Application Form For Auxiliary Home Hospital Volunteer: Fill & Download for Free

Here are some good ideas[1] if you want to know which businesses that can be started with little capital:Prepackaged school supplies based on the lists from the school districtsIncubator site providing office space, hosting, etc. for startups that are seed funded.In-grocery store prep service (buy vegetables first and drop them off to be chopped to your specs – pick them up on the way to checkout)A website that you can submit your design and work with vendors to manufacture your own clothes line.Online discount brokerage that has no closing hours and provides access to all exchanges throughout the world and handles currency and legal issues automatically.Stamphead, where stamps can be custom made in the likeness of an avatar the user creates.Aggregator site for affiliate marketers to collect daily reports. Would work on a tiered pricing structure giving you more info the higher up you go. Basic would be for people like me who just want to know if they made something and how much; advanced would pull down all available data.A gadget to cook beans/lentils/vegetables/rice for the same amount of time (quicker than what can be done in a slow cooker.)Herbal Flavored Gum. MMM…rosemary.Church issued credit card with automatic 10% for religious tithingBrainstorm Consulting – Teach companies how to brainstormCreate a website for non-profits and a list of their projects/needs and a similar list for foundations. Its a central meeting place for people to look for funding from the right people.Tutorial videos for technological skills (word processing, internet applications, email) for people who don’t know how to navigate technology but need it.Website where musicians can collaborate on tracksSigns in restaurants on menus that list all the ingredients.Network of chefs that rotate being personal chefsNuclear waste storage facilities completely removed from society.Hedge fund that makes bridge loans to homeowners facing foreclosure.Small-town / city – websites (through city and Chamber of Commerce) – most small town websites are terriblewhistle It.com: download audio of people whistling popular songs.A food service where you can email them your mom’s recipes and have them make it for you and deliver it during lunch time.Multiple camera angles on live television (especially for sports) or online viewingReplicate reality TV shows for foreign countries.SIM card swap serviceAn alternative medicine or homeopathic online service that diagnoses your ailment and gives you the proper corresponding alternative treatment; also provides you with doctors in your area that treat with alternative medicines.Create the double snuggie.A company that installs a monitor at a building entry and hosts virtual door attendants.Web-based language tutors leveraging Skype and Google Docs for curriculum.Meal delivery in hospitalsWeb package for a school system that allows parents to see their kids’ school schedules, grades, lunches, sports activitiesSanta Delivery Service – A dressed Santa will come to your home during the holidays and deliver your gifts as SantaPresentation Consulting – Teach companies how to improve their presentationsA website that boasts: Buy one product, have one mystery product of lesser value shipped to a friend for the cost of s&h. the user don’t know what they’ll get, but it will be fun as hell and keep the user in touch in an interesting way.Tribe Consulting – Help individuals (not companies) discover what Tribes they should lead and help them do itMusic Box manufacturer that will turn any inanimate objects mailed to then into music boxes. Users buy direct online, picking from available stock. Added charge for sending in the you own inanimate object.Customer feedback software for mobile phones sold to marketers.Web-based rent-a-CFO.Application to sell to universities that allows students to access their transcripts onlineExchange clothing (like PaperBackSwap. com) for men’s & women’s clothingMonthly subscription service for unlimited ebooks on your ebook reader device. Rhapsody/Netflix model for ebooks.Cell phone made of biodegradable materialsiPhone app that tells you odds for a poker handLet’s Get Coffee – for couples; pairing service similar to matchmaking service “It’s Just Lunch” to help couples find other couples with similar friendsA service that discounts newspapers after 8pm the day of print. I do not want to buy a NYTimes for $5 at the end of the day.Nonprofit that takes old CD electronics to developing countriesA unified affiliate marketing program for every store on the web.Contest company for small local businessesWebsite mock-ups for people seeking VC fundingGrocery delivery service for college campuses: Fresh direct for dorm rooms.Independent calorie testing company – A company that actually does testing on food for consumers to determine calorie contentEarplugs that go deeper into your ears but don’t hurt them.Online transcription service for conference calls – leveraging Amazon Mechanical Turk.Google for video & audio – Dragonspeak -> voice to text -> with searchable tagsA service that just vacuums and dust your apartment.A way to ensure that each person can only create one account on a website, without having to sacrifice anonymity.A small flap or cover (separate or built-in) for computers and technology with little lights that flash when they sleep (so you can sleep.)Crutches that stand upright by themselves. The base would have feet that fold up or spring out so you don’t have to lay them on the ground where they get in the way and people trip over them, etc.Interior Design on a Budget – for people who still want their homes to look good but can’t afford Restoration Hardware – client defines a set budget and consultants design using budget pieces from TJMaxx or Marshall’s or odds & ends shopsLandscaping business specializing only on LEED rooftop gardens.Company that records your voice message and other digital forms of media and sends it out into space as a message in a space bottle.Fireplace rehab – clean, paint, resurface, whatever to make it pretty. Big in places where same brick as outside the house is used for the fireplace and it’s not attractive (I’ve had two houses now like this.)“How to live on a small budget” website written by college students for college student for all sizable college towns sponsored by local merchant coupons.Someone/service that keeps inventory in a household (products, cleaning, etc.)A drink company that brings the Shirley Temple back – the best drink ever!Online Firewood Sales – Sell firewood online directly to consumers and businessOn-click online data storage and streaming of a clients entire media library. (never lose anything again and have anywhere anytime access) Charge by the GB and bandwidth. Provide conversion services from CD to MP3.Cupcake Shop (fresh and creative cupcakes)A mobile job fair in a tractor trailer that pulls up in the parking lots of offices of businesses performing massive layoffs. You then make money by renting out space in the trailer to companies in similar industries.Online Professional Wrestling Memorabilia Store – Sell pro wrestling memorabilia online directly to consumersSoftware to manage energy sales back to the grid generated by home systems.Analytics software for customer profiling, not just click analysis.Disposable mittens made from biodegradable materials in vending machines at supermarkets.OnlineConfessions. com. read other confessions and share the you own anonymously.Instant Flash builder, providing motion templates with easy upload graphic and text to fit template animation.Technology licensing agency.Consulting business creating a series of Squidoo lenses for an author on and around specific book titles. Pitch to publicists and literary agents, as well as directly to authors.Hire voice actors to read popular blogs to create podcasts where they don’t yet exist (“Best of the Blogosphere Podcast”)Personalized cereal boxes (to celebrate child’s achievements)Local business-sponsored community bike programAntique wedding jewelry shopping – another eco/reuse theme. Rather than buy something new that requires mining and blood diamonds, get an antique that comes with a story (about the long marriage of the previous couple, of course). We find it for you in the style you think you want.Surgery-specific recovery packs in hospital (if Sucrets and a can of cranberry juice is better than water & crackers, that pack exists)Personal lessons for using your cell phone featuresVenture capital consulting for startups.A company that makes hybrid fruits. Instead of drinking a lime pomegranate drink you can eat a lime granite.Photography studio that casts you as characters from moviesCentralized web portal for university technology transfer offices.A service that gives well-known business people a public email address, so that if an email get sent there you can read the email and then read the response. The idea being that it will give you insight into the mind of the person and what made them successful, and it will also teach you how to write good emails and learn email etiquette.A technology/service that Preachers/Rabbi’s/Clergy can use that creates a way to gather feedback during the service from the attendees.Online flower shop with one-hour deliveryA non-profit that provides credit consulting for youth and impoverished.Local fresh restaurant that opens off-peak hours to hold cooking classes to locals.Fractional Ownership of Technological Conference Room in Office ComplexRent-a-wife – a woman who cleans, cooks, does laundry, picks up dry cleaning, mail, etc but without the emotional relationship.Project management website for volunteer shift scheduling – church nurseries, hospital auxiliary members, protest marches, etc.Pencil sharpener type device to grind down dog toenailsAn iPhone app that allows you to search a database of unique and obscure beers and drinksGlow in the dark non-toxic washable paint that you can spray on your kids/pets when they are trick-or-treating so they don’t get hit by a car.A party planner for kids birthday parties, but with educational and fun activities.Instant Ad builder where sexy templates are linked with creative common photos.Spring Shadows – program where kids can shadow business people for a short two weeks internship to see what they want to major in once they go to college and what they might want to do once they graduateGPS / location based meetup based on pre-selected preferences (i.e. – Manchester United)A paperless hospital.Whack-a-Mole style game with political figuresAutomatic thank you notes, sent to contacts as a postcard generated from uploaded contact lists. On the card is a highly realistic signature that users digitally upload.National Restaurant Customer Service Association – traveling customer service training systemArtists’ Playground. This is a building that has rooms setup for ceramics, painting, silk screenings, theater, writing, open mic, dance, photography, etc. This building will also have social areas for people to mingle over coffee and healthy foods. People pay a monthly membership to have access and it is also rented out for events.Concierge services for an office building. Sell as a value add to the building managers or to the specific businesses as a benefit for their employees.A place where people could go to eat/study but would HAVE to do it at the same table with a stranger. It would encourage us to talk to/meet new and interesting people.Street Bar – bar inside a huge vehicle that drives you aroundFeng Shui website where you upload your floor plan and other details and get a recommendation on how to construct your space.Web-based rapid prototyping service that allows amateur product designers to test their designs and have our RP machines “print” their products in 3D.Training company that teaches people to be brave.Retractable spikes for boots to walk on the ice on sidewalksRecipe Subscription Business – Subscribe to the website and pay for premium recipesOnline eulogies (recorded by your friends before you die)Software that automates Search Engine Optimization without registering as black hat.iPhone app that is specifically for ski maps. Shows number of runs made and has lots of cool interactive features. Even shows which runs are groomed. Every ski resort would need their own app. Probably provide the app for free and the ski resort pays an arm and a leg for being featured in the app.Publisher of web-based children’s games.Horoscope porn site that provides the user with a personalized video stream based on preconceived notions assigned to your “sign”.A travel company that arranges people to stay at others houses.Slow cooker meals in a bag – drop it in and forget itA travel mug that’s not plastic or aluminum (ceramic) but with a rubber lid (tight-sealing), that has a good grip. Most travel mugs retain the smell of the material and give the liquid a strange taste after a while. Also, something that doesn’t allow Tupperware to smell.Employee monitoring service that provides detailed reports on employee’s online and offline activities. – include hardware scrubbing and “forensic” proof removal of data, footprints and histories.Tattoo parlor for petsStory Consulting – Help companies define and refine their story and teach them how to tell itA service that tells your neighbors to be quiet (nicely). They will draft a letter or note and send it to your neighbor so you can be the objective third party.Graffiti generator .com, where friends can type in text and, using different styles and palettes, create a tag-like version of their name, poems, etc.Internet and webcam set up for seniors to communicate with grandkidsTheme restaurant – Karaoke in front of a live bandGraph consultants – Company that specializes in making effective graphs from any data you give them.A conflict negotiation service (online or regular) where you submit a problem and we provide an answerSchool real estate rental company – Company that specializes in renting out underutilized school rooms during the summerTuning rooms for entry level home theatersBuild Your Own Perfume Shop.Front door cleaning service – get rid of all the stuff that gets left on your door every day before you get homeA company that sells framed book covers, so that you can hang the covers of your favorite books on the wall of your office.Standing in line for peopleBrainstorming. com – put in an idea and gives you 10 ideasChewing gum that is good for braces and dentures.Glass repair company – Company that specializes in repairing scratches or slightly broken glassTwitter third party app to help drivers find vacant parking spaces in crowded metro areas; sponsored by local merchants and advertising.Make your own batch of whiskey – takes 12 years, you pick flavors and types of oak barrels at the distillery, pickup in 12 yearsFranchise business consulting that helps large franchisees improve their businesses.Repossession agency for the most dangerous jobs in foreign lands.Digital tombstones that serve rich multimedia messages and memories of the deceased.Marketing and Advertising agency that excels at telling stories.A site like intrade that would allow investors to make bets on analytics type data, like the number of page views Wikipedia will get next January, or how many copies Malcolm Gladwell’s new book will sell.A service that pairs you with the right tools and helps you find a career by pairing you with the right resources (NOT an uninformed headhunter)Web portal to help large corporations source physical building contractors for specialized facilities.A company that digs your car out of the snow and removes snow from your driveway and starts car in the morning.A trend of the month club, where each month you get mailed something hip with a glossy booklet explaining how cool that item is about to become. Limited to 5,000 people. Gives you a cool story to tell yourself for the rest of the month, and something to talk about with your friends.Come to your house alterationsCustom adventures using Virtual Reality goggles and a windfan (i.e. – basejumping a waterfall or the Grand Canyon)Performance art as advertising – i.e. Cirqu de Soleil actors selling an item / brandService to teach doctors how to use technology to reach out to patientsCompany working with magazines to help them develop a social networking presencesA pill that gradually dies body hair.Technology scout for large corporations that looks for acquisitions.Create book trailers for small publishers/authors to place on YouTubeIP Scanner. Scans images straight to flickr or similar service. Great for archiving family pictures or kids drawings.Independent account fraud company – A company does regular checkups of your online accounts (like social networking sites) to check for fraudulent activityWeb-based devil’s advocate service for startups looking for someone to critique their ideas. Perhaps also provides referrals to cheap services for startups, like cheap graphics design, cheap business plan feedback, etc.A half refrigerator/freezer/microwave in the trunk of a car. That way, wherever you go in the car, you can always have food handy. How great for road trips.Pandora for spin bikesA non-profit that documents the stories told by elderly in nursing homes.A company that will apply your logo in glow-in-the dark removable paint around a town so it appears at night.Replication service for clothing items – make you a new pair just like the old pairImprove soft contacts so you can wear for 1 year at a time.An online counseling program via webcam (for therapists, inmates)Not-for-profit that works with people to help cure their acne.Service that takes your text messages from your phone to your computerFast food restaurants with healthy, organic and tasty foods. Similarly, healthy foods in cafeterias and grocery stores in low-socioeconomic areas.Software company that builds marketing dashboards sold to CMOs, brand officers, etc.A Build Your Own Robot Shop.A store that sells all inflatable products. So, for example, large inflatable cushions that kids can use to make play forts that compress flat afterwards. Good for Manhattan apartments where you buy a 30 dollar toy that takes up $800 of floor space.Offshore software development company based in China.A company that will sell a large digital frame for close to free and then provide a service for a fee that sends artwork to the digital frame every week.Desk mounted lighting systems for video chatThe Black Cow (least innovative product)A way to turn recipes on the web into peapod orders. A way to turn the customized diets that Weight Watchers or WebMD create into a peapod order.Online petition forms with compliant signature verification software.Customer service solution for general contractors that allows them to put in notes and they’re generated as an email or voicemail to customer to provide them with regular reports on how the work is going and what is holding things upNetworked home alarm systems so that neighbors can check on each other’s homes during break-ins.Scavenger Hunts, Inc. – We setup pre-defined scavenger hunts for small business team building (like a mini Amazing Race) or even for kid’s birthday parties (in a local park)Eyeglasses that you can adjust to the light. Not that they adjust on their own.Worst, etc.Clipping service for high school athletes parentsEZPass for humans on public transportation (key fob?)A company that creates baseball trading card style packets for restaurant chains.A cleaning service using only eco friendly productsCustom Hypnosis CD Business – Customers go to a studio and record their own voice reading self-hypnosis scriptsOnline Suspenders store – Company sells nothing but suspendersA non-profit that supports poor on using technology in classes taught by young freelance artists.Online Antique Appraisal Service – Send pictures of your antiques online to have them appraisedMicrobrewery with high-octane beers with boutique labels that cost as much as good winesTechnology consulting for venture firms.Harmonica It. com: download audio of people playing popular songs on the harmonica.A site that aggregates naturopathic medicines that have been shown to work to peer reviewed journals, but which for whatever reason aren’t prescribed by mainstream doctors. The site would then show the medicines proven effective for each condition, with a link to the journal article or clinical data or whatever.A hyperlocal iPhone app to find food, but for a series of use cases more specific than what Zagats and yelp are designed for. For example, list the best 3 food places within one mile of each highway exit that take less than 20 minutes. Or what wine tastings are within 10 miles of me within the next week.Anti-drug education program for inner city schools. In conjunction with a touring program that sends a message to parents across the country.Food consulting company that helps local restaurants with calorie measurement and other health issues – and publishes calorie, fat, vitamin data to third party apps on smart phones.Mushroom/compost farm that uses the Matter of Trust “lasagna” to eat cleaned up oil spillsCompany working with small local newspapers helping them develop a social network presenceGiant Magnadoodle for teachersComputer Remote Technician – Fixes your computer by remotely connecting to your PC or MacConference organizing company that handles all the logistics of creating and running conferences for other organizations.Retro-fitting older school buses with seats with seatbeltsOnline Town HallSpeed dating online.Adopt a prisoner “charity” that allows people to adopt an inmate and assure that they are visited and receive cards/letters on important dates.Prius Cab Fleet (www.greenfares. com)Buzz-monitoring of brands with software tools sold to enterprises and brand managers.The Purple Cow (most innovative product)Feng Shui experts that tells you the best way to put your stuff/furniture in your house.Expert roommate negotiator – Expert negotiator specializing in solving roommate disagreementsRent a scout that gives you a good idea of your child’s sports potentialBook packaging for great college writing and emerging writers.Online Palm Readings – Readings done via SkypeSelf-righting picture hangerWebsite for online job searching with IM capabilities so you can ask questions to other people searching or people who are advertising.An IMDB for people who have won awards. I want to a quick way to find the professors with the most citations in any given subject, the chefs in the area with the best Zagats reviews, the local high school football players with the most touchdowns, etc.A digital coloring book.SMS messaging for television tickers scrolling at the bottom of popular shows.A website that users can program in advance to take some action if some event happens. For example, a national chain of tire stores could send an email reminding its customers to get their snowtires on two days before the first predicted snowfall of the season in that user’s zipcode.Garanimals for adult menDating Consulting – individualized service on how to find, meet and date quality peopleBoat or Yacht share program.DeadCells Art: mail your old, hated cell phones to