosewater Face Pack:This face pack can be used as a cleanser. Make a thick paste of white or red sandalwood powder and rosewater and apply it to face. Wait for 20 minutes and allow it to dry. After this wash it with cold water and always use a soft towel to clean up your washed face. This paste relieves you from sun burns and other suntan effects.The above-mentioned face packs are completely natural, and will help you in removing the tan gradually. These above face packs will help in summer, and all other seasons accordingly. It is suggested to clean your face before applying such packs so that the dust and other small particles don’t stay inside. Remember that you should never apply these face packs on the unclean face. Always use a soft cloth to clean your face after washing.Helpful Skin Tips for SummerNow, you can beat the summer tan and flaunt yourshort dresses and tank tops in style without the fear of getting tanned by following these few simple skin tips for summer.The first and foremost thing that should be listed in your summer skin care list is a good sunscreen from a reliable company with SPF of 40 or above. Applying sunscreen creams and lotions on the skin before going out into the sun helps in protecting the skin from the harsh UV-A and UV-B rays of the sun. The sunscreen lotion should be applied at least 15 to 30 minutes before going out in the sun.Keep yourself hydrated at all times by drinking at least 15 to 20 glasses of water throughout the day. This also helps in preventing skin dryness and keeping the skin moisturized.Specially formulated sun protection skin should be applied by people who like to spend time in the sun or swim regularly. It helps in preventing sunburn and formation of rashes and blisters. The creams should be re-applied every 20 minutes because it can be washed away withSwimming in chlorinated water speeds up the tanning process, so it is mandatory to cleanse your skin and hair with fresh water after taking a swim in the pool.Just like winter, it is important to use a moisturizer in summer also, but it should be a water-based moisturizer that effectively tones and moisturizes the skin without making it too oily.It is important to keep the skin of the face fresh and clean by washing it with cold water 3 to 4 times a day, face cleansers should not be used more than twice per day.Toning the face with a soothing herbal toner is a natural treatment for oily skin that helps in reducing excess oil, sebum and dirt from the skin surface.It is best to avoid going out in the sun as much as possible. You should try to avoid the sun during 11 A.M to 4 P.M because the sun rays are the harshest at this time.Don’t apply perfume on your skin while out in the sun because the psoralen present in perfumes, especially citrus perfumes can stain your skin permanently when the react with the sun rays.In a hurry to apply the sunscreen don’t skip your lip protection and eye creams because the skin around your eyes and lips are really delicate that is more susceptible to tan and wrinkles.In case you forget to apply sunscreen while going out in the sun, you can make up for the damage caused by applying natural aloe vera gel or cool green tea on your face to soothe the burnt skin.Warm showers during the summer season can further dry out your skin ans make it susceptible to tanning. So, opt for cool showers in order to keep the skin fresh and hydrated.Wear mineral makeup during summer because it is lighter than the cream based ones which allow the skin to breathe and lasts longer in sweating conditions.Usage of sunglasses, hats and other accessories minimizes the UV radiations from reaching your body. Opt for a wide-brimmed hat instead of caps because it provides complete protection to your entire face.When it comes to skin care, a lot depends on the right foods. Eat skin-friendly foods such as vegetables and fruits in the form of salads, steamed veggies, juices and smoothies in order to load up on antioxidants and flavonoids and reduce the intake of sugar, refined foods and processed foods.

Before introducing Ladakh, I’d like to mention some pertinent points which every tourist planning trip to Ladakh should know and take care of.These are also the questions which are often asked in online travel forums like Tripadvisor, Indiamike and Lonely Planet’s Thorntree etc.The most recurring questions are related to acclimatization, ATMs, Petrol Pumps, acute mountain sickness and innerline permits along with the length of Ladakh tour itineraries.In this Hub I have tried to answer as many questions on Ladakh trip planning which popped into my mind or as a traveler myself I’d asked before venturing to this barren paradise.Nestled in the Trans-Himalayan region, in the state of Jammu & Kashmir in North India, Ladakh is one of the favorite jaunt for nature lovers and adventurous souls.Tourists from all over the world throng in this mountainous region to explore the less explored jewels of nature.Besides natural treasures, the region is also famous for its ancient Buddhist monasteries. Ladakh is often dubbed as ‘Little Tibet’ as it shares an international boundary with Tibet and play host to a sizable population of Tibetan Buddhists.Although a trip to Ladakh has a lot to offer but tourists are required to take some precautions as it is mostly a barren land and has low atmospheric pressure/low oxygen level at higher altitude.Going by the statistics of Google Trends, ‘Leh Ladakh India’ and ‘Leh Ladakh tour packages’ has the highest search results. In a bid to assist first time Ladakh travelers for the peak season (May to August), I have listed a few travel tips which could help you plan your trip to Ladakh.How to deal with high altitude and acclimatize in Leh LadakhWhile planning your trip to Ladakh, acclimatization is one of the most vital aspect of the itinerary sketching and should be given utmost importance. The rule is not to rush your Ladakh trip and give proper time for acclimatization.To adapt to the low atmospheric pressure condition you need to give yourself time for proper acclimatization. It is always advisable to keep first 2 days after your arrival in Leh for getting used to high altitude condition.Don’t just arrive in Leh and think of going to Nubra or Pangong or you could get seriously affected by AMS which may lead to severe headaches, nausea, restlessness, or even inability to walk and think and ataxia which in turn will ruin your vacation.Even the most fit people get affected by the Acute Mountain Sickness. Therefore, it is advised to take some precautions beforehand.Few points to keep in mind:Physical fitness is the first and the foremost thing you need to consider while undertaking a trip to Ladakh region.Increase your altitude gradually and compensate ascent with rest at places to acclimatize.Due to the low atmospheric pressure, it is necessary for a tourist to take the rest of around 2 days or 48 hours after reaching Leh.If you are suffering from high blood pressure, heart ailments