a factory that smashes it and returns it to the user as framed work of art.Girls Getaway – a company that sets up ‘girls week / weekend’ vacations (shopping, Broadway shows, hiking, wine tasting, etc.)Toilet seat covers for public toilets that don’t fall off the seats.For younger students, nap time is often hard to relax and in a bright room. There should be a company that creates comfortable nap time products for kids.A company that you can hire that will come to your town and make a 4 show realty series that you can show to your friends or play on local stations.A service that manages the risk of house swapping.Build the you own Barbie. com. Pay $100 to dress and color the you own doll.Twitter or SMS restaurant reservationsDigital family whiteboard on fridge (like an iTablet for the family)A website that connects people with Objects of Sociability. For example, you have a group of friends you want to do something with and it connects you with an open hibachi table or a deep sea fishing boat rental. You can also rent objects of sociability, so for example you could rent a bread maker or a super nice tea set with 30 looseleaf teas. It would also connect people to third places that would be suitable for, say, a first date.Dissolvable contacts that deliver medicine to the eye overnightA charity that works with major retailers to encourage buyers to bring in their old clothes for a discount. The company will then take the clothes from the retailer and send to a third world country or American red cross.TV Show Summary Service – Brief summaries of your favorite shows are e-mailed to you in case you missed them.Globalization consultancy.Creating a website community for freelance professors (professional educators with a specific expertise; different from tutors in the sense that they are not preparing students for a certain test or “actual class”) to connect with students who want to be educated via an alternative route. The ideal site would essentially be a hub for professor profiles/portfolios with a variety of mediums for conversation between the students and the professors for hire. comments/rating system (no anonymity including a record of that person’s comments rates so you can get a better picture of who is saying what). The idea is similar to something like pick a prof. that most college kids use now to pick their classes; however, the emphasis with pick a prof is typically to pick easy classes to graduate where as this would be an effort to allow professors and students to negotiate the value of the education without going through the university as a middle man. Monetization routes: site advertisements, membership fees for students and/or profs, selling books written by professors for commissionBuild Your Own Back Pack Shop.Group dating website.Online mentoring program for students of all ages (Pen pals that teach each other skills online.)Citizen journalism website.A website that teaches kids how to do quant trading. The site would come with a data feed, dozens of pre-packaged statistical tests that could be deployed or combined in various ways, and the ability to do backtesting to see if this strategy would have been effective on previous data.Designer bibs for patients during their teeth cleaning. This could be a cartoon design for kids or pattern for adults.RingTone this. com: upload audio and have computer-like versions automatically generated and sent to the you cell phone as a ringtone.A book about the history of the internet made from recycled phone books.A cutting-edge fashion company that tells the story of wearable computing.A virtual interior decorator that will make suggestions via digital photographs.A company like 800CEOREAD that does bulk book rentals. So for example you could rent 1,000 copies of Jeff Jarvis’s new book for a month instead of purchasing them.A company that sells high quality sawdust / sand in bulk to put on the floor of restaurants or bars. The company would then be responsible for removing the old material and replacing it when necessary.IP Camera security company – software solution – offsite remotely recordingMilitary Peak Performance Consulting – Consult the military on matters of peak performance (nutrition/stress management/etc.)An event planning organization that markets to stay-at-home moms with big ideas, eager to share there inventions and business ideas with other mothers.Educational youth iPhone gamesAn automatic dimming light bulb coated in that same stuff that is on glasses that the user wear on the you face.Frozen venison shipping store – Company that specializes in shipping the best venison across the countryA safe vice for your head when you have a headache (made from strong fabric maybe)Apprenticeship management company for high profile business personalities.Celebrity voice wake up callsObama TARP consulting for financial institutions.For Americans book series – Cricket for Americans, Bollywood for Americans, World History for Americans, French Film for Americans – would be topics that go outside our country to hopefully explain that the rest of the world isn’t just like us, nor should it beA consulting company that works with aerobic instructors to trademark their exercise routine.Webcam security set up to watch kids, dogs, older parentsA recipe holding cell online for all your recipes to edit, print, and send to friends.A small handheld set up to video chat only via satellite.A business model that implements a ‘couples fare’ if you are in a long distance relationship you register for a year deal where you get specialized pricing and discounts.iPhone app that has similar features to Nike plus (who doesn’t have an app yet). For runners. Pace, speed, etc. All reports back to a website that has monthly subscription costNetwork of restaurants where chefs rotateAgency that trains people for doctor’s offices. Doctor’s offices need etiquette training for their employees desperately.A service that transfers CDs -> LPs (not the other way around)Organic grapes and wine brokerage.If you’re doing home exchanges, a personal website devoted to you and your trip and all of its details. It will have an itinerary on a main page so you don’t have to access your email to see it and it has all the details there.Collectibles investment club.After Party Art where the user send in bottles collected from special gatherings to a factory that melts and shapes glass into guest gifts.Stickers for backpacks (stick well to nylon, etc.)Roomba type toy for dog to chase around house. Should move faster, be fairly indestructible and make appropriate noises.An online toy that introduces children to audio mixing through a Mr. Potato Head-like interface. Add a nose, add an instrument to the band!Children’s school that finds the right balance between Marine Corps boot camp methods, Montessori methods, and liberal arts education – located half the year in big cities worldwide and half the year in wilderness camp setting.Dashboard painting of car interiorsAmusement park based on video gamesPersonal chef for a day. A formalized service where you can call and get a chef with a specific specialty to come and cook a few days worth of food. In cities, this would be very popular and in demand.After party cleaning crewFence store – Sells nothing but designer fences with custom designsInvestment bank that helps non-profits tap the public market with stock listings.An invite only site that allows friends to create video playlists from Hulu, the userTube and third party programming.Online Astrology Readings – Readings done via SkypeGym review company – Company that reviews gyms and creates a guide like ZAGAT that we sellNetflix for freshwater aquariums. If you get bored of some of your old fish you can swap them out for new ones.Phone booth style device that you walk into and it steam presses your clothesA website that you can put in a characteristics of a person and it will come up with an avatar.A store for really obscure food products that change regularly. Every time a customer checks out, you ask them if there are any products that we don’t know about that we should know about, and if there is then the customer ten dollars off their bill and that product shows up in the store within a week or two. Maybe even more narrow than just foods in general, so for example a store for niche meats that come from animals you’ve never heard of.Religious Karaoke Bar – Bar where only religious songs allowed to be sung, and no alcoholSoda Pop flavored mochi balls.A sophisticated website that uses an eHarmony-like algorithm to match nannies and familiesSolid state lighting retrofits of vintage light fixtures (art deco, 40’s 50’s 60’s fixtures) get them at Goodwill and other second hand shops and turn them into $300 “green works or retro art”A dating service where only your friends can set you up on dates.Fractional Ownership of Season Tickets / Box SeatsAffordable home matting and framing kitConsumer fingerprinting business – Company provides trained experts to apply fingerprints tests for household eventsA relocation service for Americans looking to permanently move to a new location for global opportunities.Website where musicians can collaborate on lyricsRoomba for the backyard to pick up dog poop and enzyme it. Or it works with the Doggie Doolie and dumps the poop in it on a regular basis.Fish Burial Kit.Mail in your old mixtapes and get a playlist sent to you via email with a digital version of that mix.A not-for-profit that pairs experts with eager and willing pupils for an apprenticeship program.Actor research consulting service – Consulting service for actors to be setup with people who can mentor them in research for their rolesAutomatic documentary maker, where families upload clips, photos and music from their special occasions generating a smooth transition clip that captures the essence of the moment.Executive Power nap business – Locations where executives can take a 20 minute energizer nap during the dayGraphic novels based on video gamesProfessional protesters agency.Lip reading school – School that teaches students how to read lipsDigital Workflow Consulting – “We’ll get your precious memories (files) into the cloud”Brand of energy ice cream.Cereal Bar (cereal the way you like it with “extras” – open late)Sell web stats back to website owners who are computer illiterate (Google Analytics)Anti-inflammatory Hot SauceFirefox Plugin for Autosave ClipboardUndercover Teenager – hire a teenager to spy on your kidiPhone app that uses the GPS to measure amount of accumulated gains in altitude for climbers, hikers, skiers.Pay at the pump carbon offsetsRoof-mounted Active Denial System (pain ray) to keep deer out of your garden. Or possibly a sounder laser. The system would be mounted next to a camera with an image recognition system that could pick out a deer.Netflix for conversation pieces. Get bored of your coffee table book and send it back for another.Box removal after people move – green message of recyclingRelationship Hotline – Relationship experts answer phone calls 24/7Age verification company – A company that solely does research to verify someone’s age (little league baseball would be a big client)Campaign Suite -> Political Suite – set of web apps – all the good things Obama did in a “package”A seminar business that trains people to be tribe leaders.Mobile software for a picture-based wishlist. When you see something you like at a store, you can take a picture of it and record the info about it either so you can comparison shop or someone can shop for you. Might replace the print-out-20-sheets-of-info gift registries in places like Target.An Urban Dictionary for texting.Salon for blind peoplePicture book series for adults explaining technology topicsCloset organization for adult men – Garanimalize their clothing for them after the factVision board builder site that provides a virtual design for users to focus on their goals daily.A website that teaches you about what is involved in the day-to-day training for different sports, so you can make an intelligent decision about what sport to take up instead of just choosing based on what it looks like on TV. Has links to where you can go to take up a sport as a beginner, what the competition structure looks like, how far you typically have to travel, etc. Can drive traffic to consultants who help get kids recruited to college, to genetic testing firms, to sports physiology labs, etc.DeadTV Art: mail your old, hated TV sets to a factory that smashes it and returns it to the user as framed work of art.Organic vitamin pills and supplements for vegetarians sold through health stores.Teach companies how improv comedy can help them in their business (comfort zone, setup your partner)Herb garden planting – plan, plant and basically get your herb garden going.Legal Advice Hotline – Legal staff and call center charges consumers to call in for advice charge per hourA website for elementary and middle school kids that helps them build a portfolio of their best artwork, writing, sports accomplishments, etc.A data aggregator of global statistics on death, destruction, catastrophes, violations of human rights, freedom in media, etc. There is so much attention put on the middle east. It would be interesting to see and compare what is happening in your neighborJelly Belly for gumTeam in Training – supporting a family or village instead of a causeFilmmakers café-It would be great to have a place that people could go and use a TV and DVD player in a cool coffee house setting–similar to how the internet cafes are run…It could be a place where people could just leisurely watch something midday and also people can meet and discuss their work and others’ work while watching through it.Website that allows people to share clothes and shoes (fractional closet ownership)iPhone app that measures the speed of a pitch. Utilizing the built in accelerometer, you throw the phone as fast as you can. When you pick it back up it tells you the speed of your throw. This pairs well with the iPhone insurance idea.A site that gives you a step-by-step system to build a large web presence and a large group of followers, and makes it easy to track how many people are reading your blog, commenting, sending you emails, etc. so you can work on growing your number of followers and increasing your influence as efficiently as possible. Gives you detailed instructions each step of the way based on your performance.Affordable set top box with video chat (less functionality and cheaper than Media Center)Robotics sports entertainment company – Create robotic athletes that play sports using AI, charge for admissionA storytelling site that markets to families who want easy ways to archive the voices of their elders.Interactive billboard advertisements with codes for coupons sent to mobile phones (mobile-location-based-presence advertising).One stop shop custom photo labs – bring in digital pictures and you have access to Photoshop expert, printing matting, framing,A village in china that paints portraits of pop culture icons as various dog breeds. Look, Obama as a GreyHound!Fish babies. Specifically market a female and a male fish capable of mating to customers interested in seeing the miracle happen at home.A consumer hotline to advise people on electronic purchases and installation on a $ per minute basis.BestOf. com A website that only sells one specific type of each product…but you know its the best.Create YouTube channel with local restaurant reviews (or any kind of local business)Words sewn into a certain brand of clothes – need to find people with same clothes to spell out a word or phrase on the website to win a prize (like McDonald’s Monopoly but with clothes and a website)Public bathrooms that you pay to use. There is a room attendant for your bags.A bio-degradable “plastic” to be used in developing countries where outsiders come in and drink lots of things in plastic bottles because they can’t drink the water. These countries don’t have trash and thus no way to deal with the plastic trash Westerners bring with them.A free live music concert video site streaming a huge archive with limited commercial breaks.Portable safety landing zone for emergency extractions sold to government first responders.A mentoring program (website) that connects entrepreneurs with specific mentors they seek.Art co-op that sells memberships and the art travels among the homes of the members. Kind of a Netflix for art, maybe. Art to eventually be sold at auction via exclusive contract with Sotherby’s and profit made. Could be sold as a shared-art program or as an investment co-op. Or both.Senior friend – hire people to come by to spend 30 minutes just hanging with your older relative who live away from you.Website that generates naming and branding ideasTravel agency that shows you dying civilizationsA service that provides specific enthusiastic people who want to volunteer or have time to go engage with people at nursing homes and doing activities with them.Private investigation company for restaurant employees – Restaurant companies pay to have PI’s investigate whether employees are washing their hands in the bathroomA service that takes your records and digitizes them into MP3’s.Unique Bachelor & Bachelorette Parties – we work with you to design a fun, unique bachelor or bachelorette party experienceA singer/song-writer could offer to write, record, and perform personalized songs for people’s special occasions (anniversaries, birthdays, holidays, or just because). Many would love to have the ability to write, record, and perform an original song for a special someone, but they just don’t have what it takes musically. Then, there are those of us who do have the ability but don’t know how to market themselves.Outsourced sales staff for high-ticket items.Manufacturer of flying cars (courtesy of Tim Draper).Mobile app with hospital floor plans, maps, info about area restaurants, etc.Digital Painted Blinds. Every time a dorm student closes their blinds, the window becomes a poster of rotating images he/she uploads from a flash drive.A service of highly trained babysitters specialized in all ages that you could call upon last minute any night of the weekA service where people are employed to talk specifically to antisocial or shy people at a party (they’ll feel better about themselves and will be more likely to open up next time with their new confidence.)Live Tutor (online tutoring via webcam, chat)The “C-Games” – like the X-games, but real people and celebrities compete in wacky (think Japanese game show) events & all $$ goes to charityA website that aggregates tastemakers. Collect the people who do for other things what Fred Wilson does for music. Give them a really good platform. Give them points for picking up on trends before they go mainstream.A consulting company that creates tribes for your business.USB stick into a cell phonesite that allows people to upload stock video in HD for use by other filmmakers. Low cost per minute. 50/50 split between site and uploader when a purchase is made.Positive news TV channel (PNN) – TV news network that only plays positive TV programming, nothing negativeGrocery checkout efficiency consulting service – Company consults grocery stores on their checkout process to increase efficiency10% for the world – an association of businesses who add 10% to their prices and donate the 10% to charity.Traveling Poker school – weekend intensive poker school – get some prosAssist business people (authors, bloggers, executives) organize speeches and presentations – establish relationships with many venues & marketing channelsBaby fitness class company – Organize fitness classes for babies and their parentsiPhone app that is a recorder (like the ocarina app, but more familiar).Globalization import-export trading company.Really good collaboration software for creating mindmaps, with version control that’s as easy to use as Wikipedia’s history tab. Uses the same open data format as FreeMind.English speaking, US educated virtual assistantRestaurant where you cook alongside the chef , choose your ingredients and learn a new technique.A virtual world future’s exchange, so you can bet on how much a Linden dollar will be worth in US dollars six months from now.Script Assistants-A business that assists screenwriters as they are developing their script by aggregating credible/hard to find reference material that is diverse. Often a young (or firsttime) screenwriter has a great idea and may not know what to reference to develop their idea. This business would evaluate the theme/tone/genre of the script and assist in coming up with a solid and effective reference package pulling from books/TV/movies/screenplays.Web cam at school events so you can see your kid when you can’t make itUse Google Earth to determine green improvements to a given residenceA personal education coach-they pick blogs, books, resources for you to learn based on your personal interests and career goals. They gather all the materials and for you and make recommendations on the best way for learning the material.Non-profit that takes old technology items (computers, monitors, phones) to make them usable for non-profit use – clean off the software, ensure it has all the pieces, etc.)We come to your house to list only your good stuff on eBay or Amazon so you don’t have to bring it to a store. You could have a portable photo studio in the van so the product never leaves the premises until they have cash in hand after the sale. Charge a commission and have college students working for you.All electronic gadgets in one. Phone charger, mp3 player, computer, radio, watch) should all be able to be charged by the computer. (Travelsize/lightweight.)Gold reclamation service from old electronicsA guitar pedals that make exotic animal noises.Kids choose a week’s worth of lunches online with their parents and a van delivers them everyday at lunchtime.An organization devoted specifically to growing awareness over an obscure problem that no one really looks at (i.e. kids that grow up in negative environments and what that does to them as adults.)Fractional Ownership of Segway3D personalized bubblehead dolls ordered over the Internet based on submitted photos and scans.Art for the blind – Company that translates art into some type of Braille system where blind people can appreciate it.A place online that has all your usernames and passwords for all of your bank accounts, bill paying (cell phone, grocery, utilities)…keeps track of them.Vanity audiobook company for Lulu. com authorsWebsite that allows groups to document their lottery ticket purchases and each individual members’ shares to avoid problems when they win – there are a lot of winners beside the jackpot winner.Wikipedia search hotline for those who don’t have access to the internet and simply want quick answers to their inquiries sent to them as SMS texts.Build Your own Mardi Gras mask site.RSS Batches – supported with ads (so you can subscribe to a batch of the top 10 marketing blogs and in addition to the feeds you get an occasional relevant and anticipated ad)Philanthropic tourism – pay a huge fee with part of it going to help the people you visitGrocery store with only junk foodHeadphone buds that look like headphones but that are really powerful earplugs so people can’t tell the difference.A store completely filled with weird vending machines.Offer private curbside recycling service in towns where it isn’t offered. For a monthly fee, provide a container and service it once a week. All the contents are taken to the city’s collection site.Marketing Awards (like the Oscars, potentially online)A private site where corporations hire street artists to Tag over their build boards in an ongoing campaign to draw attention to the location of the sign. Then at its peak awareness, replace it. And start the process again.Online judge dispute resolution – Submit your disagreements onliine and for a fee a judge will email you back the verdict on who is rightSteroid scandal consultant – Firm specializes in advising baseball players that are in the midst of a steroid scandalCasino Airlines – Airline that has casino games on the plane as soon as the plane gets over the seaTrade Ya. com where users trade their personal goods for other user’s crap.A drive through fast food place that has healthy sandwiches.A laundromat/video arcade – Play video games with your kids as you wait for your clothes to be doneA crowd-sourced social filter. So you type in something you think would be funny to say or do to someone else, and the site tells you whether it’s actually a good idea or whether it would be wildly inappropriate.Instead of cryogenic freezing of bodies, store genetic signatures and compile multimedia memories.Change Consulting – Teach companies how to change – “stories of change” workshopsWebsite that is an aggregator of all the charities that celebrities support and how you can get involved.To-go food materials that are 100% recyclable such as a straw.Company that anonymizes current case studies from real companies facing real struggles that others can subscribe to to be aware of current day challenges, sold as subscriptions.Delivery service of food from local restaurants that don’t offer deliveryRestaurant of the month club – diners pay $100 – get $200 gift certificates for a rotating set of restaurantsPolice texting alerts-in case of an emergency you can text the police instead of calling them.An application that is a Thesaurus for your phone.Will you marry me. com, that allows viewers to share video of wedding proposals and live stream real ones.Neighborhood phone bookTravel agency for the rich and famous.Improv comedy coach comes to dinner parties or can order “Improv Party” DVD setMobile pet neuter vans.A software that will allow you to change the channel and adjust the lights in the room through you computer.Etiquette guides for various social mediaStart a multi-level marketing company that specializes in sex toy parties for men.Snow Man kit: a packaged snow man parts, encouraging fun times building a Snowman with family and friends. Biodegradable.A digital book reader that provides an OED, so that readers can look up words as they come across them.Web-based portal that allows people to invest in or fund movie scripts written by new writers and allows studios to scout for good stories.FamousNoses. com, pick the you favorite hollywood star and get a rubber version of their beak for the you own!Online Executive Betting System – Online trading system that allows you to trade CEOs like securities to make moneyCreate your own ice cream flavorsTech adventures. Expensive one and multiday adventures where we put the players in scenarios where they get to play with the latest cool technology…night vision…robots…James bond type stuff. Real life role playing game.A PhD site where students and teachers post thesis.Casual escrow service – Escrow service for more casual transactions, like between family or friendsA software program that functions like Pandora for television programs.A company that creates baseball trading card style packets for fashion designer lines.Government sign business consultant – Company finds infrastructure signs (roads, bridges, etc.) that are ineffective or misleading that by fixing will save the government moneyStacked Twitter iPhone App (like TweetDeck or PeopleBrowsr for the iPhone)A place where kids can go and dress up like their favorite childhood book. There will be a set and costumes to dress up. Perfect for birthday parties.A car sharing service that manages the risk and coordination of sharing a car in major cities.Video messaging service where people can tape their messages (birthdays, holidays, etc.) and they give us the content from their own camera and we edit them and send them to the people they love.A not-for-profit company that works with the NYC government to spray paint North/south/east/west signs on the street or on a sign outside the subway stations to help the directionally challenged.A YouTube VC firm, that will invest money in people who are willing to do stupid stuff on video in hopes that the video will go viral and they will make a profit.AngryClickers. com: a streaming site that allows users to cue live face punches in an online fight. This is sick.Job swap board for stay at home moms – I’ll do your laundry if you do my grocery shopping.A high school homework site that markets to the schools and teachers who want to know what their neighbors require and post best-of results.Bicycle that generates electricity to run the clubInterview practice company – A company that will do mock interviews with you and give you feedback on your performance.A website or iPhone app that finds places for large groups to hang out in real time. So for example if you’re wandering around union square with fifteen friends at night, find the nearest ten places that can accommodate that many people right now.In store sales (for the next 60 minutes – x is 50% off – sent via SMS to customers who have signed up)Design agency for Second Life and other digital worlds.Private Security Insurance – promise trained “Blackwater-esque” security in the event of civil disturbance.Green Architecture Best Practices CommunityNap stations throughout the city. To integrate it into our culture, we can introduce them through napping stations similar to coffee houses.Video creation for local businesses to put on YouTubeInstall digital screens on shopping carts and sell advertising to national packaged goods companies. This would replace the current printed adds on the shopping carts. Grocery store shares in ad revenue. The carts could be location aware and tell you about products you were close to.Company that creates widgets that advertise high-end jobs on the most influential and specialized bloggers in the areas of tech, medical, finance, etc.Pillow case store – Store that only sells customers a large variety of custom pillow casesTactical fire arms training for urban environments.Be a sports team mascot for dayA digital medicine cabinet where patients upload their latest prescriptions and receive automatic feeds that relevant Google alerts.Dedicated sms/twitter service responding to shopping people about “greenness”/ethics of products.Software to build social graphs based by comprehensively integrating all the different online and offline social networks.Footnotes[1] Software Secrets Book

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (/ˈɡɑːndi, ˈɡændi/;[3]Hindustani:[ˈmoːɦəndaːs ˈkərəmtʃənd ˈɡaːndʱi] (listen); 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was an Indian activist who was the leader of the Indian independence movement against British colonial rule.[4]Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. The honorific Mahātmā (Sanskrit: "high-souled", "venerable")[5]was applied to him first in 1914 in South Africa[6]– is now used worldwide. In India, he was also called Bapu, a term that he preferred[7](Gujarati: endearment for father,[8]papa)[8][9]and Gandhi ji, and is known as the Father of the Nation.[10][11]Born and raised in a Hindu merchant caste family in coastal Gujarat, India, and trained in law at the Inner Temple, London, Gandhi first employed nonviolent civil disobedience as an expatriate lawyer in South Africa, in the resident Indian community's struggle for civil rights. After his return to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against excessive land-tax and discrimination. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for various social causes and for achieving Swaraj or self-rule.[12]Gandhi led Indians in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in calling for the British to Quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned for many years, upon many occasions, in both South Africa and India. He lived modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn hand-spun on a charkha. He ate simple vegetarian food, and also undertook long fasts as a means of both self-purification and political protest.Gandhi's vision of an independent India based on religious pluralism was challenged in the early 1940s by a new Muslim nationalism which was demanding a separate Muslim homeland carved out of India.[13]In August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire[13]was partitioned into two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan.[14]As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the Punjab and Bengal. Eschewing the official celebration of independence in Delhi, Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to provide solace. In the months following, he undertook several fasts unto death to stop religious violence. The last of these, undertaken on 12 January 1948 when he was 78,[15]also had the indirect goal of pressuring India to pay out some cash assets owed to Pakistan.[15]Some Indians thought Gandhi was too accommodating.[15][16]Among them was Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, who assassinated Gandhi on 30 January 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest.[16]Captured along with many of his co-conspirators and collaborators, Godse and his co-conspirator Narayan Apte were tried, convicted and executed while many of their other accomplices were given prison sentences.Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is commemorated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and worldwide as the International Day of Nonviolence.Contents1 Biography 1.1 Early life and background 1.2 English barrister 1.3 Civil rights activist in South Africa (1893–1914) 1.4 Struggle for Indian independence (1915–1947) 1.5 Champaran and Kheda 1.6 Assassination2 Principles, practices and beliefs 2.1 Influences 2.2 On wars and nonviolence 2.3 On inter-religious relations 2.4 On life, society and other application of his ideas3 Literary works4 Legacy and depictions in popular culture 4.1 Followers and international influence 4.2 Global days that celebrate Gandhi 4.3 Awards 4.4 Film, theatre and literature 4.5 Current impact within India 4.6 Descendants5 See also6 References7 Bibliography 7.1 Books 7.2 Primary sources8 External linksBiographyEarly life and backgroundMohandas Karamchand Gandhi[17]was born on 2 October 1869[1]into a Gujarati Hindu Modh Baniya family[18]in Porbandar (also known as Sudamapuri), a coastal town on the Kathiawar Peninsula and then part of the small princely state of Porbandar in the Kathiawar Agency of the Indian Empire. His father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi (1822–1885), served as the diwan (chief minister) of Porbandar state.[19]Although he only had an elementary education and had previously been a clerk in the state administration, Karamchand proved a capable chief minister.[20]During his tenure, Karamchand married four times. His first two wives died young, after each had given birth to a daughter, and his third marriage was childless. In 1857, Karamchand sought his third wife's permission to remarry; that year, he married Putlibai (1844–1891), who also came from Junagadh,[20]and was from a Pranami Vaishnava family.[21][22][23][24]Karamchand and Putlibai had three children over the ensuing decade: a son, Laxmidas (c. 1860–1914); a daughter, Raliatbehn (1862–1960); and another son, Karsandas (c. 1866–1913).[25][26]On 2 October 1869, Putlibai gave birth to her last child, Mohandas, in a dark, windowless ground-floor room of the Gandhi family residence in Porbandar city. As a child, Gandhi was described by his sister Raliat as "restless as mercury, either playing or roaming about. One of his favourite pastimes was twisting dogs' ears."[27]The Indian classics, especially the stories of Shravana and king Harishchandra, had a great impact on Gandhi in his childhood. In his autobiography, he admits that they left an indelible impression on his mind. He writes: "It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number." Gandhi's early self-identification with truth and love as supreme values is traceable to these epic characters.[28][29]The family's religious background was eclectic. Gandhi's father Karamchand was Hindu and his mother Putlibai was from a Pranami Vaishnava Hindu family.[30][31]Gandhi's father was of Modh Baniya caste in the varna of Vaishya.[32]His mother came from the medieval Krishna bhakti-based Pranami tradition, whose religious texts include the Bhagavad Gita, the Bhagavata Purana, and a collection of 14 texts with teachings that the tradition believes to include the essence of the Vedas, the Quran and the Bible.[31][33]Gandhi was deeply influenced by his mother, an extremely pious lady who "would not think of taking her meals without her daily prayers...she would take the hardest vows and keep them without flinching. To keep two or three consecutive fasts was nothing to her."[34]In 1874, Gandhi's father Karamchand left Porbandar for the smaller state of Rajkot, where he became a counsellor to its ruler, the Thakur Sahib; though Rajkot was a less prestigious state than Porbandar, the British regional political agency was located there, which gave the state's diwan a measure of security.[35]In 1876, Karamchand became diwan of Rajkot and was succeeded as diwan of Porbandar by his brother Tulsidas. His family then rejoined him in Rajkot.[36]Gandhi (right) with his eldest brother Laxmidas in 1886.[37]At age 9, Gandhi entered the local school in Rajkot, near his home. There he studied the rudiments of arithmetic, history, the Gujarati language and geography.[36]At age 11, he joined the High School in Rajkot.[38]He was an average student, won some prizes, but was a shy and tongue tied student, with no interest in games; his only companions were books and school lessons.[39]While at high school, Gandhi's elder brother introduced him to a Muslim friend named Sheikh Mehtab. Mehtab was older in age, taller and encouraged the strictly vegetarian boy to eat meat to gain height. He also took Mohandas to a brothel one day, though Mohandas "was struck blind and dumb in this den of vice," rebuffed the prostitutes' advances and was promptly sent out of the brothel. The experience caused Mohandas mental anguish, and he abandoned the company of Mehtab.[40]In May 1883, the 13-year-old Mohandas was married to 14-year-old Kasturbai Makhanji Kapadia (her first name was usually shortened to "Kasturba", and affectionately to "Ba") in an arranged marriage, according to the custom of the region at that time.[41]In the process, he lost a year at school, but was later allowed to make up by accelerating his studies.[42]His wedding was a joint event, where his brother and cousin were also married. Recalling the day of their marriage, he once said, "As we didn't know much about marriage, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives." As was prevailing tradition, the adolescent bride was to spend much time at her parents' house, and away from her husband.[43]Writing many years later, Mohandas described with regret the lustful feelings he felt for his young bride, "even at school I used to think of her, and the thought of nightfall and our subsequent meeting was ever haunting me." He later recalled feeling jealous and possessive of her, such as when she would visit a temple with her girlfriends, and being sexually lustful in his feelings for her.[44]In late 1885, Gandhi's father Karamchand died.[45]Gandhi, then 16 years old, and his wife of age 17 had their first baby, who survived only a few days. The two deaths anguished Gandhi.[45]The Gandhi couple had four more children, all sons: Harilal, born in 1888; Manilal, born in 1892; Ramdas, born in 1897; and Devdas, born in 1900.[41]In November 1887, the 18-year-old Gandhi graduated from high school in Ahmedabad.[46]In January 1888, he enrolled at Samaldas College in Bhavnagar State, then the sole degree-granting institution of higher education in the region. But he dropped out and returned to his family in Porbandar.[47]English barristerGandhi came from a poor family, and he had dropped out of the cheapest college he could afford.[48]Mavji Dave Joshiji, a Brahmin priest and family friend, advised Gandhi and his family that he should consider law studies in London.[49]In July 1888, his wife Kasturba gave birth to their first surviving son, Harilal.[50]His mother was not comfortable about Gandhi leaving his wife and family, and going so far from home. Gandhi's uncle Tulsidas also tried to dissuade his nephew. Gandhi wanted to go. To persuade his wife and mother, Gandhi made a vow in front of his mother that he would abstain from meat, alcohol and women. Gandhi's brother Laxmidas, who was already a lawyer, cheered Gandhi's London studies plan and offered to support him. Putlibai gave Gandhi her permission and blessing.[47][51]On 10 August 1888, Gandhi aged 18, left Porbandar for Mumbai, then known as Bombay. Upon arrival, he stayed with the local Modh Bania community while waiting for the ship travel arrangements. The head of the community knew Gandhi's father. After learning Gandhi's plans, he and other elders warned Gandhi that England would tempt him to compromise his religion, and eat and drink in Western ways. Gandhi informed them of his promise to his mother and her blessings. The local chief disregarded it, and excommunicated him from his caste. But Gandhi ignored this, and on 4 September, he sailed from Bombay to London. His brother saw him off.[50][52]Gandhi attended University College, London which is a constituent college of University of London.Gandhi in London as a law studentAt UCL, he studied law and jurisprudence and was invited to enroll at Inner Temple with the intention of becoming a barrister. His childhood shyness and self withdrawal had continued through his teens, and he remained so when he arrived in London, but he joined a public speaking practice group and overcame this handicap to practise law.[53]His time in London was influenced by the vow he had made to his mother. He tried to adopt "English" customs, including taking dancing lessons. However, he could not appreciate the bland vegetarian food offered by his landlady and was frequently hungry until he found one of London's few vegetarian restaurants. Influenced by Henry Salt's writing, he joined the Vegetarian Society, was elected to its executive committee,[54]and started a local Bayswater chapter.[23]Some of the vegetarians he met were members of the Theosophical Society, which had been founded in 1875 to further universal brotherhood, and which was devoted to the study of Buddhist and Hindu literature. They encouraged Gandhi to join them in reading the Bhagavad Gita both in translation as well as in the original.[54]Gandhi, at age 22, was called to the bar in June 1891 and then left London for India, where he learned that his mother had died while he was in London and that his family had kept the news from him.[54]His attempts at establishing a law practice in Bombay failed because he was psychologically unable to cross-examine witnesses. He returned to Rajkot to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants, but he was forced to stop when he ran afoul of a British officer Sam Sunny.[23][54]In 1893, a Muslim merchant in Kathiawar named Dada Abdullah contacted Gandhi. Abdullah owned a large successful shipping business in South Africa. His distant cousin in Johannesburg needed a lawyer, and they preferred someone with Kathiawari heritage. Gandhi inquired about his pay for the work. They offered a total salary of £105 plus travel expenses. He accepted it, knowing that it would be at least one-year commitment in the Colony of Natal, South Africa, also a part of the British Empire.[23][55]Civil rights activist in South Africa (1893–1914)In April 1893, Gandhi aged 23, set sail for South Africa to be the lawyer for Abdullah's cousin.[55][56]He spent 21 years in South Africa, where he developed his political views, ethics and politics.[57]Immediately upon arriving in South Africa, Gandhi faced discrimination because of his skin colour and heritage, like all people of colour.[58]He was not allowed to sit with European passengers in the stagecoach and told to sit on the floor near the driver, then beaten when he refused; elsewhere he was kicked into a gutter for daring to walk near a house, in another instance thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg after refusing to leave the first-class.[59][60]He sat in the train station, shivering all night and pondering if he should return to India or protest for his rights.[60]He chose to protest and was allowed to board the train the next day.[61]In another incident, the magistrate of a Durban court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refused to do.[62]Indians were not allowed to walk on public footpaths in South Africa. Gandhi was kicked by a police officer out of the footpath onto the street without warning.[63]When Gandhi arrived in South Africa, according to Herman, he thought of himself as "a Briton first, and an Indian second".[64]However, the prejudice against him and his fellow Indians from British people that Gandhi experienced and observed deeply bothered him. He found it humiliating, struggling to understand how some people can feel honour or superiority or pleasure in such inhumane practices.[60]Gandhi began to question his people's standing in the British Empire.[65]The Abdullah case that had brought him to South Africa concluded in May 1894, and the Indian community organised a farewell party for Gandhi as he prepared to return to India.[66]However, a new Natal government discriminatory proposal led to Gandhi extending his original period of stay in South Africa. He planned to assist Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the right to vote, a right then proposed to be an exclusive European right. He asked Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary, to reconsider his position on this bill.[57]Though unable to halt the bill's passage, his campaign was successful in drawing attention to the grievances of Indians in South Africa. He helped found the Natal Indian Congress in 1894,[23][61]and through this organisation, he moulded the Indian community of South Africa into a unified political force. In January 1897, when Gandhi landed in Durban, a mob of white settlers attacked him[67]and he escaped only through the efforts of the wife of the police superintendent. However, he refused to press charges against any member of the mob.