and asthma, kindly abstain yourself from planning a trip to Leh Ladakh.Hydration is necessary but overdoing it could only harm you. Just increase your normal water intake by a liter and it will do. Dehydration does not necessarily leads to AMSDuring the cold weather, cover your head and ears with something warm.Don’t exert yourself physically too much. Never run here and there out of exscitement especially on passes. Low level of oxygen could lead to fatique in an instance and it would be literally very difficult to catch your breath. You mind feel the earth go round or even fall unconscious.Some preventive medicines do aid acclimatization and treat altitude sickness the most popular is Diamox, The local version of these medicine, a time tested and natural alternative is garlic soup or soup prepared with lots of GarlicIf you notice any early warning symptoms such as headache, nausea, dizziness and fatigue, take immediate rest and descend if you are on high altitude (as in Khardung La Top) without any delay.I know this one is difficult to do but avoid smoking and drinking alcohol on high altitude to prevent AMSIf you are taking Leh-Manali Highway then stop at Keylong, Jispa, Darcha and avoid if possible staying at Sarchu; else if you are taking Leh-Srinagar Highway you should spend overnight at Kargil (I am assuming that you have already spent a night in Manali or Srinagar respectively).If you are flying directly to Leh and 2 days should be the minimum time spent in Leh for acclimatization. During this period short detours to Thiksey, Hemis, Shey, Nimoo and Stok etc. to visit monasteries and palaces are always open for you to choose.And yes do not sleep during days. I know this was not required as who'd waste even seconds of time sleeping during day in such a magnificent land.Here’s my personal reckoning with AMSI had to face this during my stay just after descending Baralacha La.One bike in our group of three got stuck in a water stream on the pass due to vicious current and we had our feets, socks and even boots wet with water. Somehow we managed to reach a small settlement of tents near Baralacha La and had to stop there as getting to Sarchu was impossible. We had dinner and then went to sleep but at around 03:00 I woke up with severe headache which refused to let go. By sunrise it was feeling like hell but somehow I managed to get on my bike. I was feeling very weary but we did began our further descent and the headache abated even before we reached Sarchu.What to Pack for Ladakh TripClothing and Other EssentialsLadakh is situated in Greater Himalayas which means it is cold and at considerable elevation. As soon as you cross Keylong (Leh-Manali Highway) you will see considerable change in weather condition as well as landscape. The same changes will be apparent when you cross Zoji La on Leh-Srinagar Highway.The point is that traveling at such altitude during days will provide ample warmth and sun shine. It seldom rains in the Ladakh region and that is one of the reason Ladakh is considered to be one of the best monsoon holiday getaway in India.During day time a simple pullover or a jacket will do the trick but as soon as the sun go down mercury also falls sharply and temperature on thermometer reading could even reach zero. The evening is generally when people rest inside their accommodation and accommodations all along the route are warm enough.Even sleeping in tents is not a problem as blankets and quilts are provided by the owners. Mentioned below are few key things which you should pack when traveling to Ladakh.At least 2 Jackets and 2-3 pulloversA pair of hand gloves preferably woolen, and warm clothes/caps to cover your ear and necks especially so if you are a riderSoaps, towels, general medicines, bandages etc.2-3 pairs of thermocot inners4-5 pairs of socks (must for bikers)Good waterproof shoes for trekking and riding in case you are a biker as you’d have to face water streams on high mountain passes like Chang La, Baralacha La and othersOne warm sleeping bag if you are planning to camp along the routeCarry some vital medicines for Acute Mountain Sickness such as Avomine,Dexamethasone, Diamox and AcetazolamideLots of chocolates, biscuits and dry fruitsCamera, chargers for cell phone and other basic thingsPacking Tips for Bikers on Ladakh Road TripBesides above mentioned stuffs you will also need:A pair of good raincoats as more often than not riders to face rain After crossing Chandigarh and before crossing Rohtang La Pass on Leh-Manali Highway. On Srinagar-Leh Highway you are more likely to get caught in the rain until you reach Zoji La.Alternatively, you could use raincoat as wind-cheater and they also help keep your clothes clean all along the dirt track on passes and Moore Plains. The cloud of sand and dirt is too much especially when an army convoy is passing and when you are crossing passes on which overtaking takes trucks and other vehicle takes longer due to narrow roads.Water Proof GlovesBoots to keep your feet, shoes and socks from getting wet at water stream flowing on passes especially the one at Baralacha La which is one of the most vicious another tough water stream to cross is at Chang La. The trick is not to cross the stream from middle and keep your bike in first gear and use clutch to maintain traction and throttle.Spare tube, puncture kit, clutch wire, break wire, chain lock, gear oil, engine oil, spark plugs etc are a must pack in your bag. Also carry petrol jar if you are taking Leh-Manali Highway as the last petrol pump that you’ll find is at Tandi which is around 380 Kms before you find the next at Karu. So 10-20 litres of extra petrol is what I’d recommend you to carry.Puncture shops are also not available and even if you find one, there is no guarantee that they will have the tube hence a tyre tubeis a must pack item even if you don’t have puncture kit.Leh - Ladakh Bike Rental Costs 2014Bike nameModelMin. Rate per dayRoyal Enfield500 CC All Models1500Royal Enfield350 CC Classic/Thunderbird1600Royal Enfield350 CC Electra1000Royal Enfield350 CC Standard900Honda ActivaAutomatic1400Bajaj Avenger200 CC900Bajaj Pulsar200 CC900Bajaj Pulsar150 CC700Yamaha FZ, Hero Impulse700Scooters125800Automatic Bikes without Gear700The cost of hiring motorcycle in Leh Ladakh as announced by Ladakh Bike Rental Association which governs the rate in the region.A look at Innerline Permit formSee all 20 photosThese are the fields in the application form that you need to fill to obtain inner line permits at DC office in LehNew Rules for Inner Line Permit 2014The good news this year (2014) is that Indian won't require any inner line permits to visit destinations in Ladakh.As per the new circular issued by the office of District Magistrate of Leh, Indian Nationals will no longer need to apply for inner line permits to visit certain inner areas like Turtuk, Panamik, Khaltse, Pangong, Changthang, Hunder, Nubra Valley Tso Kar and Tso Moriri etc. in Ladakh.But you would need to carry your