[23]Gandhi with the stretcher-bearers of the Indian Ambulance Corps during the Boer War.During the Boer War, Gandhi volunteered in 1900 to form a group of stretcher-bearers as the Natal Indian Ambulance Corps. According to Arthur Herman, Gandhi wanted to disprove the imperial British stereotype that Hindus were not fit for "manly" activities involving danger and exertion, unlike the Muslim "martial races".[68]Gandhi raised eleven hundred Indian volunteers, to support British combat troops against the Boers. They were trained and medically certified to serve on the front lines. They were auxiliaries at the Battle of Colenso to a White volunteer ambulance corps. At the battle of Spion Kop Gandhi and his bearers moved to the front line and had to carry wounded soldiers for miles to a field hospital because the terrain was too rough for the ambulances. Gandhi and thirty-seven other Indians received the Queen's South Africa Medal.[69]Gandhi and his wife Kasturba (1902)In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a new Act compelling registration of the colony's Indian and Chinese populations. At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolving methodology of Satyagraha (devotion to the truth), or nonviolent protest, for the first time.[70]According to Anthony Parel, Gandhi was also influenced by the Tamil text Tirukkuṛaḷ because Leo Tolstoy mentioned it in their correspondence that began with "A Letter to a Hindu".[71][72]Gandhi urged Indians to defy the new law and to suffer the punishments for doing so. Gandhi's ideas of protests, persuasion skills and public relations had emerged. He took these back to India in 1915.[73][74]Europeans, Indians and AfricansGandhi focused his attention on Indians while in South Africa. He was not interested in politics. This changed after he was discriminated against and bullied, such as by being thrown out of a train coach because of his skin colour by a white train official. After several such incidents with Whites in South Africa, Gandhi's thinking and focus changed, and he felt he must resist this and fight for rights. He entered politics by forming the Natal Indian Congress.[75]According to Ashwin Desai and Goolam Vahed, Gandhi's views on racism are contentious, and in some cases, distressing to those who admire him. Gandhi suffered persecution from the beginning in South Africa. Like with other coloured people, white officials denied him his rights, and the press and those in the streets bullied and called him a "parasite", "semi-barbarous", "canker", "squalid coolie", "yellow man", and other epithets. People would spit on him as an expression of racial hate.[76]While in South Africa, Gandhi focused on racial persecution of Indians, but ignored those of Africans. In some cases, state Desai and Vahed, his behaviour was one of being a willing part of racial stereotyping and African exploitation.[76]During a speech in September 1896, Gandhi complained that the whites in the British colony of South Africa were degrading Indian Hindus and Muslims to "a level of Kaffir".[77]Scholars cite it as an example of evidence that Gandhi at that time thought of Indians and black South Africans differently.[76]As another example given by Herman, Gandhi, at age 24, prepared a legal brief for the Natal Assembly in 1895, seeking voting rights for Indians. Gandhi cited race history and European Orientalists' opinions that "Anglo-Saxons and Indians are sprung from the same Aryan stock or rather the Indo-European peoples", and argued that Indians should not be grouped with the Africans.[66]Years later, Gandhi and his colleagues served and helped Africans as nurses and by opposing racism, according to the Nobel Peace Prize winner Nelson Mandela. The general image of Gandhi, state Desai and Vahed, has been reinvented since his assassination as if he was always a saint, when in reality his life was more complex, contained inconvenient truths and was one that evolved over time.[76]In contrast, other Africa scholars state the evidence points to a rich history of co-operation and efforts by Gandhi and Indian people with nonwhite South Africans against persecution of Africans and the Apartheid.[78]In 1906, when the British declared war against the Zulu Kingdom in Natal, Gandhi at age 36, sympathised with the Zulus, and encouraged the Indian volunteers to help as an ambulance unit.[79]He argued that Indians should participate in the war efforts to change attitudes and perceptions of the British people against the coloured people.[80]Gandhi, a group of 20 Indians and black people of South Africa volunteered as a stretcher-bearer corps to treat wounded British soldiers and the opposite side of the war: Zulu victims.[79]Gandhi photographed in South Africa (1909)White soldiers stopped Gandhi and team from treating the injured Zulu, and some African stretcher-bearers with Gandhi were shot dead by the British. The medical team commanded by Gandhi operated for less than two months.[79]Gandhi volunteering to help as a "staunch loyalist" during the Zulu and other wars made no difference in the British attitude, states Herman, and the African experience was a part of his great disillusionment with the West, transforming him into an "uncompromising non-cooperator".[80]In 1910, Gandhi established, with the help of his friend Hermann Kallenbach, an idealistic community they named 'Tolstoy Farm' near Johannesburg.[81]There he nurtured his policy of peaceful resistance.[82]In the years after black South Africans gained the right to vote in South Africa (1994), Gandhi was proclaimed a national hero with numerous monuments.[83]Struggle for Indian independence (1915–1947)See also: Indian independence movementAt the request of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, conveyed to him by C. F. Andrews, Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He brought an international reputation as a leading Indian nationalist, theorist and community organiser.Gandhi joined the Indian National Congress and was introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian people primarily by Gokhale. Gokhale was a key leader of the Congress Party best known for his restraint and moderation, and his insistence on working inside the system. Gandhi took Gokhale's liberal approach based on British Whiggish traditions and transformed it to make it look Indian.[84]Gandhi took leadership of the Congress in 1920 and began escalating demands until on 26 January 1930 the Indian National Congress declared the independence of India. The British did not recognise the declaration but negotiations ensued, with the Congress taking a role in provincial government in the late 1930s. Gandhi and the Congress withdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy declared war on Germany in September 1939 without consultation. Tensions escalated until Gandhi demanded immediate independence in 1942 and the British responded by imprisoning him and tens of thousands of Congress leaders. Meanwhile, the Muslim League did co-operate with Britain and moved, against Gandhi's strong opposition, to demands for a totally separate Muslim state of Pakistan. In August 1947 the British partitioned the land with India and Pakistan each achieving independence on terms that Gandhi disapproved.[85]Role in World War ISee also: The role of India in World War IIn April 1918, during the latter part of World War I, the Viceroy invited Gandhi to a War Conference in Delhi.[86]Gandhi agreed to actively recruit Indians for the war effort.[87][88]In contrast to the Zulu War of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914, when he recruited volunteers for the Ambulance Corps, this time Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants. In a June 1918 leaflet entitled "Appeal for Enlistment", Gandhi wrote "To bring about such a state of things we should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is, the ability to bear arms and to use them...If we want to learn the use of arms with the greatest possible despatch, it is our duty to enlist ourselves in the army."[89]He did, however, stipulate in a letter to the Viceroy's private secretary that he "personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe."[90]Gandhi's war recruitment campaign brought into question his consistency on nonviolence. Gandhi's private secretary noted that "The question of the consistency between his creed of 'Ahimsa' (nonviolence) and his recruiting campaign was raised not only then but has been discussed ever since."[87]Champaran and KhedaChamparan agitationsMain article: Champaran SatyagrahaGandhi in 1918, at the time of the Kheda and Champaran SatyagrahasGandhi's first major achievement came in 1917 with the Champaran agitation in Bihar. The Champaran agitation pitted the local peasantry against their largely British landlords who were backed by the local administration. The peasantry was forced to grow Indigo, a cash crop whose demand had been declining over two decades, and were forced to sell their crops to the planters at a fixed price. Unhappy with this, the peasantry appealed to Gandhi at his ashram in Ahmedabad. Pursuing a strategy of nonviolent protest, Gandhi took the administration by surprise and won concessions from the authorities.[91]Kheda agitationsMain article: Kheda SatyagrahaIn 1918, Kheda was hit by floods and famine and the peasantry was demanding relief from taxes. Gandhi moved his headquarters to Nadiad,[92]organising scores of supporters and fresh volunteers from the region, the most notable being Vallabhbhai Patel.[93]Using non-co-operation as a technique, Gandhi initiated a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of revenue even under the threat of confiscation of land. A social boycott of mamlatdars and talatdars (revenue officials within the district) accompanied the agitation. Gandhi worked hard to win public support for the agitation across the country. For five months, the administration refused but finally in end-May 1918, the Government gave way on important provisions and relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended. In Kheda, Vallabhbhai Patel represented the farmers in negotiations with the British, who suspended revenue collection and released all the prisoners.[94]Khilafat movementIn 1919 after the World War I was over, Gandhi (aged 49) sought political co-operation from Muslims in his fight against British imperialism by supporting the Ottoman Empire that had been defeated in the World War. Before this initiative of Gandhi, communal disputes and religious riots between Hindus and Muslims were common in British India, such as the riots of 1917–18. Gandhi had already supported the British crown with resources and by recruiting Indian soldiers to fight the war in Europe on the British side. This effort of Gandhi was in part motivated by the British promise to reciprocate the help with swaraj (self-government) to Indians after the end of World War I.[95]The British government, instead of self government, had offered minor reforms instead, disappointing Gandhi.[96]Gandhi announced his satyagraha (civil disobedience) intentions. The British colonial officials made their counter move by passing the Rowlatt Act, to block Gandhi's movement. The Act allowed the British government to treat civil disobedience participants as criminals and gave it the legal basis to arrest anyone for "preventive indefinite detention, incarceration without judicial review or any need for a trial".[97]Gandhi felt that Hindu-Muslim co-operation was necessary for political progress against the British. He leveraged the Khilafat movement, wherein Sunni Muslims in India, their leaders such as the sultans of princely states in India and Ali brothers championed the Turkish Caliph as a solidarity symbol of Sunni Islamic community (ummah). They saw the Caliph as their means to support Islam and the Islamic law after the defeat of Ottoman Empire in World War I.[98][99][100]Gandhi's support to the Khilafat movement led to mixed results. It initially led to a strong Muslim support for Gandhi. However, the Hindu leaders including Rabindranath Tagore questioned Gandhi's leadership because they were largely against recognising or supporting the Sunni Islamic Caliph in Turkey.[97][101][102]The increasing Muslim support for Gandhi, after he championed the Caliph's cause, temporarily stopped the Hindu-Muslim communal violence. It offered evidence of inter-communal harmony in joint Rowlatt satyagraha demonstration rallies, raising Gandhi's stature as the political leader to the British.[103][104]His support for the Khilafat movement also helped him sideline Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who had announced his opposition to the satyagraha non-cooperation movement approach of Gandhi. Jinnah began creating his independent support, and later went on to lead the demand for West and East Pakistan.[105][106]By the end of 1922 the Khilafat movement had collapsed.[107]Turkey's Ataturk had ended the Caliphate, Khilafat movement ended, and Muslim support for Gandhi largely evaporated.[99][100]Muslim leaders and delegates abandoned Gandhi and his Congress.[108]Hindu-Muslim communal conflicts reignited. Deadly religious riots re-appeared in numerous cities, with 91 in United Provinces of Agra and Oudh alone.[109][110]Non-co-operationMain article: Non-co-operation movementWith his book Hind Swaraj (1909) Gandhi, aged 40, declared that British rule was established in India with the co-operation of Indians and had survived only because of this co-operation. If Indians refused to co-operate, British rule would collapse and swaraj would come.[111]Sabarmati Ashram, Gandhi's home in Gujarat is now a museum (photographed in 2006).In February 1919, Gandhi cautioned the Viceroy of India with a cable communication that if the British were to pass the Rowlatt Act, he will appeal Indians to start civil disobedience.[112]The British government ignored him, passed the law stating it will not yield to threats. The satyagraha civil disobedience followed, with people assembling to protest the Rowlatt Act. On 30 March 1919, British law officers opened fire on an assembly of unarmed people, peacefully gathered, participating in satyagraha in Delhi.[112]People rioted in retaliation. On 6 April 1919, a Hindu festival day, he asked a crowd to remember not to injure or kill British people, but express their frustration with peace, to boycott British goods and burn any British clothing they own. He emphasised the use of non-violence to the British and towards each other, even if the other side uses violence. Communities across India announced plans to gather in greater numbers to protest. Government warned him to not enter Delhi. Gandhi defied the order. On 9 April, Gandhi was arrested.[112]People rioted. On 13 April 1919, people including women with children gathered in an Amritsar park, and a British officer named Reginald Dyer surrounded them and ordered his troops to fire on them. The resulting Jallianwala Bagh massacre (or Amritsar massacre) of hundreds of Sikh and Hindu civilians enraged the subcontinent, but was cheered by some Britons and parts of the British media as an appropriate response. Gandhi in Ahmedabad, on the day after the massacre in Amritsar, did not criticise the British and instead criticised his fellow countrymen for not exclusively using love to deal with the hate of the British government.[112]Gandhi demanded that people stop all violence, stop all property destruction, and went on fast-to-death to pressure Indians to stop their rioting.[113]The massacre and Gandhi's non-violent response to it moved many, but also made some Sikhs and Hindus upset that Dyer was getting away with murder. Investigation committees were formed by the British, which Gandhi asked Indians to boycott.[112]The unfolding events, the massacre and the British response, led Gandhi to the belief that Indians will never get a fair equal treatment under British rulers, and he shifted his attention to Swaraj or self rule and political independence for India.[114]In 1921, Gandhi was the leader of the Indian National Congress.[100]He reorganised the Congress. With Congress now behind him, and Muslim support triggered by his backing the Khilafat movement to restore the Caliph in Turkey,[100]Gandhi had the political support and the attention of the British Raj.[102][97][99]Gandhi spinning yarn, in the late 1920sGandhi expanded his nonviolent non-co-operation platform to include the swadeshi policy – the boycott of foreign-made goods, especially British goods. Linked to this was his advocacy that khadi (homespun cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or poor, to spend time each day spinning khadi in support of the independence movement.[115]In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British institutions and law courts, to resign from government employment, and to forsake British titles and honours. Gandhi thus began his journey aimed at crippling the British India government economically, politically and administratively.[116]The appeal of "Non-cooperation" grew, its social popularity drew participation from all strata of Indian society. Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years' imprisonment. He began his sentence on 18 March 1922. With Gandhi isolated in prison, the Indian National Congress split into two factions, one led by Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru favouring party participation in the legislatures, and the other led by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, opposing this move.[117]Furthermore, co-operation among Hindus and Muslims ended as Khilafat movement collapsed with the rise of Ataturk in Turkey. Muslim leaders left the Congress and began forming Muslim organisations. The political base behind Gandhi had broken into factions. Gandhi was released in February 1924 for an appendicitis operation, having served only two years.[118]Salt Satyagraha (Salt March)Main article: Salt SatyagrahaPlay mediaOriginal footage of Gandhi and his followers marching to Dandi in the Salt SatyagrahaAfter his early release from prison for political crimes in 1924, over the second half of the 1920s, Gandhi continued to pursue swaraj. He pushed through a resolution at the Calcutta Congress in December 1928 calling on the British government to grant India dominion status or face a new campaign of non-co-operation with complete independence for the country as its goal.[119]After his support for the World War I with Indian combat troops, and the failure of Khilafat movement in preserving the rule of Caliph in Turkey, followed by a collapse in Muslim support for his leadership, some such as Subhas Chandra Bose and Bhagat Singh questioned his values and non-violent approach.[99][120]While many Hindu leaders championed a demand for immediate independence, Gandhi revised his own call to a one-year wait, instead of two.[119]The British did not respond favourably to Gandhi's proposal. British political leaders such as Lord Birkenhead and Winston Churchill announced opposition to "the appeasers of Gandhi", in their discussions with European diplomats who sympathised with Indian demands.[121]On 31 December 1929, the flag of India was unfurled in Lahore. Gandhi led Congress celebrated 26 January 1930 as India's Independence Day in Lahore. This day was commemorated by almost every other Indian organisation. Gandhi then launched a new Satyagraha against the tax on salt in March 1930. Gandhi sent an ultimatum in the form of a polite letter to the viceroy of India, Lord Irwin, on 2 March. A young left wing British Quaker by the name of Reg Reynolds[122]delivered the letter. Gandhi condemned British rule in the letter, describing it as "a curse" that "has impoverished the dumb millions by a system of progressive exploitation and by a ruinously expensive military and civil administration... It has reduced us politically to serfdom." Gandhi also mentioned in the letter that the viceroy received a salary "over five thousand times India's average income."[123]British violence, Gandhi promised, was going to be defeated by Indian non-violence.This was highlighted by the famous Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, where, together with 78 volunteers, he marched 388 kilometres (241 mi) from Ahmedabad to Dandi, Gujarat to make salt himself, with the declared intention of breaking the salt laws. Thousands of Indians joined him on this march to the sea. The march took 25 days to cover 240 miles with Gandhi speaking to often huge crowds along the way. On 5 May he was interned under a regulation dating from 1827 in anticipation of a protest that he had planned. The protest at Dharasana salt works on 21 May went ahead without its leader, Gandhi. A horrified American journalist, Webb Miller, described the British response thus:In complete silence the Gandhi men drew up and halted a hundred yards from the stockade. A picked column advanced from the crowd, waded the ditches and approached the barbed wire stockade...at a word of command, scores of native policemen rushed upon the advancing marchers and rained blows on their heads with their steel-shot lathis [long bamboo sticks]. Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off blows. They went down like ninepins. From where I stood I heard the sickening whack of the clubs on unprotected skulls... Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing with fractured skulls or broken shoulders.[124]This went on for hours until some 300 or more protesters had been beaten, many seriously injured and two killed. At no time did they offer any resistance.This campaign was one of his most successful at upsetting British hold on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people.[125]Congress estimates, however, put the figure at 90,000. Among them was one of Gandhi's lieutenants, Jawaharlal Nehru.According to Sarma, Gandhi recruited women to participate in the salt tax campaigns and the boycott of foreign products, which gave many women a new self-confidence and dignity in the mainstream of Indian public life.[126]However, other scholars such as Marilyn French state that Gandhi barred women from joining his civil disobedience movement because he feared he would be accused of using women as political shield.[127]When women insisted that they join the movement and public demonstrations, according to Thapar-Bjorkert, Gandhi asked the volunteers to get permissions of their guardians and only those women who can arrange child-care should join him.[128]Regardless of Gandhi's apprehensions and views, Indian women joined the Salt March by the thousands to defy the British salt taxes and monopoly on salt mining. After Gandhi's arrest, the women marched and picketed shops on their own, accepting violence and verbal abuse from British authorities for the cause in a manner Gandhi inspired.[127]Gandhi as folk heroIndian workers on strike in support of Gandhi in 1930.According to Atlury Murali, Indian Congress in the 1920s appealed to Andhra Pradesh peasants by creating Telugu language plays that combined Indian mythology and legends, linked them to Gandhi's ideas, and portrayed Gandhi as a messiah, a reincarnation of ancient and medieval Indian nationalist leaders and saints. The plays built support among peasants steeped in traditional Hindu culture, according to Murali, and this effort made Gandhi a folk hero in Telugu speaking villages, a sacred messiah-like figure.[129]According to Dennis Dalton, it was the ideas that were responsible for his wide following. Gandhi criticised Western civilisation as one driven by "brute force and immorality", contrasting it with his categorisation of Indian civilisation as one driven by "soul force and morality".[130]Gandhi captured the imagination of the people of his heritage with his ideas about winning "hate with love". These ideas are evidenced in his pamphlets from the 1890s, in South Africa, where too he was popular among the Indian indentured workers. After he returned to India, people flocked to him because he reflected their values.[130]Gandhi also campaigned hard going from one rural corner of the Indian subcontinent to another. He used terminology and phrases such as Rama-rajya from Ramayana, Prahlada as a paradigmatic icon, and such cultural symbols as another facet of swaraj and satyagraha.[131]These ideas sounded strange outside India, during his lifetime, but they readily and deeply resonated with the culture and historic values of his people.[130][132]NegotiationsThe government, represented by Lord Irwin, decided to negotiate with Gandhi. The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931. The British Government agreed to free all political prisoners, in return for the suspension of the civil disobedience movement. According to the pact, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round Table Conference in London for discussions and as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference was a disappointment to Gandhi and the nationalists. Gandhi expected to discuss India's independence, while the British side focused on the Indian princes and Indian minorities rather than on a transfer of power. Lord Irwin's successor, Lord Willingdon, took a hard line against India as an independent nation, began a new campaign of controlling and subduing the nationalist movement. Gandhi was again arrested, and the government tried and failed to negate his influence by completely isolating him from his followers.[133]In Britain, Winston Churchill, a prominent Conservative politician who was then out of office but later became its prime minister, became a vigorous and articulate critic of Gandhi and opponent of his long-term plans. Churchill often ridiculed Gandhi, saying in a widely reported 1931 speech:It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr Gandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace....to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor.[134]Churchill's bitterness against Gandhi grew in the 1930s. He called Gandhi as the one who was "seditious in aim" whose evil genius and multiform menace was attacking the British empire. Churchill called him a dictator, a "Hindu Mussolini", fomenting a race war, trying to replace the Raj with Brahmin cronies, playing on the ignorance of Indian masses, all for selfish gain.[135]Churchill attempted to isolate Gandhi, and his criticism of Gandhi was widely covered by European and American press. It gained Churchill sympathetic support, but it also increased support for Gandhi among Europeans. The developments heightened Churchill's anxiety that the "British themselves would give up out of pacifism and misplaced conscience".[135]Round Table ConferencesMahadev Desai (left) was Gandhi's personal assistant, both at Birla House, Bombay, 7 April 1939During the discussions between Gandhi and the British government over 1931–32 at the Round Table Conferences, Gandhi, now aged about 62, sought constitutional reforms as a preparation to the end of colonial British rule, and begin the self-rule by Indians.[136]The British side sought reforms that would keep Indian subcontinent as a colony. The British negotiators proposed constitutional reforms on a British Dominion model that established separate electorates based on religious and social divisions. The British questioned the Congress party and Gandhi's authority to speak for all of India.[137]They invited Indian religious leaders, such as Muslims and Sikhs, to press their demands along religious lines, as well as B. R. Ambedkar as the representative leader of the untouchables.[136]Gandhi vehemently opposed a constitution that enshrined rights or representations based on communal divisions, because he feared that it would not bring people together but divide them, perpetuate their status and divert the attention from India's struggle to end the colonial rule.[138][139]After Gandhi returned from the Second Round Table conference, he started a new satyagraha. He was arrested and imprisoned at the Yerwada Jail, Pune. While he was in prison, the British government enacted a new law that granted untouchables a separate electorate. It came to be known as the Communal Award.[140]In protest, Gandhi started a fast-unto-death, while he was held in prison.[141]The resulting public outcry forced the government, in consultations with Ambedkar, to replace the Communal Award with a compromise Poona Pact.[142][143]Congress politicsIn 1934 Gandhi resigned from Congress party membership. He did not disagree with the party's position but felt that if he resigned, his popularity with Indians would cease to stifle the party's membership, which actually varied, including communists, socialists, trade unionists, students, religious conservatives, and those with pro-business convictions, and that these various voices would get a chance to make themselves heard. Gandhi also wanted to avoid being a target for Raj propaganda by leading a party that had temporarily accepted political accommodation with the Raj.[144]Gandhi returned to active politics again in 1936, with the Nehru presidency and the Lucknow session of the Congress. Although Gandhi wanted a total focus on the task of winning independence and not speculation about India's future, he did not restrain the Congress from adopting socialism as its goal. Gandhi had a clash with Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been elected president in 1938, and who had previously expressed a lack of faith in nonviolence as a means of protest.[145]Despite Gandhi's opposition, Bose won a second term as Congress President, against Gandhi's nominee, Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya; but left the Congress when the All-India leaders resigned en masse in protest of his abandonment of the principles introduced by Gandhi.[146][147]Gandhi declared that Sitaramayya's defeat was his defeat.[148]World War II and Quit India movementMain article: Quit India MovementJawaharlal Nehru and Gandhi in 1946Gandhi opposed providing any help to the British war effort and he campaigned against any Indian participation in the World War II.[149]Gandhi's campaign did not enjoy the support of Indian masses and many Indian leaders such as Sardar Patel and Rajendra Prasad. His campaign was a failure.[149]Over 2.5 million Indians ignored Gandhi, volunteered and joined the British military to fight on various fronts of the allied forces.[149]Gandhi opposition to the Indian participation in the World War II was motivated by his belief that India could not be party to a war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was denied to India itself.[150]He also condemned Nazism and Fascism, a view which won endorsement of other Indian leaders. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, calling for the British to Quit India in a 1942 speech in Mumbai.[151]This was Gandhi's and the Congress Party's most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from India.[152]The British government responded quickly to the Quit India speech, and within hours after Gandhi's speech arrested Gandhi and all the members of the Congress Working Committee.[153]His countrymen retaliated the arrests by damaging or burning down hundreds of government owned railway stations, police stations, and cutting down telegraph wires.[154]In 1942, Gandhi now nearing age 73, urged his people to completely stop co-operating with the imperial government. In this effort, he urged that they neither kill nor injure British people, but be willing to suffer and die if violence is initiated by the British officials.[151]He clarified that the movement would not be stopped because of any individual acts of violence, saying that the "ordered anarchy" of "the present system of administration" was "worse than real anarchy."[155][156]He urged Indians to Karo ya maro ("Do or die") in the cause of their rights and freedoms.[151][157]Gandhi in 1942, the year he launched the Quit India MovementGandhi's arrest lasted two years, as he was held in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. During this period, his long time secretary Mahadev Desai died of a heart attack, his wife Kasturba died after 18 months' imprisonment on 22 February 1944; and Gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack.[154]While in jail, he agreed to an interview with Stuart Gelder, a British journalist. Gelder then composed and released an interview summary, cabled it to the mainstream press, that announced sudden concessions Gandhi was willing to make, comments that shocked his countrymen, the Congress workers and even Gandhi. The latter two claimed that it distorted what Gandhi actually said on a range of topics and falsely repudiated the Quit India movement.[154]Gandhi was released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing health and necessary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison and enrage the nation. He came out of detention to an altered political scene – the Muslim League for example, which a few years earlier had appeared marginal, "now occupied the centre of the political stage"[158]and the topic of Muhammad Ali Jinnah's campaign for Pakistan was a major talking point. Gandhi and Jinnah had extensive correspondence and the two men met several times over a period of two weeks in September 1944, where Gandhi insisted on a united religiously plural and independent India which included Muslims and non-Muslims of the Indian subcontinent coexisting. Jinnah rejected this proposal and insisted instead for partitioning the subcontinent on religious lines to create a separate Muslim India (later Pakistan).[13][159]These discussions continued through 1947.[160]While the leaders of Congress languished in jail, the other parties supported the war and gained organizational strength. Underground publications flailed at the ruthless suppression of Congress, but it had little control over events.[161]At the end of the war, the British gave clear indications that power would be transferred to Indian hands. At this point Gandhi called off the struggle, and around 100,000 political prisoners were released, including the Congress's leadership.[162]Partition and independenceSee also: Indian independence movement and Partition of IndiaGandhi with Muhammad Ali Jinnah in 1944Gandhi opposed partition of the Indian subcontinent along religious lines.[163]The Indian National Congress and Gandhi called for the British to Quit India. However, the Muslim League demanded "Divide and Quit India".[164][165]Gandhi suggested an agreement which required the Congress and the Muslim League to co-operate and attain independence under a provisional government, thereafter, the question of partition could be resolved by a plebiscite in the districts with a Muslim majority.[166]Jinnah rejected Gandhi's proposal and called for Direct Action Day, on 16 August 1946, to press Muslims to publicly gather in cities and support his proposal for partition of Indian subcontinent into a Muslim state and non-Muslim state. Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, the Muslim League Chief Minister of Bengal – now Bangladesh and West Bengal, gave Calcutta's police special holiday to celebrate the Direct Action Day.[167]The Direct Action Day triggered a mass murder of Calcutta Hindus and the torching of their property, and holidaying police were missing to contain or stop the conflict.[168]The British government did not order its army to move in to contain the violence.[167]The violence on Direct Action Day led to retaliatory violence against Muslims across India. Thousands of Hindus and Muslims were murdered, and tens of thousands were injured in the cycle of violence in the days that followed.[169]Gandhi visited the most riot-prone areas to appeal a stop to the massacres.[168]Gandhi in 1947, with Lord Louis Mountbatten, Britain's last Viceroy of India, and his wife Edwina MountbattenArchibald Wavell, the Viceroy and Governor-General of British India for three years through February 1947, had worked with Gandhi and Jinnah to find a common ground, before and after accepting Indian independence in principle. Wavell condemned Gandhi's character and motives as well as his ideas. Wavell accused Gandhi of harbouring the single minded idea to "overthrow British rule and influence and to establish a Hindu raj", and called Gandhi a "malignant, malevolent, exceedingly shrewd" politician.[170]Wavell feared a civil war on the Indian subcontinent, and doubted Gandhi would be able to stop it.[170]The British reluctantly agreed to grant independence to the people of the Indian subcontinent, but accepted Jinnah's proposal of partitioning the land into Pakistan and India. Gandhi was involved in the final negotiations, but Stanley Wolpert states the "plan to carve up British India was never approved of or accepted by Gandhi".[171]The partition was controversial and violently disputed. More than half a million were killed in religious riots as 10 million to 12 million non-Muslims (Hindus, Sikhs mostly) migrated from Pakistan into India, and Muslims migrated from India into Pakistan, across the newly created borders of India, West Pakistan and East Pakistan.[172]Gandhi spent the day of independence not celebrating the end of the British rule but appealing for peace among his countrymen by fasting and spinning in Calcutta on 15 August 1947. The partition had gripped the Indian subcontinent with religious violence and the streets were filled with corpses.[173]Some writers credit Gandhi's fasting and protests for stopping the religious riots and communal violence. Others do not. Archibald Wavell, for example, upon learning of Gandhi's assassination, commented, "I always thought he [Gandhi] had more of malevolence than benevolence in him, but who am I to judge, and how can an Englishman estimate a Hindu?"[170]AssassinationMain article: Assassination of Mahatma GandhiAt 5:17 pm on 30 January 1948, Gandhi was with his grandnieces in the garden of the former Birla House (now Gandhi Smriti), on his way to address a prayer meeting, when Nathuram Godse fired three bullets from a Beretta M1934 9mm Corto pistol into his chest at point-blank range. According to some accounts, Gandhi died instantly.[174][175]In other accounts, such as one prepared by an eyewitness journalist, Gandhi was carried into the Birla House, into a bedroom. There he died about 30 minutes later as one of Gandhi's family members read verses from Hindu scriptures.[176]Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru addressed his countrymen over the All-India Radio saying:[177]Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me, but for millions and millions in this country.[178]Memorial where Gandhi was assassinated in 1948. His stylised footsteps lead to the memorial.Gandhi's assassin Godse made no attempt to escape and was seized by the witnesses. He was arrested. In the weeks that followed, his collaborators were arrested as well.[179][180]Godse was a Hindu nationalist with links to the extremist Hindu Mahasabha.[181]They were tried in court at Delhi's Red Fort. At his trial, Godse did not deny the charges nor express any remorse. According to Claude Markovits, a French historian noted for his studies of colonial India, Godse stated that he killed Gandhi because of his complacence towards Muslims, holding Gandhi responsible for the frenzy of violence and sufferings during the subcontinent's partition into Pakistan and India. Godse accused Gandhi of subjectivism and of acting as if only he had a monopoly of the truth. Godse was found guilty and executed in 1949.[182][183]Gandhi's funeral was marked by millions of Indians.[184]Gandhi's death was mourned nationwide. Over two million people joined the five-mile long funeral procession that took over five hours to reach Raj Ghat from Birla house, where he was assassinated. Gandhi's body was transported on a weapons carrier, whose chassis was dismantled overnight to allow a high-floor to be installed so that people could catch a glimpse of his body. The engine of the vehicle was not used; instead four drag-ropes manned by 50 people each pulled the vehicle.[185]All Indian-owned establishments in London remained closed in mourning as thousands of people from all faiths and denominations and Indians from all over Britain converged at India House in London.[186]Gandhi's assassination dramatically changed the political landscape. Nehru became his political heir. According to Markovits, while Gandhi was alive, Pakistan's declaration that it was a "Muslim state" had led Indian groups to demand that it be declared a "Hindu state".[182]Nehru used Gandhi's martyrdom as a political weapon to silence all advocates of Hindu nationalism as well as his political challengers. He linked Gandhi's assassination to politics of hatred and ill-will.[182]According to Guha, Nehru and his Congress colleagues called on Indians to honour Gandhi's memory and even more his ideals.[187][188]Nehru used the assassination to consolidate the authority of the new Indian state. Gandhi's death helped marshal support for the new government and legitimise the Congress Party's control, leveraged by the massive outpouring of Hindu expressions of grief for a man who had inspired them for decades. The government suppressed the RSS, the Muslim National Guards, and the Khaksars, with some 200,000 arrests.[189]For years after the assassination, states Markovits, "Gandhi's shadow loomed large over the political life of the new Indian Republic". The government quelled any opposition to its economic and social policies, despite they being contrary to Gandhi's ideas, by reconstructing Gandhi's image and ideals.[190]Funeral and memorialsGandhi was cremated in accordance with Hindu tradition. Gandhi's ashes were poured into urns which were sent across India for memorial services.[191]Most of the ashes were immersed at the Sangam at Allahabad on 12 February 1948, but some were secretly taken away. In 1997, Tushar Gandhi immersed the contents of one urn, found in a bank vault and reclaimed through the courts, at the Sangam at Allahabad.[192][193]Some of Gandhi's ashes were scattered at the source of the Nile River near Jinja, Uganda, and a memorial plaque marks the event. On 30 January 2008, the contents of another urn were immersed at Girgaum Chowpatty. Another urn is at the palace of the Aga Khan in Pune (where Gandhi was held as a political prisoner from 1942 to 1944) and another in the Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in Los Angeles.[192][194]The Birla House site where Gandhi was assassinated is now a memorial called Gandhi Smriti. The place near Yamuna river where he was cremated is the Rāj Ghāt memorial in New Delhi.[195]A black marble platform, it bears the epigraph "Hē Rāma" (Devanagari: हे ! राम or, Hey Raam). These are widely believed to be Gandhi's last words after he was shot, though the veracity of this statement has been disputed.[196]Principles, practices and beliefsGandhi's statements, letters and life have attracted much political and scholarly analysis of his principles, practices and beliefs, including what influenced him. Some writers present him as a paragon of ethical living and pacifism, while others present him as a more complex, contradictory and evolving character influenced by his culture and circumstances.[197][198]InfluencesGandhi with poet Rabindranath Tagore, 1940Gandhi grew up in a Hindu and Jain religious atmosphere in his native Gujarat, which were his primary influences, but he was also influenced by his personal reflections and literature of Hindu Bhakti saints, Advaita Vedanta, Islam, Buddhism, Christianity, and thinkers such as Tolstoy, Ruskin and Thoreau.[199][200]At age 57 he declared himself to be Advaitist Hindu in his religious persuasion, but added that he supported Dvaitist viewpoints and religious pluralism.[201][202][203]Gandhi was influenced by his devout Vaishnava Hindu mother, the regional Hindu temples and saint tradition which co-existed with Jain tradition in Gujarat.[199][204]Historian R.B. Cribb states that Gandhi's thought evolved over time, with his early ideas becoming the core or scaffolding for his mature philosophy. He committed himself early to truthfulness, temperance, chastity, and vegetarianism.[205]Gandhi's London lifestyle incorporated the values he had grown up with. When he returned to India in 1891, his outlook was parochial and he could not make a living as a lawyer. This challenged his belief that practicality and morality necessarily coincided. By moving in 1893 to South Africa he found a solution to this problem and developed the central concepts of his mature philosophy.[206]According to Bhikhu Parekh, three books that influenced Gandhi most in South Africa were William Salter's Ethical Religion (1889); Henry David Thoreau's On the Duty of Civil Disobedience (1849); and Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You (1894). Ruskin inspired his decision to live an austere life on a commune, at first on the Phoenix Farm in Natal and then on the Tolstoy Farm just outside Johannesburg, South Africa.[58]The most profound influence on Gandhi were those from Hinduism, Christianity and Jainism, states Parekh, with his thoughts "in harmony with the classical Indian traditions, specially the Advaita or monistic tradition".[207]According to Indira Carr and others, Gandhi was influenced by Vaishnavism, Jainism and Advaita Vedanta.[208][209]Balkrishna Gokhale states that Gandhi was influenced by Hinduism and Jainism, and his studies of Sermon on the Mount of Christianity, Ruskin and Tolstoy.[210]Additional theories of possible influences on Gandhi have been proposed. For example, in 1935, N. A. Toothi stated that Gandhi was influenced by the reforms and teachings of the Swaminarayan tradition of Hinduism. According to Raymond Williams, Toothi may have overlooked the influence of the Jain community, and adds close parallels do exist in programs of social reform in the Swaminarayan tradition and those of Gandhi, based on "nonviolence, truth-telling, cleanliness, temperance and upliftment of the masses."[211][212]Historian Howard states the culture of Gujarat influenced Gandhi and his methods.[213]TolstoyMohandas K. Gandhi and other residents of Tolstoy Farm, South Africa, 1910Along with the book mentioned above, in 1908 Leo Tolstoy wrote A Letter to a Hindu, which said that only by using love as a weapon through passive resistance could the Indian people overthrow colonial rule. In 1909, Gandhi wrote to Tolstoy seeking advice and permission to republish A Letter to a Hindu in Gujarati. Tolstoy responded and the two continued a correspondence until Tolstoy's death in 1910 (Tolstoy's last letter was to Gandhi).