Nationality ID proof (Driving Licence, Voter ID etc.) which will have to be presented at certain check posts where earlier Indians were required to submit a copy of inner line permit.But still you are on a motorcycle and your route involve crossing or travelling to Hanle, Chusul, Tsaga, beyond Loma bend, Chumur, Marsimik La, Batalik sectors then you'd still need to apply for and obtain inner line permits as per the earlier procedure before traveling to these places.The new rules for inner line permits will really help those travelers who don't want to come back to Leh after Tso Mori Ri and head straight to Manali thus saving them a precious day.Bbut I'd personally advise against coming to Tso Mori Ri from Manali directly as it would lead to acute mountain sickness (located as it is at an altitude of avove 15,000 feet).And I assure you this will ruin your trip.How to obtain Inner Line Permits in LadakhGetting Innerline Permits for Indians and Protected Area Permits for Foreign TravelersTo visit certain inner areas like Turtuk, Panamik, Khaltse, Pangong, Changthang, Hunder, Tso Kar and Tso Moriri etc. in Ladakh even foreign residents need to obtain innerline permits.Visiting Hanle, Chusul (for Pangong to Tso Mori RI by road), Tsaga, beyond Loma bend, Chumur, Marsimik La, Batalik sectors will still require Indian Nationals to obtain inner line permits.Travelers from overseas (with exception of residents of Burma, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan) need to obtain Protected Area Permit (PAP) to visit the above places. In case of foreigners, the permit is issued only for a group with four or more foreign tourists.For foreign tourists, it is also mandatory to go through a registered travel agent in order to obtain the Permit. The travel agent will also help you group together with others in case you are traveling solo or couple so that your permit could be obtained.Innerline Permits for Indian nationals are valid up to 3 weeks and Protected Area Permit is issued for a maximum of 7 days. You need to re-apply for the same if you are planning to visit more remote areas in Ladakh region.What's good in case of Foreign tourist's PAP is that they need not travel in same group or with the travel agent which will be mentioned in the permit.Traveling to Suru and Zanskar Valley does not require inner line permits. Foreign visitors can't go beyong Merak Village in Pangong or Mahe Village in the Changthang.The application forms for obtaining the permit is easily available at the stationary shop just behind the Leh DC office.Leh DC office opens at 9.00 AM and application for permits are usually not accepted after 03:00 PM (The office remains closed on Sundays and National Holidays)Its always advisable to reach the office as early as possible to avoid the rush and to get the permit in a hassle free way.The fee required for the permit is Rs. 200 per person as environment tax + Rs. 20 per person per day as wild life protection fee and Rs. 10 Red Cross Donation.Carry a valid photo ID and photocopies of your proof of Nationality(Passport, DL, Voters ID etc.)One person may apply for entire group provided he/she is carrying attested photocopy of proof of nationality of all member in the groupAfter acquiring the permit make sure that you carry 4-5 copies of the permits and photo id proof. You may require to subit them at certain checkposts by the military personnel who track entry and exit at certain points to check if a tourist has returned or not.It's more for your own safety as one may get stranded during trek or may get stuck due to bad weather condition.Mention all major places you are traveling to in the permit i.e. if you are spending night in Spangmik you need to mention only Pangong Lake. Certain places and in some cases even routes need to be mentioned.I, order to take the Chushul route from Pangong Tso to Tso Moriri, with a visit to Hanle, you need to mention Pangong Tso, Man, Merak, Chushul, Tsaga, Loma, Nyoma, Mahe, Hanle and Tso Moriri in the permit application.Accommodation in LadakhDue to the conditions and nature of Ladakh region, luxury hotel properties or accommodation are not available in the region. There’s one luxury hotel in Leh Town by the name of Grand Dragon.At other places you’ll find budget and deluxe or even luxury tents and camps some with basic facilities and some with running hot waters and attached western toilets. Homestays are easily available at most of the places with basic facilities and would cost 150-200 per person for the night.Luxury Camps with attached toilets and running hot water will cost you around 3000-5000 for two person. You could also book your accommodation in advance through the internet or calling the hotels and camp providers or may may check in upon arrival as Ladakh is not one of the places which has those ”peak seasons” when the rooms are fully booked in advance.Accommodation for Bikers along Leh-Manali and Leh-Srinagar HighwayFor bikers accommodation is available all along the route on both Leh-Manali and Leh-Srinagar Highway. To allow for acclimatization, bikers taking Leh-Manali Highway, accommodation is available at Keylong, Jispa, Darcha and Sarchu and one should stay for the night at one of the places.Most of the bikers stay at camps in Sarchu. But if you have arrived at Zingzing Bar late in the afternoon, avoid crossing Baralacha La as the water stream which crosses the road on this pass gets dangerous to cross due to strong current.Return to Darcha or Jispa to spend overnight. One could also stay at Pang but watch out for AMS as Pang and Sarchu are located at an elevation of 15,100 and 14,100 feet respectively. So don't cross Baralacha La if you are already feeling mountain sickness or if there are any symptoms like headache or nausea and stay at Jispa or Darcha at 10,800 feet and 11,020 feet respectively.If you are riding from Srinagar, then I’d advise you to stopover in Mulbekh instead of Kargil or even Lamayuru if you could make it. Kargil is overpriced and an overrated place to spend the night not to mention that accommodations here are way overpriced.Personally I'd recommend taking Srinagar route and return via Manali as it helps in acclimatization. If you are on a road trip to Ladakh via Manali route than I'd advice that you stay for the night at Jispa, Darcha or Keylong to avoid any risk of AMS.Petrol Pumps in Leh LadakhIf you are traveling by road and doing Ladakh by Motorcycle or 4 Wheeler, you need to know where the petrol pumps are and when you need to keep reserve petrol in cans and jars so that you don’t run out of fuel on the highway.This is imperative especially if you have chosen Leh-Manali Highway for your road trip. The last petrol pump that you’ll find on this route is located at Tandi and the next one is at Karu which is around 380 kms away. It is always advisable to carry petrol in reserve so that you don’t get stranded just because you ran out of petrol.Similarly if you are Planning Leh – Pangong – Tso Mosriri – Rumtse – Leh or Leh – Nubra – Pangong Leh which would be like traveling more than 700 – 900 kms, then get your tank full and carry plenty of petrol in reserve as you are going to need it.At some places petrol are available at local shops and residences near roadside settlements along the route but you need to pay luxury surcharge to buy them and the quality of petrol is not guaranteed.You need not worry about petrol or fuel if you are taking Leh-Srinagar Highway as you’d find enough petrol pumps en route.ATMs in Leh LadakhMoney Matters during Ladakh Trip: Tips on Cash and ATMsExcept from some antique shops, credit cards are not accepted by any of the hotels and travel agents. Therefore, carry a good amount of cash with you. If you find carrying cash a bit risky, go for plastic money i.e. the debit cards and withdraw money from the ATM’s whenever required. ATMs of several banks like SBI, AXIS Bank, J&K Bank, PNB etc. are available in Leh Town from where you could easily withdraw as per your need. More interior places like Pangong, Changthang etc. don’t have that facility so carry your cash when traveling to inner areas in Ladakh region.General Travel Tips to Plan your Leh Ladakh TripRespect the Local CultureWhile on a trip to Ladakh region, kindly show respect towards the local culture and abstain yourself from doing such activities which are against the norms of Tibetan Buddhist culture. The Tibetan Buddhist culture is quite ancient and conservative, so dress properly and cover your full body. Always take permission before clicking photographs of any person. If they ask for money, don’t click pictures.Communication Facilities in LadakhThere are STD booths available in most of the markets in Ladakh region but they close down before 10 PM. On the other hand, Kargil has a global direct dialing telephone facility, other than post and telegraph facility. Adding to that is the wireless Radio phone network service of Jammu & Kashmir Tourism station with field stations at Leh, Padum and Kargil. During May to August (peak tourist season), Jammu & Kashmir Tourism establishes mobile wireless stations in the remote areas.Avoid Usage of Plastic BagsBoth locals and tourists are responsible for the well maintained environment. Therefore, do not litter around the place. Also, plastic is officially banned in Ladakh; hence avoid the use of plastic and polythene bags.Carry Proper Documents for Bike TripIf you are heading to Ladakh on a motorcycle, you will come across some high land passes such as Changla Pass, Zojila Pass, Fatula Pass and Khardungla Pass. Since all these areas have a huge military presence, it’s better you carry permit, vehicle registration, driving license, and bike insurance paper.If you are looking for someone else to plan your journey or need more information on attractions, places, lakes and passes then I'd recommend you to visit the website of lehladakhindia.com.

The Germans knew of the Manhattan Project and they made attempts to infiltrate it but they were not effective at it, unlike the Russians. Below is a very interesting story of a Nazi infiltration that was caught in New york.Taken From Nazi Spies Come AshoreErich GimpelErich Gimpel—the most accomplished German spy to make it into the United States, was a very unlikely agent. Born on March 25, 1910, Gimpel began his espionage career in the mid-1930s in Peru, where he was working as a radio engineer for mining companies. Like a character in a Graham Greene spy novel, he was told by the German government to track ship movements in the area and send his information to a contact in Chile. "In Lima I never missed a party," he later wrote, describing the whole thing as somewhat of a lark. "We were fighting our war in dinner jackets and with cocktail glasses in our hands."When America entered World War II, Gimpel was deported from Peru with other Germans and sent to Texas where he spent seven weeks in an internment camp. On his arrival back in Germany, Gimpel was welcomed by a stranger who gave him money and identity and ration cards, and told him to report to an address in Berlin. "I knew this was the headquarters of the German Secret Service," he wrote. "The amateur was about to become an expert."William ColepaughWilliam Colepaugh was an even more unlikely Nazi spy. For starters, he was an American, born in Connecticut (exactly eight years after Gimpel) and educated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. After the war began, his pro-German attitudes got him into trouble with his Selective Service Board and the FBI. Colepaugh eventually took a kitchen job on a Swedish ship in early 1944 just to get across the Atlantic. He abandoned ship in Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, and presented himself to the German consul. Unable to speak German, he announced in English that he wanted to help Germany win the war. The fact that his mother was German did not keep the Nazi diplomat from wondering whether this American was really an Allied agent trying to get inside the Third Reich.SS Major Otto Skorzeny, Hitler’s favorite commando. In June 1944, Skorzeny sent Colepaugh to an SS training school in the German-occupied Netherlands.From Lisbon, Colepaugh traveled through France to Berlin, where German authorities watched him closely for three months. Finally, he was interviewed by SS Major Otto Skorzeny, Hitler’s favorite commando. In June 1944, Skorzeny sent him to an SS training school where he himself taught, in the German-occupied Netherlands. There, Colepaugh met Erich Gimpel, who considered the "young, well-fed, and contented" American not a problem, but a potential solution.Gimpel had been asked to infiltrate America to uncover details about the United States’ program to develop an atom bomb—the Manhattan Project. He had ~reed on one condition. To survive as a spy in the United States, Gimpel had concluded, he would need to take along "a proper American. He must know the latest dance steps and the latest popular songs. He must know everything about baseball and have all the Hollywood gossip at his fingertips." That said, Gimpel had to wonder where he would find "an American who was prepared to work against his own country and who at the same time was courageous, sensible, and trustworthy."Colepaugh appeared to be just what Gimpel needed. Late in September 1944, the two men boarded the 252-foot, IXC/40-class U-1230 in Kiel, Germany, bound for Maine. Ordinarily, the vessel carried a full crew of 56, but two of the regulars were left behind to make room for the spies. Their agents’ mission and identities were kept secret even from the young crewmen and their commander, with Gimpel posing as a chief engineer and Colepaugh as a war correspondent. The crew soon figured out that something was amiss, though: how could a man who didn’t speak German be a German reporter?The sub entered the open ocean on October 6. It was a dangerous time for a U-boat to cross the Atlantic; in fact, the U-1230’s sister ship U-1229 was headed