[214]The letters concern practical and theological applications of nonviolence.[215]Gandhi saw himself a disciple of Tolstoy, for they agreed regarding opposition to state authority and colonialism; both hated violence and preached non-resistance. However, they differed sharply on political strategy. Gandhi called for political involvement; he was a nationalist and was prepared to use nonviolent force. He was also willing to compromise.[216]It was at Tolstoy Farm where Gandhi and Hermann Kallenbach systematically trained their disciples in the philosophy of nonviolence.[217]Shrimad RajchandraGandhi credited Shrimad Rajchandra, a poet and Jain philosopher, as his influential counsellor. In Modern Review, June 1930, Gandhi wrote about their first encounter in 1891 at Dr. P.J. Mehta's residence in Bombay. Gandhi exchanged letters with Rajchandra when he was in South Africa, referring to him as Kavi (literally, "poet"). In 1930, Gandhi wrote, "Such was the man who captivated my heart in religious matters as no other man ever has till now."[218]'I have said elsewhere that in moulding my inner life Tolstoy and Ruskin vied with Kavi. But Kavi's influence was undoubtedly deeper if only because I had come in closest personal touch with him.'[219]Gandhi, in his autobiography, called Rajchandra his "guide and helper" and his "refuge [...] in moments of spiritual crisis". He had advised Gandhi to be patient and to study Hinduism deeply.[220][221][222]Religious textsDuring his stay in South Africa, along with scriptures and philosophical texts of Hinduism and other Indian religions, Gandhi read translated texts of Christianity such as the Bible, and Islam such as the Quran.[223]A Quaker mission in South Africa attempted to convert him to Christianity. Gandhi joined them in their prayers and debated Christian theology with them, but refused conversion stating he did not accept the theology therein or that Christ was the only son of God.[223][224][225]His comparative studies of religions and interaction with scholars, led him to respect all religions as well as become concerned about imperfections in all of them and frequent misinterpretations.[223]Gandhi grew fond of Hinduism, and referred to the Bhagavad Gita as his spiritual dictionary and greatest single influence on his life.[223][226][227]On wars and nonviolenceSupport for WarsGandhi participated in South African war against the Boers, on the British side in 1899.[228]Both the Dutch settlers called Boers and the imperial British at that time discriminated against the coloured races they considered as inferior, and Gandhi later wrote about his conflicted beliefs during the Boer war. He stated that "when the war was declared, my personal sympathies were all with the Boers, but my loyalty to the British rule drove me to participation with the British in that war". According to Gandhi, he felt that since he was demanding his rights as a British citizen, it was also his duty to serve the British forces in the defence of the British Empire.[229][230]During World War I (1914–1918), nearing the age of 50, Gandhi supported the British and its allied forces by recruiting Indians to join the British army, expanding the Indian contingent from about 100,000 to over 1.1 million.[96][228]He encouraged his people to fight on one side of the war in Europe and Africa at the cost of their lives.[228]Pacifists criticised and questioned Gandhi, who defended these practices by stating, according to Sankar Ghose, "it would be madness for me to sever my connection with the society to which I belong".[228]According to Keith Robbins, the recruitment effort was in part motivated by the British promise to reciprocate the help with swaraj (self-government) to Indians after the end of World War I.[95]After the war, the British government offered minor reforms instead, which disappointed Gandhi.[96]He launched his satyagraha movement in 1919. In parallel, Gandhi's fellowmen became sceptical of his pacifist ideas and were inspired by the ideas of nationalism and anti-imperialism.[231]In a 1920 essay, after the World War I, Gandhi wrote, "where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence." Rahul Sagar interprets Gandhi's efforts to recruit for the British military during the War, as Gandhi's belief that, at that time, it would demonstrate that Indians were willing to fight. Further, it would also show the British that his fellow Indians were "their subjects by choice rather than out of cowardice." In 1922, Gandhi wrote that abstinence from violence is effective and true forgiveness only when one has the power to punish, not when one decides not to do anything because one is helpless.[232]After World War II engulfed Britain, Gandhi actively campaigned to oppose any help to the British war effort and any Indian participation in the war. According to Arthur Herman, Gandhi believed that his campaign would strike a blow to imperialism.[149]Gandhi's position was not supported by many Indian leaders, and his campaign against the British war effort was a failure. The Hindu leader, Tej Bahadur Sapru declared in 1941, states Herman, "A good many Congress leaders are fed up with the barren program of the Mahatma".[149]Over 2.5 million Indians ignored Gandhi, volunteered and joined on the British side. They fought and died as a part of the allied forces in Europe, North Africa and various fronts of the World War II.[149]Truth and SatyagrahaPlaque displaying one of Gandhi's quotes on rumourGandhi dedicated his life to discovering and pursuing truth, or Satya, and called his movement as satyagraha, which means "appeal to, insistence on, or reliance on the Truth".[233]The first formulation of the satyagraha as a political movement and principle occurred in 1920, which he tabled as "Resolution on Non-cooperation" in September that year before a session of the Indian Congress. It was the satyagraha formulation and step, states Dennis Dalton, that deeply resonated with beliefs and culture of his people, embedded him into the popular consciousness, transforming him quickly into Mahatma.[234]"God is truth. The way to truth lies through ahimsa (nonviolence)" – Sabarmati, 13 March 1927Gandhi based Satyagraha on the Vedantic ideal of self-realization, ahimsa (nonviolence), vegetarianism, and universal love. William Borman states that the key to his satyagraha is rooted in the Hindu Upanishadic texts.[235]According to Indira Carr, Gandhi's ideas on ahimsa and satyagraha were founded on the philosophical foundations of Advaita Vedanta.[236]I. Bruce Watson states that some of these ideas are found not only in traditions within Hinduism, but also in Jainism or Buddhism, particularly those about non-violence, vegetarianism and universal love, but Gandhi's synthesis was to politicise these ideas.[237]Gandhi's concept of satya as a civil movement, states Glyn Richards, are best understood in the context of the Hindu terminology of Dharma and Ṛta.[238]Gandhi stated that the most important battle to fight was overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities. Gandhi summarised his beliefs first when he said "God is Truth". He would later change this statement to "Truth is God". Thus, satya (truth) in Gandhi's philosophy is "God".[239]Gandhi, states Richards, described the term "God" not as a separate power, but as the Being (Brahman, Atman) of the Advaita Vedanta tradition, a nondual universal that pervades in all things, in each person and all life.[238]According to Nicholas Gier, this to Gandhi meant the unity of God and humans, that all beings have the same one soul and therefore equality, that atman exists and is same as everything in the universe, ahimsa (non-violence) is the very nature of this atman.[240]Gandhi picking salt during Salt Satyagraha to defy colonial law giving salt collection monopoly to the British.[241]His satyagraha attracted vast numbers of Indian men and women.[242]The essence of Satyagraha is "soul force" as a political means, refusing to use brute force against the oppressor, seeking to eliminate antagonisms between the oppressor and the oppressed, aiming to transform or "purify" the oppressor. It is not inaction but determined passive resistance and non-co-operation where, states Arthur Herman, "love conquers hate".[243]A euphemism sometimes used for Satyagraha is that it is a "silent force" or a "soul force" (a term also used by Martin Luther King Jr. during his famous "I Have a Dream" speech). It arms the individual with moral power rather than physical power. Satyagraha is also termed a "universal force", as it essentially "makes no distinction between kinsmen and strangers, young and old, man and woman, friend and foe."[244]Gandhi wrote: "There must be no impatience, no barbarity, no insolence, no undue pressure. If we want to cultivate a true spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intolerant. Intolerance betrays want of faith in one's cause."[245]Civil disobedience and non-co-operation as practised under Satyagraha are based on the "law of suffering",[246]a doctrine that the endurance of suffering is a means to an end. This end usually implies a moral upliftment or progress of an individual or society. Therefore, non-co-operation in Satyagraha is in fact a means to secure the co-operation of the opponent consistently with truth and justice.[247]While Gandhi's idea of satyagraha as a political means attracted a widespread following among Indians, the support was not universal. For example, Muslim leaders such as Jinnah opposed the satyagraha idea, accused Gandhi to be reviving Hinduism through political activism, and began effort to counter Gandhi with Muslim nationalism and a demand for Muslim homeland.[248][249][250]The untouchability leader Ambedkar, in June 1945, after his decision to convert to Buddhism and a key architect of the Constitution of modern India, dismissed Gandhi's ideas as loved by "blind Hindu devotees", primitive, influenced by spurious brew of Tolstoy and Ruskin, and "there is always some simpleton to preach them".[251][252]Winston Churchill caricatured Gandhi as a "cunning huckster" seeking selfish gain, an "aspiring dictator", and an "atavistic spokesman of a pagan Hinduism". Churchill stated that the civil disobedience movement spectacle of Gandhi only increased "the danger to which white people there [British India] are exposed".[253]NonviolenceGandhi with textile workers at Darwen, Lancashire, 26 September 1931Although Gandhi was not the originator of the principle of nonviolence, he was the first to apply it in the political field on a large scale.[254]The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) has a long history in Indian religious thought, with it being considered the highest dharma (ethical value virtue), a precept to be observed towards all living beings (sarvbhuta), at all times (sarvada), in all respects (sarvatha), in action, words and thought.[255]Gandhi explains his philosophy and ideas about ahimsa as a political means in his autobiography The Story of My Experiments with Truth.[256][257][258]Gandhi was criticised for refusing to protest the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Udham Singh and Rajguru.[259][260]He was accused of accepting a deal with the King's representative Irwin that released civil disobedience leaders from prison and accepted the death sentence against the highly popular revolutionary Bhagat Singh, who at his trial had replied, "Revolution is the inalienable right of mankind".[120]Gandhi's views came under heavy criticism in Britain when it was under attack from Nazi Germany, and later when the Holocaust was revealed. He told the British people in 1940, "I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions... If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourselves, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them."[261]George Orwell remarked that Gandhi's methods confronted 'an old-fashioned and rather shaky despotism which treated him in a fairly chivalrous way', not a totalitarian Power, 'where political opponents simply disappear.'[262]In a post-war interview in 1946, he said, "Hitler killed five million Jews. It is the greatest crime of our time. But the Jews should have offered themselves to the butcher's knife. They should have thrown themselves into the sea from cliffs... It would have aroused the world and the people of Germany... As it is they succumbed anyway in their millions."[263]Gandhi believed this act of "collective suicide", in response to the Holocaust, "would have been heroism".[264]On inter-religious relationsBuddhists, Jains and SikhsGandhi believed that Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism were traditions of Hinduism, with shared history, rites and ideas. At other times, he acknowledged that he knew little about Buddhism other than his reading of Edwin Arnold's book on it. Based on that book, he considered Buddhism to be a reform movement and the Buddha to be a Hindu.[265]He stated he knew Jainism much more, and he credited Jains to have profoundly influenced him. Sikhism, to Gandhi, was an integral part of Hinduism, in the form of another reform movement. Sikh and Buddhist leaders disagreed with Gandhi, a disagreement Gandhi respected as a difference of opinion.[265][266]JewsAccording to Kumaraswamy, Gandhi initially supported Arab demands with respect to Palestine. He justified this support by invoking Islam, stating that "non-Muslims cannot acquire sovereign jurisdiction" in Jazirat al-Arab (the Arabian Peninsula).[267]These arguments, states Kumaraswamy, were a part of his political strategy to win Muslim support during the Khilafat movement. In the post-Khilafat period, Gandhi neither negated Jewish demands nor did he use Islamic texts or history to support Muslim claims against Israel. Gandhi's silence after the Khilafat period may represent an evolution in his understanding of the conflicting religious claims over Palestine, according to Kumaraswamy.[267]In 1938, Gandhi spoke in favour of Jewish claims, and in March 1946, he said to the Member of British Parliament Sidney Silverman, "if the Arabs have a claim to Palestine, the Jews have a prior claim", a position very different from his earlier stance.[267][268]Gandhi discussed the persecution of the Jews in Germany and the emigration of Jews from Europe to Palestine through his lens of Satyagraha.[173][269]In 1937, Gandhi discussed Zionism with his close Jewish friend Hermann Kallenbach.[270]He said that Zionism was not the right answer to the problems faced by Jews[271]and instead recommended Satyagraha. Gandhi thought the Zionists in Palestine represented European imperialism and used violence to achieve their goals; he argued that "the Jews should disclaim any intention of realizing their aspiration under the protection of arms and should rely wholly on the goodwill of Arabs. No exception can possibly be taken to the natural desire of the Jews to find a home in Palestine. But they must wait for its fulfillment till Arab opinion is ripe for it."[173]In 1938, Gandhi stated that his "sympathies are all with the Jews. I have known them intimately in South Africa. Some of them became life-long companions." Philosopher Martin Buber was highly critical of Gandhi's approach and in 1939 wrote an open letter to him on the subject. Gandhi reiterated his stance that "the Jews seek to convert the Arab heart", and use "satyagraha in confronting the Arabs" in 1947.[272]According to Simone Panter-Brick, Gandhi's political position on Jewish-Arab conflict evolved over the 1917-1947 period, shifting from a support for the Arab position first, and for the Jewish position in the 1940s.[273]ChristiansGandhi criticised as well as praised Christianity. He was critical of Christian missionary efforts in British India, because they mixed medical or education assistance with demands that the beneficiary convert to Christianity.[274]According to Gandhi, this was not true "service" but one driven by ulterior motive of luring people into religious conversion and exploiting the economically or medically desperate. It did not lead to inner transformation or moral advance or to the Christian teaching of "love", but was based on false one-sided criticisms of other religions, when Christian societies faced similar problems in South Africa and Europe. It led to the converted person hating his neighbours and other religions, it divided people rather than bringing them closer in compassion. According to Gandhi, "no religious tradition could claim a monopoly over truth or salvation".[274][275]Gandhi did not support laws to prohibit missionary activity, but demanded that Christians should first understand the message of Jesus, and then strive to live without stereotyping and misrepresenting other religions. According to Gandhi, the message of Jesus wasn't to humiliate and imperialistically rule over other people considering them inferior or second class or slaves, but that "when the hungry are fed and peace comes to our individual and collective life, then Christ is born".[276]Gandhi believed that his long acquaintance with Christianity had made him like it as well as find it imperfect. He asked Christians to stop humiliating his country and his people as heathens, idolators and other abusive language, and to change their negative views of India. He believed that Christians should introspect on the "true meaning of religion" and get a desire to study and learn from Indian religions in the spirit of universal brotherhood.[276]According to Eric Sharpe – a professor of Religious Studies, though Gandhi was born in a Hindu family and later became Hindu by conviction, many Christians in time thought of him as an "exemplary Christian and even as a saint".[277]Some colonial era Christian preachers and faithfuls considered Gandhi as a saint.[278][279][280]Biographers from France and Britain have drawn parallels between Gandhi and Christian saints. Recent scholars question these romantic biographies and state that Gandhi was neither a Christian figure nor mirrored a Christian saint.[281]Gandhi's life is better viewed as exemplifying his belief in the "convergence of various spiritualities" of a Christian and a Hindu, states Michael de Saint-Cheron.[281]MuslimsGandhi believed there were material contradictions between Hinduism and Islam, and he shared his thoughts on the Quran and Muslims many times.[282]He stated in 1925, for example, that he had not criticised the teachings of the Quran, but he did criticise the interpreters of Quran. Gandhi believed that numerous interpreters have interpreted it to fit their preconceived notions.[283]He believed Muslims should welcome criticism of Quran, because "every true scripture only gains from criticism". Gandhi criticised Muslims who "betray intolerance of criticism by a non-Muslim of anything related to Islam", such as the penalty of stoning to death under Islamic law. To Gandhi, Islam has "nothing to fear from criticism even if it be unreasonable".[284][282]According to him, Islam like communism was too quick in resorting to violence.[285]One of the strategies Gandhi adopted was to work with Muslim leaders of pre-partition India, to oppose the British imperialism in and outside the Indian subcontinent.[99][100]After the World War I, in 1919–22, he won Muslim leadership support of Ali Brothers by backing the Khilafat Movement in favour the Islamic Caliph and his historic Ottoman Caliphate, and opposing the secular Islam supporting Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. By 1924, Ataturk had ended the Caliphate, the Khilafat Movement was over, and Muslim support for Gandhi had largely evaporated.[99][286][100]In 1925, Gandhi gave another reason to why he got involved in the Khilafat movement and the Middle East affairs between Britain and the Ottoman Empire. Gandhi explained to his co-religionists (Hindu) that he sympathised and campaigned for the Islamic cause, not because he cared for the Sultan, but because "I wanted to enlist the Mussalman's sympathy in the matter of cow protection".[287]According to the historian M. Naeem Qureshi, like the then Indian Muslim leaders who had combined religion and politics, Gandhi too imported his religion into his political strategy during the Khilafat movement.[288]In the 1940s, Gandhi pooled ideas with some Muslim leaders who sought religious harmony like him, and opposed the proposed partition of British India into India and Pakistan. For example, his close friend Badshah Khan suggested that they should work towards opening Hindu temples for Muslim prayers, and Islamic mosques for Hindu prayers, to bring the two religious groups closer.[289]Gandhi accepted this and began having Muslim prayers read in Hindu temples to play his part, but was unable to get Hindu prayers read in mosques. The Hindu nationalist groups objected and began confronting Gandhi for this one-sided practice, by shouting and demonstrating inside the Hindu temples, in the last years of his life.[290][183][291]SufismGandhi was acquainted with the Sufi Islam's Chishti Order, which he discovered during his stay in South Africa. He attended Khanqah gatherings there at Riverside. According to Margaret Chatterjee, Gandhi as a Vaishnava Hindu shared values such as humility, devotion and brotherhood for the poor that is also found in Sufism.[292][293]On life, society and other application of his ideasVegetarianism, food, and animalsGandhi was brought up as a vegetarian by his devout Hindu mother.[294][295]The idea of vegetarianism is deeply ingrained in Hindu Vaishnavism and Jain traditions in India, such as in his native Gujarat, where meat is considered as a form of food obtained by violence to animals.[296][297]Gandhi's rationale for vegetarianism was largely along those found in Hindu and Jain texts. Gandhi believed that any form of food inescapably harms some form of living organism, but one should seek to understand and reduce the violence in what one consumes because "there is essential unity of all life".[295][298]Gandhi believed that some life forms are more capable of suffering, and non-violence to him meant not having the intent as well as active efforts to minimise hurt, injury or suffering to all life forms.[298]Gandhi explored food sources that reduced violence to various life forms in the food chain. He believed that slaughtering animals is unnecessary, as other sources of foods are available.[296]He also consulted with vegetarianism campaigners during his lifetime, such as with Henry Stephens Salt. Food to Gandhi was not only a source of sustaining one's body, but a source of his impact on other living beings, and one that affected his mind, character and spiritual well being.[299][300][301]He avoided not only meat, but also eggs and milk. Gandhi wrote the book The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism and wrote for the London Vegetarian Society's publication.[302]Beyond his religious beliefs, Gandhi stated another motivation for his experiments with diet. He attempted to find the most non-violent vegetarian meal that the poorest human could afford, taking meticulous notes on vegetables and fruits, and his observations with his own body and his ashram in Gujarat.