for Maine about six weeks earlier when she was sunk in the North Atlantic by Navy planes from the aircraft carrier USS Bogue.To help make their way in the United States, Gimpel and Colepaugh carried $60,000 in small bills (the equivalent of $656,000 today). Colepaugh had convinced his superiors that a person could hardly get by in America on less than $15,000 a year—at a time when the average family income was about $2,250. The money was supposed to keep the two spies in the United States through 1946. Along with the cash, the men had also been given 99 small diamonds to sell if the US currency had changed by the time they arrived or if they eventually needed additional funds. Checking on the holdings one day as the submarine neared Maine, Gimpel was shocked to find the American money bundled in wrappers printed "Deutsche Reichsbank." He quickly disposed of that evidence.U-1230 had been equipped for a six-month patrol, and ‘carried 14 torpedoes. Nevertheless, she was under orders not to attract attention until her primary mission of delivering Gimpel and Colepaugh to the United States had been accomplished. After five weeks of a largely uneventful voyage, the submarine reached the coast of Newfoundland and continued south from there down the Maine coast. Along the way, the sub’s transformer and depth-finding equipment was damaged by condensation caused by weeks of traveling underwater. The equipment had to be repaired on the surface, so the vessel was taken up under the cover of night. The repairs succeeded, and the surface activity went unnoticed.Finally, on November 29, after almost two months at sea, the sub made its way a dozen miles up Frenchman Bay between the islands just off Bar Harbor. (About 31 feet high, the sub had a draft of just over 15 feet.) Shortly before 11 p.m., near Sunset Ledge on the western side of Hancock Point, it came to a stop a few hundred yards off shore, with only its conning tower showing above the water.A rubber raft was brought up and inflated by a line connected to a silent air compressor. The original plan called for the two spies to row themselves ashore, at which point the raft would be pulled back to the sub on a light tether. The line broke, however, making it necessary for the two uniformed sailors to come along—and earn a moment of glory on the US mainland.Even today, 60 years later, you’ll find this remote area of the Maine coast deserted at midnight. In 1944, "there probably were less than a dozen families" near where the spies landed, says Lois Johnson of the Hancock Historical Society. The Hancock Town Report for 1944 lists 13 births, 12 deaths, and two marriages. Census figures show that the population grew from 755 to only 770 between 1920 to 1950.Hancock was a place with few people around to notice anything that might happen, but also a place where strangers stood out. Two people did happen to drive by as Gimpel and Colepaugh were walking along the road at that late hour. Both of them spotted the men, but neither stopped: Hancock was also a place where people minded their own business.After the men reached US Route 1, a third car passed them, and it did stop. Miraculously, it was a taxicab from Ellsworth, the small town eight miles to the west. Colepaugh did all the talking, explaining that their car had slid into a ditch in the storm and they needed a ride to the train station in Bangor, 35 miles away. So followed a $6 cab ride and a 2 A.M. train to Portland. Stopping there for a bite to eat, Gimpel stammered when a short-order cook asked him what kind of bread he preferred with his ham and eggs. To him, bread was bread, and "the fact that in America people ate five different kinds" was surprising, he wrote.The spies boarded a train to Boston at 7 a.m. That afternoon, Gimpel went into a store in town to buy a tie, and the salesman recognized the cloth and cut of his trench coat as not being American. "As a matter of fact," Gimpel managed to reply, "I bought it in Spain." He decided never to wear that coat again. Gimpel and Colepaugh spent the night in a hotel, sleeping in their American clothes to try and make them look less new. They left the next day, completing their journey with a train ride to Grand Central Station in New York City. In less than 40 hours the intruders had gone from the middle of nowhere in Maine to downtown Manhattan. It was a remarkably efficient journey.The pair checked into a hotel on 33rd Street. They spent most of the next week looking for a place not constructed of steel, because steel hindered radio transmissions. They found an apartment on Beekman Place for $150 a month and paid two months’ rent in advance.Things had gone well so far for the two Nazi spies on American soil, but over the next few weeks, their luck began to wear out. Two days after their arrival in New York, U-l230, still lingering about the coast, sank the 5,458-ton Canadian freighter Cornwallis, which was carrying sugar and molasses from Barbados to St. John, New Brunswick. Alarmed by the possibility that this U-boat could have dropped off enemy agents, the Boston FBI office sent men north to Maine. The agents soon located 29-year-old Mary Forni and her next-door neighbor, 17-year-old Harvard Hodgkins, the two Hancock residents who had driven past the spies walking in the snow. Forni, the wife of the Hancock tax collector, had been out late playing cards with friends; Hodgkins, son of the town’s deputy sheriff and a Boy Scout and assistant scout leader, had been at a dance. They both described to the agents what they had seen.Much has been made of the Nazis getting away with walking through the Maine woods in a late November snowstorm dressed in light topcoats, advertising themselves as outsiders. But such hindsight misses the point, says Richard Gay. "The truth is," he told an interviewer, "their cover was perfect, and it worked without a hitch." As far as any witnesses knew, the spies "were visitors from the city whose car had broken down."What really broke down on the spy mission was William Colepaugh. Deciding that espionage was not for him, he took off on December 21 with both suitcases, including all the cash. Gimpel returned to the apartment to find everything gone and figured out that his partner must have headed back to Grand Central Station. There, Gimpel found the suitcases in the baggage room and, after some anxious moments, managed to recover them, even though he did not have the claim checks.Gimpel had proven resourceful in responding to every mishap so far, but he had no answer for what happened two days later: Colepaugh, meeting with an old school friend, confessed that he was a spy. The friend at first thought Colepaugh was joking, but after he realized the story was true, he called the FBI. A manhunt immediately centered on Manhattan, and Gimpel was captured on December 30.In early February 1945, Gimpel and Colepaugh were tried by a military court at Fort Jay on Governors Island, New York. They were convicted and, on Valentine’s Day, sentenced to death by hanging. Before their sentence was carried out, however, President Franklin D. Roosevelt died, and all federal executions were suspended for four weeks. By the time that month was up, the war had ended in Europe, and on June 23, new president Harry S. Truman announced that he was commuting the two sentences to life in prison—Gimpel’s because the United States and Germany were no longer at war, and Colepaugh’s because he had given himself up and provided the FBI with the information needed to arrest Gimpel. A statement from the War Department, reported in The New York Times, ended with the confident conclusion "The mission of the spies in this country was a complete failure."Colepaugh served 17 years in prison, then moved to the Philadelphia area. He reportedly lives in a rest home in Florida today. Gimpel served 10 years at Leavenworth, Alcatraz, and Atlanta before he was released and deported to Germany in 1955. He later moved to Brazil, where he celebrated his 94th birthday in 2004. In 1991 and again in 1993 he visited Chicago as the honored guest of the Sharkhunters, a group of some 7,000 U-boat enthusiasts from 70 countries.Gimpel was not the only Nazi from this spy mission to return to America. Horst Haslau, the radioman aboard the U-1230 and one of the vessel’s youngest crewmen, got a job in the United States. In 1984, he was working for RCA in Indianapolis, Indiana, and visited the Hancock area. The local newspaper published photos of America’s one-time enemy wearing a John Deere cap and sitting in the Ellsworth Holiday Inn, holding a bottle of beer. The brand was Beck’s, the same German beer that was stocked on U-1230, Haslau said. Three weeks after the sub dropped off Gimpel and Colepaugh in Maine, he recalled, each crewmember received one bottle for Christmas.Forni continued to live in the Hancock area and was one of the guests of honor at a June 2005 party to celebrate the 90th birthday of some local residents. Sixty years earlier, she had been honored at another local party; shortly after the spy incident, her friends organized an event to honor her for her role in providing information that helped capture Gimpel and Colepaugh and presented her with a $100 war bond.Americans ate up the story of Hodgkins, the Hancock Boy Scout. The New York Journal-American sponsored the high school senior’s first ride in an airplane, bringing him and his family to New York for a week in January 1945, where he was given a key to the city. He saw the Statue of Liberty, Radio City Music Hall, and some Broadway shows, and met Governor Thomas Dewey, boxing champion Joe Louis, and Babe Ruth. After he graduated from Ellsworth High School, Hodgkins received a full scholarship to the Maine Maritime Academy for his anti-spy efforts. He died in May 1984.Given what we know about Operation Magpie, Gimpel and Colepaugh were probably no great threat to America’s security. They had little skill and experience to aid them in circumventing the huge obstacles that remained in their path. In the end, the chief result of their mission was to turn a couple of ordinary Americans in Hancock, Maine, into heroes. Gimpel and Colepaugh were left with the claim to the fairly weightless title Last Nazi Spies in America.Richard Sassaman, a resident of Bar Harbor, Maine, two miles from where the U-1230 passed, recommends the book Agent 146 by Erich Gimpel (St. Martin’s Press, 2003) for further reading.Notes on the Nazi Atomic bomb programNorsk Hydro Heavy Water Production Heavy Water and the NorwegiansThe plant was built by Norsk Hydro and opened in 1911, its main purpose being to fix nitrogen for the production of fertilizer. Vemork was later the site of the first plant in the world to mass-produce heavy water developing from the hydrogen production then used for the Haber process. During World War II, Vemork was the target of Norwegian heavy water sabotage operations. The heavy water plant was closed in 1971, and in 1988 the power station became the Norwegian Industrial Workers Museum.Scientists at Vemork first observed the curious heavy-water in 1934 when it appeared as a by-product of their revised ammonia production process. Physically and chemically the substance is similar to ordinary water, but while the hydrogen atoms in normal H2O consist of one proton and one electron, many of the hydrogen atoms in heavy-water have the added weight of a neutron— an isotope known as deuterium. This deuterium oxide (D2O) does exist in water naturally, though its ratio is normally only about one part in 41 million, so it had not been previously observed in significant quantities. For eight years Vemork’s scientist had been collecting the exotic liquid for scientific scrutiny, supplying samples to the world’s researchers for basic experiments. The Nazis’ interest, however, was more considerably more sinister.In the late 1930s a group of German physicists discovered that certain rare isotopes of uranium are fissile, meaning that their nuclei become unstable and split when they absorb an extra neutron. The nucleus shatters into two smaller nuclei— which repel one another with great energy due to their mutually repulsive electric charges— and shrapnel consisting of fast-moving free neutrons. Soon scientists realized that a chain-reaction would be possible inside a clump of fissionable material since the neutrons spawned during one fission could trigger subsequent fissions, and those would trigger more fissions, and so on. Depending on the conditions, this could produce a long-lived source of heat and neutrons, or a short-lived source of exploding and death. They also speculated that a self-sustaining chain reaction would be easier to maintain if they could identify a substance able slow down the loose neutrons to increase their chances of being absorbed.The nuclear Nazis identified Norway’s heavy-water as one of the best candidates to act as this neutron moderator, so when German forces invaded in 1940 the Vemork plant was an asset they were quick to snatch. Under tightened security, the German scientists doubled the heavy-water production capacity and began shipping barrels of the material back to the weapons laboratories in Berlin. The Norwegian civilian workers knew nothing of nuclear bombs or neutron moderators, but the Nazis’ conspicuous interest in the substance prompted members of the resistance to report the activity to British intelligence.By 1942 the Allied leaders were certain that the heavy water was a critical component in Hitler’s effort to produce an atomic weapon. Such neutron moderators were not necessary in atomic bombs, but the German physicists hoped to use heavy-water to moderate a sustained reaction within their stash of rare uranium-235. They could then expose nuggets of the most common uranium isotope (uranium-238) to the slow neutrons spewing out of the reactor, allowing some of the uranium nuclei to slurp up an extra neutron to become uranium-239. U-239 atoms tend to undergo beta decay a