[303][304]He tried fresh and dry fruits (Fruitarianism), then just sun dried fruits, before resuming his prior vegetarian diet on advice of his doctor and concerns of his friends. His experiments with food began in the 1890s and continued for several decades.[303][304]For some of these experiments, Gandhi combined his own ideas with those found on diet in Indian yoga texts. He believed that each vegetarian should experiment with his or her diet because, in his studies at his ashram he saw "one man's food may be poison for another".[305][306]Gandhi championed animal rights in general. Other than making vegetarian choices, he actively campaigned against dissection studies and experimentation on live animals (vivisection) in the name of science and medical studies.[296]He considered it a violence against animals, something that inflicted pain and suffering. He wrote, "Vivisection in my opinion is the blackest of all the blackest crimes that man is at present committing against god and his fair creation."[307]FastingSee also: List of fasts undertaken by Mahatma GandhiGandhi's last political protest using fasting, in January 1948Gandhi used fasting as a political device, often threatening suicide unless demands were met. Congress publicised the fasts as a political action that generated widespread sympathy. In response the government tried to manipulate news coverage to minimise his challenge to the Raj. He fasted in 1932 to protest the voting scheme for separate political representation for Dalits; Gandhi did not want them segregated. The British government stopped the London press from showing photographs of his emaciated body, because it would elicit sympathy. Gandhi's 1943 hunger strike took place during a two-year prison term for the anticolonial Quit India movement. The government called on nutritional experts to demystify his action, and again no photos were allowed. However, his final fast in 1948, after the end of British rule in India, his hunger strike was lauded by the British press and this time did include full-length photos.[308]Alter states that Gandhi's fasting, vegetarianism and diet was more than a political leverage, it was a part of his experiments with self restraint and healthy living. He was "profoundly skeptical of traditional Ayurveda", encouraging it to study the scientific method and adopt its progressive learning approach. Gandhi believed yoga offered health benefits. He believed that a healthy nutritional diet based on regional foods and hygiene were essential to good health[309]. Recently ICMR made Gandhi's health records public in a book 'Gandhi and Health@150'. These records indicate that despite being underweight at 46.7 kgs Gandhi was generally healthy. He avoided modern medication and experiemented extensively with water and earth healing. While his cardio records show his heart was normal, there were several instances he suffered from ailments like Malaria and was also operated twice for piles and appendicts. Despite health challenges Gandhi was able to walk about 79000 kms in his lifetime which comes to an average of 18 kms per day and is equivalent to walking around the earth twice[310].WomenGandhi strongly favoured the emancipation of women, and urged "the women to fight for their own self-development." He opposed purdah, child marriage, dowry and sati.[311]A wife is not a slave of the husband, stated Gandhi, but his comrade, better half, colleague and friend, according to Lyn Norvell.[311]In his own life however, according to Suruchi Thapar-Bjorkert, Gandhi's relationship with his wife were at odds with some of these values.[128]At various occasions, Gandhi credited his orthodox Hindu mother, and his wife, for first lessons in satyagraha.[312]He used the legends of Hindu goddess Sita to expound women's innate strength, autonomy and "lioness in spirit" whose moral compass can make any demon "as helpless as a goat".[312]To Gandhi, the women of India were an important part of the "swadeshi movement" (Buy Indian), and his goal of decolonising the Indian economy.[312]Some historians such as Angela Woollacott and Kumari Jayawardena state that even though Gandhi often and publicly expressed his belief in the equality of sexes, yet his vision was one of gender difference and complementarity between them. Women, to Gandhi, should be educated to be better in the domestic realm and educate the next generation. His views on women's rights were less liberal and more similar to puritan-Victorian expectations of women, states Jayawardena, than other Hindu leaders with him who supported economic independence and equal gender rights in all aspects.[313][314]Brahmacharya: abstinence from sex and foodAlong with many other texts, Gandhi studied Bhagavad Gita while in South Africa.[315]This Hindu scripture discusses jnana yoga, bhakti yoga and karma yoga along with virtues such as non-violence, patience, integrity, lack of hypocrisy, self restraint and abstinence.[316]Gandhi began experiments with these, and in 1906 at age 37, although married and a father, he vowed to abstain from sexual relations.[315]Gandhi's experiment with abstinence went beyond sex, and extended to food. He consulted the Jain scholar Rajchandra, whom he fondly called Raychandbhai.[317]Rajchandra advised him that milk stimulated sexual passion. Gandhi began abstaining from cow's milk in 1912, and did so even when doctors advised him to consume milk.[221][318]According to Sankar Ghose, Tagore described Gandhi as someone who did not abhor sex or women, but considered sexual life as inconsistent with his moral goals.[319]Gandhi tried to test and prove to himself his brahmacharya. The experiments began some time after the death of his wife in February 1944. At the start of his experiment he had women sleep in the same room but in different beds. He later slept with women in the same bed but clothed, and finally he slept naked with women. In April 1945, Gandhi referenced being naked with several "women or girls" in a letter to Birla as part of the experiments.[320]According to the 1960s memoir of his grandniece Manu, Gandhi feared in early 1947 that he and she may be killed by Muslims in the run up to India's independence in August 1947, and asked her when she was 18 years old if she wanted to help him with his experiments to test their "purity", for which she readily accepted.[321]Gandhi slept naked in the same bed with Manu with the bedroom doors open all night. Manu stated that the experiment had no "ill effect" on her. Gandhi also shared his bed with 18-year-old Abha, wife of his grandnephew Kanu. Gandhi would sleep with both Manu and Abha at the same time.[321][322]None of the women who participated in the brahmachari experiments of Gandhi indicated that they had sex or that Gandhi behaved in any sexual way. Those who went public said they felt as though they were sleeping with their ageing mother.[319][320][323]According to Sean Scalmer, Gandhi in his final year of life was an ascetic, looked ugly and a sickly skeletal figure, already caricatured in the Western media.[324]In February 1947, he asked his confidants such as Birla and Ramakrishna if it was wrong for him to experiment his brahmacharya oath.[319]Gandhi's public experiments, as they progressed, were widely discussed and criticised by his family members and leading politicians. However, Gandhi said that if he would not let Manu sleep with him, it would be a sign of weakness. Some of his staff resigned, including two of his newspaper's editors who had refused to print some of Gandhi's sermons dealing with his experiments.[321]Nirmalkumar Bose, Gandhi's Bengali interpreter, for example criticised Gandhi, not because Gandhi did anything wrong, but because Bose was concerned about the psychological effect on the women who participated in his experiments.[322]Veena Howard states Gandhi's views on brahmacharya and religious renunciation experiments were a method to confront women issues in his times.[325]Untouchability and castesGandhi spoke out against untouchability early in his life.[326]Before 1932, he and his colleagues used the term Antyaja for untouchables. One of the major speeches he made on untouchability was at Nagpur in 1920, where he called untouchability as a great evil in Hindu society. In his remarks, he stated that the phenomena of untouchability is not unique to the Hindu society, but has deeper roots because Europeans in South Africa treat "all of us, Hindus and Muslims, as untouchables; we may not reside in their midst, nor enjoy the rights which they do".[327]He called it intolerable. He stated this practice can be eradicated, Hinduism is flexible to allow this, and a concerted effort is needed to persuade it is wrong and by all to eradicate it.[327]According to Christophe Jaffrelot, while Gandhi considered untouchability to be wrong and evil, he believed that caste or class are based neither on inequality nor on inferiority.[326]Gandhi believed that individuals should freely intermarry whoever they want to, but no one should expect everyone to befriend them. Every individual regardless of his or her background, stated Gandhi, has a right to choose who they welcome into their home, who they befriend and who they spend time with.[326][327]In 1932, Gandhi began a new campaign to improve the lives of the untouchables, whom he started referring to as Harijans or "the children of god".[328]On 8 May 1933, Gandhi began a 21-day fast of self-purification and launched a one-year campaign to help the Harijan movement.[329]This new campaign was not universally embraced within the Dalit community. Ambedkar and his allies felt Gandhi was being paternalistic and was undermining Dalit political rights. Ambedkar described him as "devious and untrustworthy".[330]He accused Gandhi as someone who wished to retain the caste system.[141]Ambedkar and Gandhi debated their ideas and concerns, where both tried to persuade each other.[331][332]In 1935, Ambedkar announced his intentions to leave Hinduism and join Buddhism.[141]According to Sankar Ghose, the announcement shook Gandhi, who reappraised his views and wrote many essays with his views on castes, inter-marriage and what Hinduism says on the subject. These views contrasted with those of Ambedkar.[333]In actual elections of 1937, except for some seats in Mumbai where Ambedkar's party won, India's untouchables voted heavily in favour of Gandhi's campaign and his party, the Congress.[334]Gandhi and his colleagues continued to consult Ambedkar, keeping him influential. Ambedkar worked with other Congress leaders through the 1940s, wrote large parts of India's constitution in the late 1940s, and converted to Buddhism in 1956.[141]According to Jaffrelot, Gandhi's views evolved between the 1920s and 1940s, when in 1946 he actively encouraged inter-marriage across castes. However, Gandhi's approach to untouchability was different from Ambedkar's, championing fusion, choice and free intermixing. Ambedkar envisioned each segment of society maintaining its identity group, and each group then separately advancing the "politics of equality".[326]The criticism of Gandhi by Ambedkar continued to influence the Dalit movement past Gandhi's death. According to Arthur Herman, Ambedkar's hate for Gandhi and Gandhi's ideas was so strong that after he heard the news of Gandhi's assassination, remarked after a momentary silence a sense of regret and then "my real enemy is gone; thank goodness the eclipse is over now".[251][335]According to Ramachandra Guha, "ideologues have carried these old rivalries into the present, with the demonization of Gandhi now common among politicians who presume to speak in Ambedkar's name."[336]Nai Talim, basic educationMain article: Nai TalimGandhi rejected the colonial Western format of education system. He stated that it led to disdain for manual work, generally created an elite administrative bureaucracy. Gandhi favoured an education system with far greater emphasis on learning skills in practical and useful work, one that included physical, mental and spiritual studies. His methodology sought to treat all professions equal and pay everyone the same.[337][338]Gandhi called his ideas Nai Talim (literally, 'new education'). He believed that the Western style education violated and destroyed the indigenous cultures. A different basic education model, he believed, would lead to better self awareness, prepare people to treat all work equally respectable and valued, and lead to a society with less social diseases.[339][340]Nai Talim evolved out of his experiences at the Tolstoy Farm in South Africa, and Gandhi attempted to formulate the new system at the Sevagram ashram after 1937.[338]Nehru government's vision of an industrialised, centrally planned economy after 1947 had scant place for Gandhi's village-oriented approach.[341]In his autobiography, Gandhi wrote that he believed every Hindu boy and girl must learn Sanskrit because its historic and spiritual texts are in that language.[42]Swaraj, self-ruleMain article: SwarajGandhi believed that swaraj not only can be attained with non-violence, it can be run with non-violence. A military is unnecessary, because any aggressor can be thrown out using the method of non-violent non-co-operation. While military is unnecessary in a nation organised under swaraj principle, Gandhi added that a police force is necessary given human nature. However, the state would limit the use of weapons by the police to the minimum, aiming for their use as a restraining force.[342]According to Gandhi, a non-violent state is like an "ordered anarchy".[342]In a society of mostly non-violent individuals, those who are violent will sooner or later accept discipline or leave the community, stated Gandhi.[342]He emphasised a society where individuals believed more in learning about their duties and responsibilities, not demanded rights and privileges. On returning from South Africa, when Gandhi received a letter asking for his participation in writing a world charter for human rights, he responded saying, "in my experience, it is far more important to have a charter for human duties."[343]Swaraj to Gandhi did not mean transferring colonial era British power brokering system, favours-driven, bureaucratic, class exploitative structure and mindset into Indian hands. He warned such a transfer would still be English rule, just without the Englishman. "This is not the Swaraj I want", said Gandhi.[344][345]Tewari states that Gandhi saw democracy as more than a system of government; it meant promoting both individuality and the self-discipline of the community. Democracy meant settling disputes in a nonviolent manner; it required freedom of thought and expression. For Gandhi, democracy was a way of life.[346]Hindu nationalism and revivalismSome scholars state Gandhi supported a religiously diverse India,[347]while others state that the Muslim leaders who championed the partition and creation of a separate Muslim Pakistan considered Gandhi to be Hindu nationalist or revivalist.[348][349]For example, in his letters to Mohammad Iqbal, Jinnah accused Gandhi to be favouring a Hindu rule and revivalism, that Gandhi led Indian National Congress was a fascist party.[350]In an interview with C.F. Andrews, Gandhi stated that if we believe all religions teach the same message of love and peace between all human beings, then there is neither any rationale nor need for proselytisation or attempts to convert people from one religion to another.[351]Gandhi opposed missionary organisations who criticised Indian religions then attempted to convert followers of Indian religions to Islam or Christianity. In Gandhi's view, those who attempt to convert a Hindu, "they must harbour in their breasts the belief that Hinduism is an error" and that their own religion is "the only true religion".[351][352]Gandhi believed that people who demand religious respect and rights must also show the same respect and grant the same rights to followers of other religions. He stated that spiritual studies must encourage "a Hindu to become a better Hindu, a Mussalman to become a better Mussalman, and a Christian a better Christian."[351]According to Gandhi, religion is not about what a man believes, it is about how a man lives, how he relates to other people, his conduct towards others, and one's relationship to one's conception of god.[353]It is not important to convert or to join any religion, but it is important to improve one's way of life and conduct by absorbing ideas from any source and any religion, believed Gandhi.[353]Gandhian economicsMain article: Gandhian economicsGandhi believed in sarvodaya economic model, which literally means "welfare, upliftment of all".[354]This, states Bhatt, was a very different economic model than the socialism model championed and followed by free India by Nehru – India's first prime minister. To both, according to Bhatt, removing poverty and unemployment were the objective, but the Gandhian economic and development approach preferred adapting technology and infrastructure to suit the local situation, in contrast to Nehru's large scale, socialised state owned enterprises.[355]To Gandhi, the economic philosophy that aims at "greatest good for the greatest number" was fundamentally flawed, and his alternative proposal sarvodaya set its aim at the "greatest good for all". He believed that the best economic system not only cared to lift the "poor, less skilled, of impoverished background" but also empowered to lift the "rich, highly skilled, of capital means and landlords". Violence against any human being, born poor or rich, is wrong, believed Gandhi.[354][356]He stated that the mandate theory of majoritarian democracy should not be pushed to absurd extremes, individual freedoms should never be denied, and no person should ever be made a social or economic slave to the "resolutions of majorities".[357]Gandhi challenged Nehru and the modernizers in the late 1930s who called for rapid industrialisation on the Soviet model; Gandhi denounced that as dehumanising and contrary to the needs of the villages where the great majority of the people lived.[358]After Gandhi's assassination, Nehru led India in accordance with his personal socialist convictions.[359][360]Historian Kuruvilla Pandikattu says "it was Nehru's vision, not Gandhi's, that was eventually preferred by the Indian State."[361]Gandhi called for ending poverty through improved agriculture and small-scale cottage rural industries.[362]Gandhi's economic thinking disagreed with Marx, according to the political theory scholar and economist Bhikhu Parekh. Gandhi refused to endorse the view that economic forces are best understood as "antagonistic class interests".[363]He argued that no man can degrade or brutalise the other without degrading and brutalising himself and that sustainable economic growth comes from service, not from exploitation. Further, believed Gandhi, in a free nation, victims exist only when they co-operate with their oppressor, and an economic and political system that offered increasing alternatives gave power of choice to the poorest man.[363]While disagreeing with Nehru about the socialist economic model, Gandhi also critiqued capitalism that was driven by endless wants and a materialistic view of man. This, he believed, created a vicious vested system of materialism at the cost of other human needs such as spirituality and social relationships.[363]To Gandhi, states Parekh, both communism and capitalism were wrong, in part because both focussed exclusively on materialistic view of man, and because the former deified the state with unlimited power of violence, while the latter deified capital. He believed that a better economic system is one which does not impoverish one's culture and spiritual pursuits.[364]GandhismMain article: GandhismGandhism designates the ideas and principles Gandhi promoted; of central importance is nonviolent resistance. A Gandhian can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.[91]M. M. Sankhdher argues that Gandhism is not a systematic position in metaphysics or in political philosophy. Rather, it is a political creed, an economic doctrine, a religious outlook, a moral precept, and especially, a humanitarian world view. It is an effort not to systematise wisdom but to transform society and is based on an undying faith in the goodness of human nature.[365]However Gandhi himself did not approve of the notion of "Gandhism", as he explained in 1936:There is no such thing as "Gandhism", and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and nonviolence are as old as the hills.[366]Literary worksYoung India, a weekly journal published by Gandhi from 1919 to 1932Gandhi was a prolific writer. One of Gandhi's earliest publications, Hind Swaraj, published in Gujarati in 1909, became "the intellectual blueprint" for India's independence movement. The book was translated into English the next year, with a copyright legend that read "No Rights Reserved".[367]For decades he edited several newspapers including Harijan in Gujarati, in Hindi and in the English language; Indian Opinion while in South Africa and, Young India, in English, and Navajivan, a Gujarati monthly, on his return to India. Later, Navajivan was also published in Hindi. In addition, he wrote letters almost every day to individuals and newspapers.[368]Gandhi also wrote several books including his autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Gujarātī "સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા"), of which he bought the entire first edition to make sure it was reprinted.[330]His other autobiographies included: Satyagraha in South Africa about his struggle there, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule, a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gujarati of John Ruskin's Unto This Last.[369]This last essay can be considered his programme on economics. He also wrote extensively on vegetarianism, diet and health, religion, social reforms, etc. Gandhi usually wrote in Gujarati, though he also revised the Hindi and English translations of his books.[370]Gandhi's complete works were published by the Indian government under the name The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi in the 1960s. The writings comprise about 50,000 pages published in about a hundred volumes. In 2000, a revised edition of the complete works sparked a controversy, as it contained a large number of errors and omissions.[371]The Indian government later withdrew the revised edition.[372]Legacy and depictions in popular cultureSee also: List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi and List of roads named after Mahatma GandhiThe word Mahatma, while often mistaken for Gandhi's given name in the West, is taken from the Sanskrit words maha (meaning Great) and atma (meaning Soul). Rabindranath Tagore is said to have accorded the title to Gandhi.[373] In his autobiography, Gandhi nevertheless explains that he never valued the title, and was often pained by it.