couple times over the course of a few days, finally resulting in weapons-grade plutonium-239.The Allies could not sit idly by as Hitler’s henchmen made progress in nuclear weaponry, otherwise the war was sure to come to an abrupt and disagreeable end. The British Royal Air Force considered a nighttime bombing raid on the Vemork to be “unrealistic,” so a covert ground assault was mounted. On 19 November 1942, thirty Royal Engineers crowded into a pair of troop gliders and rode to the frozen landscape of Norway towed behind Halifax bombers. In the mountains near the power plant, an advance team of Norwegian commandos waited near the landing zone while the planes struggled through the soupy skies.As the drone of aircraft engines crept over the horizon towards Jens Anton Paulsson and his three men, there was a dull explosion in the distance. Once its echoes faded only one aircraft could be heard. One of the Halifax bombers had struck a cloud-obscured mountain. The glider pilot— who had managed to cast off from his ill-fated tug at the last moment— executed the most graceful crash he could given the mountainous terrain. The remaining airplane circled the area with its own glider in tow as the crew struggled fruitlessly to contact the landing beacon. Eventually they were forced to give up due to low fuel, but as the bomber set off towards home its tow line broke and sent the second glider diving into the snowy hills.The Germans wasted no time dispatching Gestapo troops to investigate the commotion. Paulsson and his Norwegian resistance fighters knew they could not reach the distant crash sites ahead of the Germans, so they retreated to their mountain hideaway to await instructions. For three long months the men subsisted on whatever moss and lichen they were able to scrounge in the sub-zero temperatures, their diets punctuated by the occasional bit of edible wildlife. Meanwhile the survivors from the crashed gliders were captured, questioned, tortured, and executed under Hitler’s top-secret Commando Order which stipulated that all enemy commandos were to be put to death without exception.On 19 February 1943, six of the Norwegians’ countrymen finally arrived by parachute with a fresh supply of food, weapons, and explosives from their British supporters. Following an exchange of greetings, Joachim Ronneberg took command of the group and laid out their attack plan. Once everyone had recuperated, the ten Norwegian men strapped on their skis and set out armed with rifles, submachine guns, chloroform rags, and cyanide suicide pills. Though they had been given no specific details regarding the power plant’s purpose, the men had been assured that its destruction would prevent Hitler from gaining the ability to smash entire cities with a single strike.At three o’clock in the morning on 28 February, the gang of intrepid Norwegians approached their target. The Vemork hydroelectric plant was perched on the edge of a six hundred foot cliff like a fairytale fortress, and accessible via a 240-foot-long bridge which spanned a deep ravine. The area was peppered with mines, and the bridge itself was well-guarded and brightly lit. Rather than tangle with sentries and landmines, the force elected to descend into the gorge and clamber up the cliff on the other side. The resistance fighters soberly exchanged wishes of good luck then skied down to the ravine floor.After completing the long and treacherous climb up the icy cliff, Knut Haukelid took command of five of the men and broke off to assume covering positions outside the German barracks. The other four split into two demolition teams, each with a full set of explosives in case one of the teams was unable to reach the target. The four men headed to a basement door which they had been told would be left unlocked, but the undercover operative in charge of the task had fallen ill and missed work that day. The two teams separated to seek alternate points of ingress.Joachim Ronneberg and his partner Fredrik Kayser soon located a hatch which allowed access to a narrow shaft full of wires and pipes, but the men discovered that there was sufficient room to squeeze through. As the factory’s machinery softly grumbled, the pair slowly crawled through the long duct while pushing their explosives ahead of them. At the end of the tunnel the men climbed down a ladder and surveyed their target: a long row of metallic cylinders lining the wall of the heavy-water concentration room. The two raiders sprang into the compartment and caught the lone night watchman completely by surprise. He eagerly complied with their orders to raise his hands, then stood trembling as the armed intruders locked all doors leading into the room. Ronneberg dashed over to the heavy-water tanks and immediately began to place his eighteen explosive charges.As Ronneberg worked, the factory’s low, steady hum was punctured by the sound of shattering glass from the far side of the room. He and Kayser spun around with weapons at the ready. Through the window emerged the two men of the other demolition team, having been unable to find a more suitable entrance. Together the men set and checked the series of charges, and laid fuses which had been cut to provide a delay of only thirty seconds. A Norwegian civilian wandered into the room and was astonished to see a clutch of commandos putting the finishing touches on their demolition charges. He obediently thrust his arms into the air and joined his captive colleague.Ronneberg lit the bombs’ fuses and quietly counted to ten. He then ordered the anxiety-stricken prisoners to run upstairs as fast as they could. Hoping to prevent reprisals against the local populace, the raiders dropped a British machine gun on the floor to disguise the attack as the work of British agents. The demolition teams rejoined their comrades outside and the together they dashed away at full speed. After several long moments, a muffled thud was heard from the Vemork building behind them. Three thousands pounds of D2O sloshed out of the damaged tanks and into the factory’s drains, destroying four months’ worth of production and severely crippling the heavy-water-gathering apparatus. By the time the Germans realized they were under attack, the ten Norwegian men had donned their skis and slipped away to the safety of the mountains.The saboteurs had successfully silenced the water plant, but German engineers began repairs immediately and within five months their heavy-water collectors were back in action. By the following winter the Allies had the means to attack the target by air, and during one long day in November 1943, one hundred and forty three American B-17s ambled over the horizon and pounded the Vemork complex area with over seven hundred bombs. Due to the terrain many of the bombs missed and most of the structure managed to remain intact, but the forceful series of attacks persuaded the Germans to abandon the plant.In a last ditch effort to salvage the remains of the operation, the Nazi scientists loaded their massive bounty of heavy-water into a railcar. Under the care of a large guard detail the precious deuterium oxide began its journey to Berlin. The armed procession boarded a railcar ferry to carry it across lake Tinnsjø, and as the boat crossed the deepest portion of the lake there was a sharp bang below decks. The ferry foundered and sank, dragging the bulk of Germany’s atomic bomb program into a deep and watery grave. The Norwegian saboteur Knut Haukelid— the man who led the covering team on the raid against Vemork— had learned of the plans to move the cargo, and smuggled a makeshift time bomb aboard the ferry before the Germans arrived. Unfortunately fourteen civilians were killed when the boat sank, but resistance leaders reasoned that these losses were acceptable considering the thousands of lives that would have been forfeit if Hitler’s nuclear program had come to fruition.Though the Norwegians’ handiwork did not manage to completely halt the progress of the Nazi’s atomic bomb project, it created significant stumbling blocks. According to some controversial reports, the Nazis did manage to build and test a small nuclear device just before the war ended, but it was reportedly a crude design far inferior to the bombs dropped on Japan some months later by the US. In any case, Nazi Germany certainly possessed the knowledge and skills necessary to construct a bomb; they merely lacked the resources.In modern history there are few examples of such small works of sabotage leading to such dramatic effect. By some estimations, the raids at Vemork were all that prevented Hitler from gaining control over Europe and ruling with a plutonium fist. Indeed, had the Nazis worked unhindered, the world’s first atomic mushroom cloud may have loomed over London by the mid-1940s. In that respect, these stalwart saboteurs and their daring mission in the mountains of Norway may have spared the world from a far worse fate.Taken from German Nuclear Program Before and During World War IIIn September 1939, Heisenberg along with other German scientists joined together under military order to create Uranverein or "Uranium Club" to investigate nuclear energy for the war effort. This team's goal was to determine whether nuclear weapons would be relevant in the near future to warrant the considerable expenditure required to develop the technology. In 1940, C. F. von Weizsacker proposed using neptunium, element 93, as a nuclear explosive, but once it was realized that the element was unstable, plutonium, element 94 and neptunium decay product, was proposed as an alternative. At the same time, Heisenberg calculated, incorrectly, that the critical mass required for a U-235 nuclear weapon was on the order of a few tons instead of the actual value of 15-60 kilograms. Even with this error in calculations, there was belief in 1941 that if the war lasted a few more years, a nuclear weapon could be developed.In 1941, however, Germany had just invaded the Soviet Union after conquering France, Norway, and Poland in the previous few years. The German nuclear program, at its height, consisted of twenty-two institutes over twelve cities throughout Germany and Austria. This was a significant manpower and intellectual drain on resources. Thus in December 1941, the German army decided to abandon its nuclear fission project deciding to focus on the development of other new technologies, mainly rockets and jet aircraft, that could make a more immediate impact. It is possible that Heisenberg's error in calculating the critical mass of uranium needed for a reaction played a part in the decision to withdraw funding. A summary report from February 1942 named "Energiegewinnung aus Uran" covers all aspects of the nuclear work since 1939 including an approximately correct estimate of the critical mass needed for a bomb. Either way the German nuclear problem had significant obstacles that would have had to been overcome if a nuclear weapon would have been developed.Potential Why Germany did not Develop the Atomic BombWhen considering reasons Germany did not develop the atomic bomb given their leads in both 1939 and 1941, three main issues stand out. These include lack of nuclear physicists, industrial requirement to succeed, and the desire for immediate results. In the 1920s and early 1930s, Germany was a leading nation of theoretical physics, but with the rise of Nazism, a significant number of scientists, Jewish ones in particular, left the German team at a significant disadvantage to the Allied team. For the scientists that stayed in Germany, the lack of interest in pure science by the regime resulted in almost an entire generation of physicists being lost. On a per man basis, the Allied team was more capable with certain individuals, such as von Neumann, the German team could just not match. After the war, Heisenberg told Hans Bethe that nuclear energy was a way to save German physicists for when the war ended.Beyond lacking a significant number of physicists, Germany was a nation of limited industrial output within a war zone. Two moderators, needed to slow the neutrons from fission in order to create a chain reaction, were believed to be possible for nuclear fission, carbon and heavy water. Walter Bothe, a German experimental physicist, and Enrico Fermi, working in America, conducted experiments to see if carbon could be a moderator. Bothe concluded that carbon would not work, but while Fermi though that carbon was marginal at best, Leo Szilard, working with Fermi, remember that boron carbide was commonly used to manufacture graphite. Boron atoms absorb about 100,000 times the number of carbon atoms and this impurity resulted in leading Bothe to believe carbon was not a satisfactory moderator. Thus, Germany believed heavy water was the only capable moderator. Since the only heavy water production facility was located in Norway and was easily targeted and destroyed by the Allies, the German team did not have the industrial support required to be successful.With the war turning for the worse after the invasion of the Soviet Union, technologies believed to be implemented in the near future were advocated over long term technologies. Bagge and Diebner stated the critical error was the army requirement in December 1941 that a military product should be generated within 9 months. The only way funding would have continued would have been by scientists making claims they knew they could not meet. In this situation, the experts decided not to push for increased industrial effort of the nation in support of nuclear weapons. Considering the Allies nuclear program had better and larger number of physicists, support of the military, and the industrial capacity of the United States, it is not surprising that they developed the atomic bomb before Germany. It has to be mentioned, however, that even with all these advantages, the United States only first successfully denoted a nuclear weapon in July 1945, two months after the war in Europe.