[374][375][376]Innumerable streets, roads and localities in India are named after M.K.Gandhi. These include M.G.Road (the main street of a number of Indian cities including Mumbai and Bangalore), Gandhi Market (near Sion, Mumbai) and Gandhinagar (the capital of the state of Gujarat, Gandhi's birthplace).[377]Followers and international influenceStatue of Mahatma Gandhi at York UniversityMahatma Gandhi on a 1969 postage stamp of the Soviet UnionMahatma Gandhi at Praça Túlio Fontoura, São Paulo, Brazil. Statue by Gautam PalGandhi influenced important leaders and political movements. Leaders of the civil rights movement in the United States, including Martin Luther King Jr., James Lawson, and James Bevel, drew from the writings of Gandhi in the development of their own theories about nonviolence.[378][379][380]King said "Christ gave us the goals and Mahatma Gandhi the tactics."[381]King sometimes referred to Gandhi as "the little brown saint."[382]Anti-apartheid activist and former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, was inspired by Gandhi.[383]Others include Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan,[384]Steve Biko, and Aung San Suu Kyi.[385]In his early years, the former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela was a follower of the nonviolent resistance philosophy of Gandhi.[383]Bhana and Vahed commented on these events as "Gandhi inspired succeeding generations of South African activists seeking to end White rule. This legacy connects him to Nelson Mandela...in a sense Mandela completed what Gandhi started."[386]Gandhi's life and teachings inspired many who specifically referred to Gandhi as their mentor or who dedicated their lives to spreading Gandhi's ideas. In Europe, Romain Rolland was the first to discuss Gandhi in his 1924 book Mahatma Gandhi, and Brazilian anarchist and feminist Maria Lacerda de Moura wrote about Gandhi in her work on pacifism. In 1931, notable European physicist Albert Einstein exchanged written letters with Gandhi, and called him "a role model for the generations to come" in a letter writing about him.[387]Einstein said of Gandhi:Mahatma Gandhi's life achievement stands unique in political history. He has invented a completely new and humane means for the liberation war of an oppressed country, and practised it with greatest energy and devotion. The moral influence he had on the consciously thinking human being of the entire civilised world will probably be much more lasting than it seems in our time with its overestimation of brutal violent forces. Because lasting will only be the work of such statesmen who wake up and strengthen the moral power of their people through their example and educational works. We may all be happy and grateful that destiny gifted us with such an enlightened contemporary, a role model for the generations to come.Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood.Lanza del Vasto went to India in 1936 intending to live with Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Gandhi's philosophy and founded the Community of the Ark in 1948 (modelled after Gandhi's ashrams). Madeleine Slade (known as "Mirabehn") was the daughter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devotee of Gandhi.[388][389]In addition, the British musician John Lennon referred to Gandhi when discussing his views on nonviolence.[390]At the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival in 2007, former US Vice-President and environmentalist Al Gore spoke of Gandhi's influence on him.[391]US President Barack Obama in a 2010 address to the Parliament of India said that:I am mindful that I might not be standing before you today, as President of the United States, had it not been for Gandhi and the message he shared with America and the world.[392]Obama in September 2009 said that his biggest inspiration came from Gandhi. His reply was in response to the question 'Who was the one person, dead or live, that you would choose to dine with?'. He continued that "He's somebody I find a lot of inspiration in. He inspired Dr. King with his message of nonviolence. He ended up doing so much and changed the world just by the power of his ethics."[393]Time Magazine named The 14th Dalai Lama, Lech Wałęsa, Martin Luther King, Cesar Chavez, Aung San Suu Kyi, Benigno Aquino, Jr., Desmond Tutu, and Nelson Mandela as Children of Gandhi and his spiritual heirs to nonviolence.[394]The Mahatma Gandhi District in Houston, Texas, United States, an ethnic Indian enclave, is officially named after Gandhi.[395]On the basis of a petition, a statue of Gandhi at the University of Ghana was removed on December 15, 2018, because it was viewed by the petitioners as "an homage to a racist".[396]Global days that celebrate GandhiIn 2007, the United Nations General Assembly declared Gandhi's birthday 2 October as "the International Day of Nonviolence."[397]First proposed by UNESCO in 1948, as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace (DENIP in Spanish),[398]30 January is observed as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace in schools of many countries[399]In countries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, it is observed on 30 March.[399]AwardsMonument to M. K. Gandhi in Madrid, SpainTime magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in 1930. The University of Nagpur awarded him an LL.D. in 1937.[400]Gandhi was also the runner-up to Albert Einstein as "Person of the Century"[401]at the end of 1999. The Government of India awarded the annual Gandhi Peace Prize to distinguished social workers, world leaders and citizens. Nelson Mandela, the leader of South Africa's struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, was a prominent non-Indian recipient. In 2011, Time magazine named Gandhi as one of the top 25 political icons of all time.[402]Gandhi did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, although he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by the American Friends Service Committee,[403]though he made the short list only twice, in 1937 and 1947.[404]Decades later, the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission, and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic opinion denying the award.[404]Gandhi was nominated in 1948 but was assassinated before nominations closed. That year, the committee chose not to award the peace prize stating that "there was no suitable living candidate" and later research shows that the possibility of awarding the prize posthumously to Gandhi was discussed and that the reference to no suitable living candidate was to Gandhi.[404]Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, "The greatest omission in our 106-year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize, whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question".[405]When the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi".[404]In the summer of 1995, the North American Vegetarian Society inducted him posthumously into the Vegetarian Hall of Fame.[406]Father of the NationIndians widely describe Gandhi as the father of the nation.[10][11]Origin of this title is traced back to a radio address (on Singapore radio) on 6 July 1944 by Subhash Chandra Bose where Bose addressed Gandhi as "The Father of the Nation".[407]On 28 April 1947, Sarojini Naidu during a conference also referred Gandhi as "Father of the Nation".[408][409]Film, theatre and literatureA 5 hour 9 minute long biographical documentary film,[410]Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948, made by Vithalbhai Jhaveri[411]in 1968, quoting Gandhi's words and using black & white archival footage and photographs, captures the history of those times. Ben Kingsley portrayed him in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film Gandhi,[412]which won the Academy Award for Best Picture. It was based on the biography by Louis Fischer.[413]The 1996 film The Making of the Mahatma documented Gandhi's time in South Africa and his transformation from an inexperienced barrister to recognised political leader.[414]Gandhi was a central figure in the 2006 Bollywood comedy film Lage Raho Munna Bhai. Jahnu Barua's Maine Gandhi Ko Nahin Mara (I did not kill Gandhi), places contemporary society as a backdrop with its vanishing memory of Gandhi's values as a metaphor for the senile forgetfulness of the protagonist of his 2005 film,[415]writes Vinay Lal.[416]The 1979 opera Satyagraha by American composer Philip Glass is loosely based on Gandhi's life.[417][418]The opera's libretto, taken from the Bhagavad Gita, is sung in the original Sanskrit.[419]Anti-Gandhi themes have also been showcased through films and plays. The 1995 Marathi play Gandhi Virudh Gandhi explored the relationship between Gandhi and his son Harilal. The 2007 film, Gandhi, My Father was inspired on the same theme. The 1989 Marathi play Me Nathuram Godse Boltoy and the 1997 Hindi play Gandhi Ambedkar criticised Gandhi and his principles.[420][421]Several biographers have undertaken the task of describing Gandhi's life. Among them are D. G. Tendulkar with his Mahatma. Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in eight volumes, Chaman Nahal's Gandhi Quartet, and Pyarelal and Sushila Nayyar with their Mahatma Gandhi in 10 volumes. The 2010 biography, Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India by Joseph Lelyveld contained controversial material speculating about Gandhi's sexual life.[422]Lelyveld, however, stated that the press coverage "grossly distort[s]" the overall message of the book.[423]The 2014 film Welcome Back Gandhi takes a fictionalised look at how Gandhi might react to modern day India.[424]"Mahatma Gandhi" is used by Cole Porter in his lyrics for the song You're the Top which is included in the 1934 musical Anything Goes. In the song Porter rhymes "Mahatma Gandhi' with "Napoleon Brandy."Current impact within IndiaThe Gandhi Mandapam, a temple in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu in India, was erected to honour M.K. Gandhi.India, with its rapid economic modernisation and urbanisation, has rejected Gandhi's economics[425]but accepted much of his politics and continues to revere his memory. Reporter Jim Yardley notes that, "modern India is hardly a Gandhian nation, if it ever was one. His vision of a village-dominated economy was shunted aside during his lifetime as rural romanticism, and his call for a national ethos of personal austerity and nonviolence has proved antithetical to the goals of an aspiring economic and military power." By contrast Gandhi is "given full credit for India's political identity as a tolerant, secular democracy."[426]Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is a national holiday in India, Gandhi Jayanti. Gandhi's image also appears on paper currency of all denominations issued by Reserve Bank of India, except for the one rupee note.[427]Gandhi's date of death, 30 January, is commemorated as a Martyrs' Day in India.[428]There are three temples in India dedicated to Gandhi.[429]One is located at Sambalpur in Orissa and the second at Nidaghatta village near Kadur in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka and the third one at Chityal in the district of Nalgonda, Telangana.[429][430]The Gandhi Memorial in Kanyakumari resembles central Indian Hindu temples and the Tamukkam or Summer Palace in Madurai now houses the Mahatma Gandhi Museum.[431]DescendantsGandhi's children and grandchildren live in India and other countries. Grandson Rajmohan Gandhi is a Professor in Illinois and an author of Gandhi's biography titled "Mohandas"[432], while another, Tarun Gandhi, has authored several authoritative books on his grandfather. Another grandson, Kanu Ramdas Gandhi (the son of Gandhi's third son Ramdas), was found living in an old age home in Delhi despite having taught earlier in the United States.[433][434]Family tree of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Kasturba Gandhi. Source: Gandhi Ashram SabarmatiSee also

Unlike the USAF and USCG, there is no “US Army Auxiliary.” (Nor is there a “Navy or Marine Corps Auxiliary.” Although there are “Naval Militias” that are a sort of “Navy National Guard,” with a very complicated history and only a few States have them.)The USAF has the Civil Air Patrol, and the USCG has the Coast Guard Auxiliary. Both are recognized legally as the “auxiliary” of their parent Service, but…“Although CAP retains the title "United States Air Force Auxiliary", 10 U.S.C. § 9442 clarifies that this auxiliary status is only applicable when CAP members and resources are on a United States Air Force-assigned mission with an Air Force-assigned mission number.”The CAP cannot be “mobilized” into the Air Force and go to war, while the CG Auxiliary (USCG AUX) CAN be mobilized, activated, and enrolled into the “Temporary” Coast Guard, in a time of war or national emergency (but since it hasn’t happened since WWII, this would have to be a pretty big problem before it would ever happen again).This isn’t to say that the individuals who are part of either the CAP or USCG AUX could not be drafted, mobilized, recalled, etc., as individuals. If someone is subject to the Selective Service System, and is drafted, then so be it. If they are simultaneously a member of any reserve category of any Service, or a retiree of any Service, they could be recalled or mobilized under the Federal laws that pertain to them without reference to their status in the CAP or USCG AUX.If this is what you are looking for, then you need to contact either the CAP or USCG AUX for more information and see what the requirements to participate are. Both may provide you with a rewarding volunteer experience spanning decades if you wish to remain involved, and both provide an immediate service to the community, and to the Nation, but without the formal military requirement.If your question actually means “auxiliary = reservist,” then you have to join the military as a reservist. The US Army has two flavors of reservists:The National Guard, which is actually 54 separate sovereign State and Territory National Guard organizations comprised of citizen-soldiers, representing the “organized militia” authorized to each State and Territory under 10 USC 311 (formally: 10 U.S. Code § 311 - Militia: composition and classes). While the Federal Government (specifically either the US Army or the US Air Force, whichever branch of the National Guard you are talking about in a given State) pays for about 90% of the costs of the National Guard, the State gets to use “their” NG as the State Governors see fit: disaster and emergency response, crowd control/riot prevention, law enforcement (armed or otherwise, according to State laws), forest firefighting, etc. The range of missions that each State/Territory NG can perform while under State control is quite wide. And when performing “State” missions, that State will pay for it. Perhaps the State will be reimbursed later under laws like the Stafford Act, but at least initially, when the Governor of a State “recalls” or “mobilizes” their NG forces, they are placed on a duty status known as “State Active Duty,” or SAD. Which many of the individual NG may be…or not…because when in a SAD duty status, generally they will be paid the same pay, allowances, and some other benefits very similar (or identical) to what they would get if they were on Federal Title 32 or Title 10 orders. There are even some States like California that permit certain service in a SAD status to count toward a State retirement pension (NOT the Federal reserve pension…). If any portion, or all, of the NG is “recalled to service/mobilized” under Title 10 Federal mobilization laws, they retain their dual Federal/State status but are now 100% under the command and control of the US Army, and their State Governor no longer has any say over them, and cannot prevent their deployment away from their home state to wherever the Army needs them. There were times in the mid-2000’s when almost half of all US Army combat forces in Iraq, and more than half in Afghanistan, were actually National Guard organizations and people, a testament to their quality, quantity, and response to their Nation’s call to arms when needed.The Army Reserve, which at somewhat over 200,000 Soldiers is smaller than the National Guard, is 100% Federal…meaning there is no simultaneous sovereign State military or legal status. Only the US Army and Federal policies apply. The Army Reserve is configured to provide combat support, combat service support, peacekeeping, nation-building and civil support capability, as well as Title 10 “man, organize, train, and equip” functions to augment and reinforce “Big Army” (meaning the active duty Army) in time of crisis, or as needed, with either individuals, entire organizations, or detachments/portions of certain organizations if the entire organization is not needed. “The Army Reserve is mostly Combat Service Support and Combat Support with only one infantry unit (the 100th Infantry Battalion).”If you really do mean “auxiliary = something outside the military, but close to it,” then you have some other options:Join a State Defense Force (or “State Guard” or as noted above a “Naval Militia”) organization. See this Department of Defense Inspector General report dated April 2014, “Evaluation of Department of Defense Interaction with State Defense Forces,” to see the legal foundations, organization, history, effectiveness, collaboration with National Guard (NG) and DoD elements (or lack thereof), and other background information: http://www.dodig.mil/pubs/documents/DODIG-2014-065.pdf. These are NOT National Guard organizations although they are often found in the same areas and commanded by the same State Adjutant General. Some States have their own organized militia forces that are ONLY subject to State laws, and are NOT subject to mobilization like the National Guard and Federal military Reserve components are. Only about 22 of the States have any form of State Guard, they are usually small, they usually don’t provide pay or benefits unless the State Governor orders their State Guard to be activated for some type of emergency (under State laws similar to activating their National Guard for domestic, in-state disasters), if they are activated they would become full-time employees of their State on what is generally known as “State Active Duty” and receive the pay and allowances and benefits that each State specifically provides for (usually the pay is at the same scale as equivalent National Guard members), they are often not armed or trained to arms (although some are specifically trained for law enforcement activities, etc.). If this is what you are looking for, and you happen to live in or near a State with an active State Guard, then you should contact that organization’s recruiters to find out more. Remember that you are looking for the “State Defense Force” or “State Guard” recruiter…not the National Guard recruiter. They are different. The NG recruiter probably knows if his State has a State Guard, and he probably knows who the State Guard recruiter is….but his job is not to recruit for them.Become a first responder at any level, and seek to work with high quality people, including military. 4 Tips for Creating an Emergency Management Career. Here is more info about “who” are our First Responders (they are from many professional disciplines):“The term "first responder" refers to those individuals who, in the early stages of an incident, are responsible for the protection and preservation of life, property, evidence, and the environment, including emergency response providers as defined in section 2 of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 (6 U.S.C. 101), as well as emergency management, public health, clinical care, public works, and other skilled support personnel (such as equipment operators) who provide immediate support services during prevention, response, and recovery operations.” (See pages IV and V of the FEMA: https://www.firstrespondertraining.gov/catalog.do?a=nted)Further, FEMA states:“In all, NTED serves 10 professional disciplines, as well as the private sector and citizens through its courses. The major disciplines served by NTED are defined as follows:Law Enforcement (LE): Individuals who, on a full-time, part-time, or voluntary basis, work for agencies at the local, municipal, and State levels with responsibilities as sworn law enforcement officers.Emergency Medical Services (EMS): Individuals who, on a full-time, part-time, or voluntary basis, serve as first responders, emergency medical technicians (EMT) (basic), and paramedics (advanced) with ground-based and aero-medical services to provide pre-hospital care.Emergency Management Agency (EMA): Organizations, both local and State, that coordinate preparation, recognition, response, and recovery for WMD and/or catastrophic incidents.Fire Service (FS): Individuals who, on a full-time, part-time, or voluntary basis, provide life-safety services, including fire suppression, rescue, arson investigation, public education, and prevention.Hazardous Materials Personnel (HZ): Individuals, who, on a full-time, part-time, or voluntary basis, identify, characterize, provide risk assessment, and mitigate/control the release of a hazardous substance or potentially hazardous substance.Public Works (PW): Organizations and individuals who make up the public/private infrastructure for the construction and management of these roles at the Federal level. The categories/roles include administration, technical, supervision, and craft (basic and advanced).Governmental Administrative (GA): Elected and appointed officials responsible for public administration of community health and welfare during an incident.Public Safety Communications (PSC): Individuals who, on a full-time, part-time, or voluntary basis, through technology, serve as a conduit and put persons reporting an incident in touch with response personnel and emergency management, in order to identify an incident occurrence and help support the resolution of life-safety, criminal, environmental, and facilities problems associated with the event.Healthcare (HC): Individuals who provide clinical, forensic, and administrative skills in hospitals, physician offices, clinics, and other facilities that offer medical care, including surveillance (passive and active), diagnosis, laboratory evaluation, treatment, mental health support, epidemiology investigation, and evidence collection, along with fatality management for humans and animals.Public Health (PH): Individuals who prevent epidemics and the spread of disease, protect against environmental hazards, promote healthy behaviors, respond to disasters and assist in recovery, as well as assure the quality and accessibility of health services.Best of luck!EDIT 20 NOVEMBER 2019: I was just informed by alert Quoran Matt Moon that there is a new Marine Corps auxiliary, the USMC Cyber Auxiliary. See: Marine Corps Cyber AuxiliaryThis is a group of civilian volunteers with very specific skills and backgrounds who volunteer to support various USMC cyber activities.It remains to be seen how this will be implemented, and how successful it will be, as it is new as of early 2019.It is also quite controversial. See: Marine Cyber Auxiliaries Aren’t Marines, and Cyber “Warriors” Aren’t Warriors - War on the Rocks